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Tenth Edition
Infants, Toddlers,
and Caregivers
A Curriculum of Respectful, Responsive, Relationship-
Based Care and Education
Janet Gonzalez-Mena
Napa Valley College
Dianne Widmeyer Eyer

Cañada College
gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd i 5/7/14 4:01 PM

INFANTS, TODDLERS, AND CAREGIVERS: A CURRICULUM OF RESPECTFUL,
RESPONSIVE, RELATIONSHIP-BASED CARE AND EDUCATION, TENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2015 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions
© 2012, 2009, and 2007. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or
broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4
ISBN 978-0-07-811034-4
MHID 0-07-811034-3
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Printer: R. R. Donnelley
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright
page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gonzalez-Mena, Janet.
Infants, toddlers, and caregivers : a curriculum of respectful, responsive, relationship-based care and
education / Janet Gonzalez-Mena, Dianne Widmeyer Eyer.—Tenth edition.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-07-811034-4 (alk. paper)
1. Child care—United States. 2. Child development—United States. 3. Education,
Preschool—Activity programs—United States. I. Eyer, Dianne Widmeyer. II. Title.
HQ778.63.G663 2015
362.7—dc23 2014009804
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a
website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill
Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
www.mhhe.com
gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd ii 5/7/14 4:01 PM

To Magda Gerber, Emmi Pikler, and Anna Tardos
gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd iii 5/7/14 4:01 PM

gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd iv 5/7/14 4:01 PM
About the Authors
Way back in the 1970s Janet Gonzalez-Mena and Dianne Widmeyer Eyer
met when they were both teaching early childhood education in a community
college. The program focused on preschool even though infants and toddlers
were starting to come into child care programs.
The two authors decided to do something about that problem. Janet became
an intern in a program called the Demonstration Infant Program, where Magda
Gerber taught her unique philosophy of respect and responsiveness for infant-
toddler care on which this book is based. Janet’s internship helped her earn a
master’s degree in human development. In the 1980s Gerber and others cre-
ated a new program called Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE), through which
Janet was made a RIE Associate, the highest certification. Dianne completed a
second master’s degree in special education, and together the two worked to
expand the field of early childhood education to include infants and toddlers,
special education, and family child care providers. Writing this book together
was one of the things they did.
A few years later both authors became more involved with family child care.
As director of Child Care Services for the Family Service Agency of San Mateo
County, California, Janet supervised a network of family child care homes that
served infants and toddlers as well as preschoolers. Under her direction, the
agency opened a new infant center and also created a pilot program of thera-
peutic child care for abused and neglected infants and toddlers. Dianne worked
with the Child Care Coordinating Council of San Mateo County to develop a
training program for family child care providers at Cañada College. This cur-
riculum also models the Gerber philosophy of respect and responsiveness for
infant-toddler care.
Janet went on to teach at Napa Valley College, retiring in 1998. Today she
continues to educate infant-toddler caregivers in different settings. She trains
trainers in WestEd’s Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) and speaks at
conferences in the United States and abroad. As a longtime (43 years) mem-
ber of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC),
Janet served two terms on the Consulting Editors Panel. She worked on a Head
Start project to create a user’s guide for their Multicultural Principles. Janet is
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vi About the Authors
becoming an internationally recognized author as some of her books are trans-

lated into German, Chinese, Japanese, and Hebrew. Janet belongs to the Cali-
fornia Community College Early Childhood Educators, BANDTEC, a diversity
trainers’ network, and serves on the board of Pikler/Lóczy Fund USA.
Dianne continued teaching at Cañada College, where she developed several
curriculum specializations in early childhood education and child development,
including children with special needs, family support, “Safe Start” violence
intervention and prevention in the early years, and home-based child care. She
has been a member of NAEYC since 1970. Dianne retired from Cañada College
in 2005 after 36 years of teaching and 27 years as the ECE/CD Department
Chair. She continues to coordinate a grant, which she wrote in 2000, with First 5
San Mateo County to support the early childhood education (ECE) workforce
by recruiting and retaining teachers in the early care and education field.
The current interests and passions of both authors still relate to education.
Dianne’s interests involve supporting literacy skills for adult second language
learners and providing specific supports related to career development for the
diverse population in the ECE workforce. She was able in 2010 to extend the
First 5 grant; “Bridges to Success” creates a curriculum specialization in “school
readiness.” There is also expanded outreach to support “ready schools” in the
community. In her downtime, Dianne enjoys hiking, gardening, and music.
Janet’s up-close and personal interests lie in her grandchildren including her
young granddaughter Nika, “a RIE baby,” who is now 7, her 23 month old grand-
son, Cole, and his baby brother, Paul. She also speaks around the country and
sometimes abroad about Pikler, Gerber, and RIE. Her grander pursuits involve
working with early educators and others around diversity and issues of equity
and social justice.
gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd vi 5/7/14 4:01 PM

Brief Contents
Contents ix
Preface xix part 3
Resources for Caregivers xxix Focus on the Program 255
12 The Physical Environment 257
part 1 13 The Social Environment 289
Focus on the Caregiver 1 14 Adult Relations in Infant-Toddler
1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 3
Care and Education Programs 311
2 Infant-Toddler Education 23
appendix A
3 Caregiving as Curriculum 47
4 Play and Exploration as Curriculum 71
Quality in Infant-Toddler Programs:
A Checklist 332
appendix B
part 2
Environmental Chart 334
Focus on the Child 91 Notes 346
5 Attachment 93
Glossary 354
6 Perception 113
Credits 360
7 Motor Skills 131
Index 361
8 Cognition 157
9 Language 183
10 Emotions 209
11 Social Skills 235
vii
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gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd viii 5/7/14 4:01 PM
Contents
Preface xix
Resources for Caregivers xxix
part 1 Focus on the Caregiver 1
chapter 1
Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 3

What Do You See? 3
Relationships, Interactions, and the Three Rs 4
Caregiving Routines as Opportunities for Three-R Interactions 5
Ten Principles Based on a Philosophy of Respect 5
Principle 1: Involve Infants and Toddlers in Things
That Concern Them 6
Principle 2: Invest in Quality Time 7
Principle 3: Learn Each Child’s Unique Ways of Communicating
and Teach Yours 9
VIDEO OBSERVATION 1: Baby Crying 10
Principle 4: Invest Time and Energy to Build a Total Person 11
Principle 5: Respect Infants and Toddlers as Worthy People 11
Principle 6: Be Honest about Your Feelings 13
Principle 7: Model the Behavior You Want to Teach 14
Principle 8: Recognize Problems as Learning Opportunities, and Let
Infants and Toddlers Try to Solve Their Own 15
Principle 9: Build Security by Teaching Trust 15
Principle 10: Be Concerned about the Quality of Development in
Each Stage 16
ix
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x Contents
Curriculum and Developmentally Appropriate Practice 18

The Principles in Action: Principle 5 18
Appropriate Practice 19
Summary 20
Key Terms 21
Thought/Activity Questions 21
For Further Reading 21
chapter 2
Infant-Toddler Education 23
What Do You See? 23
What Infant-Toddler Education Is Not 24
Infant Stimulation 24
Babysitting 24
Preschool 25
What Infant-Toddler Education Is: The Components 25
Curriculum as the Foundation of Infant-Toddler Education 26
VIDEO OBSERVATION 2: Toddler Playing with a Tube and a Ball 27
Implementing the Curriculum 28
Assessing the Effectiveness of the Curriculum: Observing and
Recording 28
Education as Facilitating Problem Solving 30
The Adult Role in Facilitating Problem Solving 32
Infant-Toddler Education and School Readiness 42
Summary 43
Key Terms 44
chapter 3
Caregiving as Curriculum 47
What Do You See? 47
Thinking Again About Infant-Toddler Curriculum 48
Planning for Attachment 48
Policies That Support Curriculum as Caregiving 49
Assessment 50
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Contents xi
Caregiving Routines 51
Feeding 52
VIDEO OBSERVATION 3: Children Feeding Themselves 55
Diapering 57
Toilet Training and Toilet Learning 58
Washing, Bathing, and Grooming 59
Differing Needs and Perspectives 60
Dressing 61
Napping 63
Summary 68
Key Terms 69
chapter 4
Play and Exploration as Curriculum 71

What Do You See? 71
Adult Roles in Play 75
Setting Up Environments for Play 75
Encouraging Interactions and Then Stepping Back 76
VIDEO OBSERVATION 4: Toddlers Playing Outside 77
Supporting Problem Solving 78
Observing 79
Environmental Factors That Influence Play 80
Group Size and Age Span 81
Setting Up the Environment to Support Play 82
Happenings 83
Free Choice 85
The Problem of the Match 86
Summary 89
Key Terms 90
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xii Contents
part 2 Focus on the Child 91
chapter 5
Attachment 93
What Do You See? 93
Brain Research 94
Brain Building Blocks and Brain Circuitry 95
Quality Experiences and Stable Neural Pathways 95
Mirror Neurons: Actions and Observations 97
Milestones of Attachment 99
Attachment Behaviors: Birth to Six Months 99
Attachment Behavior: Seven to Eighteen Months 100
Supporting Attachment in Quality Programs 100
VIDEO OBSERVATION 5: Toddler “Checking in” While Playing
with Chairs 101
DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS: Attachment 102
Measuring Attachment 102
Early Research and Contemporary Issues 103
Attachment Issues 104
Infants with Few Attachment Behaviors 104
Infants Who Experience Neglect or Indifference 104
Brain Growth and Attachment-Based Programs 105
Children with Special Needs: The Importance of Early Intervention 106
What Is Early Intervention? 106
DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS: Attachment Behaviors 108
Summary 110
Key Terms 111
chapter 6
Perception 113
What Do You See? 113
Sensory Integration 114
Hearing 116
VIDEO OBSERVATION 6: Boy Exploring Toy Car Using Touch
and Sound 117
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Contents xiii
Smell and Taste 118

Touch 119
Sight 122
Multisensory Experiences and the Outdoor Environment 123
Children with Special Needs: Educating Families about the
Individualized Family Service Plan 125
DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS: Behaviors Showing Development of
Perception 126
Summary 128
Key Terms 129
chapter 7
Motor Skills 131

Physical Growth and Motor Skills 132
Brain Growth and Motor Development 133
Importance of Free Movement, Observation, and Imitation 134
Reflexes 135
Large Motor Skills and Locomotion 136

Research from the Pikler Institute 137
VIDEO OBSERVATION 7: Children Climbing Stairs 138
Small Motor Skills and Manipulation 142

Encouraging Self-Help Skills 144
Fostering Motor Development 145
Children with Special Needs: Finding Resources 148
DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS: Behaviors Showing Development
of Motor Skills 152
Summary 153
Key Terms 154
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xiv Contents
chapter 8
Cognition 157
The Cognitive Experience 158
Sensorimotor Experience: Piaget 159
Sociocultural Influences: Vygotsky and Piaget 161
Self-Regulating Learners 162
Social Interaction and Cognition 163
Language and Cognition 165
Play and Cognition 167
Supporting Cognitive Development 169

The Importance of Real-Life Experiences 170
Brain-Based Learning 171
VIDEO OBSERVATION 8: Father Diapering Toddler 172
Children with Special Needs: Early Childhood Inclusion 174
of Cognition 175
Summary 178
Key Terms 180
chapter 9
Language 183
The Progression of Language Development 184
Receptive Language 185
Expressive Language 187
What Language Allows a Child to Do: The Cognitive Link 188
The Brain and Early Language Development 188
VIDEO OBSERVATION 9: Children Eating at Table with Caregiver 189
Brain Activity and Language Competency 190
Fostering Language Development 191
Early Literacy 193
Early Literacy and School Readiness 195
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Contents xv
Cultural Differences, Bilingualism and Dual Language Learners 198

Goals of the “Language Relationship” 199
Children with Special Needs: Supporting Parents and Families 201
of Language 203
Summary 204
Key Terms 206
chapter 10
Emotions 209
The Development of Emotions and Feelings 210
Temperament and Resiliency 212
Resiliency and Healthy Emotional Development 214
Helping Infants and Toddlers Cope with Fears 216
Helping Infants and Toddlers Cope with Anger 219
VIDEO OBSERVATION 10: Child Trying to Get Her Turn in a Swing 220
Self-Calming Techniques 222
Developing Self-Direction and Self-Regulation 223
The Emotional Brain 225
Stress and Early Brain Development 226
The Impact of Neglect 227
Children with Special Needs: Challenges and Trends 227
DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS: Behavior Showing Development of Emotions 230
Summary 231
Key Terms 233
chapter 11
Social Skills 235

Early Social Behaviors 237
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xvi Contents
Stages of Psychosocial Development 238

Trust 238
Autonomy 241
Initiative 242
Guidance and Discipline: Teaching Social Skills 242
Security and Control for Infants 243
Limits for Toddlers 243
Teaching Prosocial Skills 245
Promoting Healthy Brain Growth 247
VIDEO OBSERVATION 11: Girls Playing Together 248
The Special Need of All Children: Self-Esteem 249
Experiences That Foster Self-Esteem 250
DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS: Behaviors Showing Development of
Social Skills 251
Summary 252
Key Terms 253
part 3 Focus on the Program 255

chapter 12
The Physical Environment 257

A Safe Environment 258
Creating a Safe Physical Environment: A Checklist 258
A Healthful Environment 260
Creating a Healthful and Sanitary Environment: A Checklist 260
Nutrition 261
Feeding Infants 261
Feeding Toddlers 262
VIDEO OBSERVATION 12: Feeding Routine 263
The Learning Environment 264
Layout 265
Eating 269
Sleeping 269
Diapering 269
Toileting 269
Developmental Appropriateness 270
Appropriate Environments for Infants 270
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Contents xvii
Appropriate Environments for Toddlers 270

Family Child Care and Mixed-Age Groups 271
What Should Be in the Play Environment 274
Toys and Materials for Inside 275
Toys and Materials for Outside 276
Assessing the Quality of an Infant-Toddler Environment 277
Balancing Soft and Hard 277
Providing for Intrusion and Seclusion 278
Encouraging Mobility 278
The Open-Closed Dimension 278
The Simple-Complex Dimension 279
Scale 280
Aesthetics 280
Acoustics 280
Order 280
Summary 284
Key Terms 285
chapter 13
The Social Environment 289

Identity Formation 290
Attachment 292
Self-Image 293
Cultural Identity 294
Gender Identity 297
Self-Concept and Discipline 300
VIDEO OBSERVATION 13: Child in Sandbox (Redirection) 301
Modeling Self-Esteem by Taking Care of Yourself 304
Summary 307
Key Terms 308
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xviii Contents
chapter 14
Adult Relations in Infant-Toddler Care and

Education Programs 311
Parent-Caregiver Relations 312
Caregiver Stages of Relating to Parents 312
Communication with Parents and/or Family Members 314
Service Plan: Focus on the Child 314
Service Plan: Focus on the Family 315
Communication Blocks 316
Opening Up Communication 317
Issues of Parents of Children with Special Needs 318
Parent Education 322
Parents of Children with Special Needs 322
VIDEO OBSERVATION 14: Girl Crawling through Low Window (Parent
Ed Program) 323
Early Care and Education Professionals 323
Relating to the Parents of a Child Who Isn’t Doing Well 324
Caregiver Relations 325
The Family Child Care Provider 325
Center Staff 326
Respect as the Key to Adult Relationships 326
Summary 330
Key Terms 330
appendix A
Quality in Infant-Toddler Programs: A Checklist 332
appendix B
Environmental Chart 334
Notes 346
Glossary 354
Credits 360
Index 361
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Preface
The Philosophy of Infants, Toddlers,

and Caregivers
The first edition of this book came out in 1980 and was called Infancy and
Caregiving. It was 141 pages, nine chapters, pen and ink graphics (no
photography except on the cover), and had few pedagogical features. Magda
Gerber wrote the Foreword. She called it “a book that so sensitively represents
my life’s work.” She went on to write, “This approach stresses the importance
of respectful responsive and reciprocal adult-infant interactions. . . . If we could
improve the care of infants, we could improve the world. . . . We’ll find a way.
We will at least make a dent in the world.” She pointed out that the original
book was that dent. If she were alive today, she’d say that the nine editions that
followed are continuing to make that dent.
The Tenth Edition of Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers is a hallmark. In the
34 years since its first publication, an entire generation has grown up. Each
revision has examined and expanded issues in the early care and education field.
Reviewers have donated thoughtful detail, and readers have used this information
to change the way they interact with very young children. But with each edition
the cornerstone of the text has been the same—the philosophy of Magda Gerber
and the theory of Emmi Pikler.
Magda Gerber was an infant-toddler expert who originally came from Hungary
and settled in Los Angeles, California. She credited the roots of her work to Emmi
Pikler, a pediatrician, researcher, and theorist who founded a residential nursery
in Budapest in 1946 after World War II. The focus of this nursery was to care for
infants and toddlers whose families could not and to provide them with a strong
start in life. This first nursery became a model for other residential nurseries once it
was learned that the children who spent their first three years in this very particular
kind of residential care grew up to be stable, productive adults. Their ability to
establish long-term relationships was a great accomplishment for institutional
care. Emmi Pikler died in 1984, but the Pikler Institute, incorporating research
and training, continues in operation today. It no longer provides residential care
but focuses on day care for infants and toddlers, as well as parent education.
xix
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xx Preface
Janet Gonzalez-Mena, coauthor of this text, was a student of Magda Gerber’s

in the 1970s and continued to be a close friend until Gerber’s death in 2007.
Gonzalez-Mena has been able to observe and study at the Pikler Institute,
as well as assist in trainings in the United States conducted by Anna Tardos,
present director of the Institute and daughter of Emmi Pikler. Gonzalez-Mena’s
experience with these three amazing women confirmed for her how much the
Pikler research and the Gerber philosophy can help infant-toddler centers in the
United States and around the world.
Magda Gerber’s work has been known in the United States for a number of
years, and its reputation continues under the auspices of the organization Gerber
founded, Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE). Emmi Pikler’s work was little
known in the United States until a few years ago because for much of her career
Hungary was behind the Iron Curtain. Magda Gerber was one of the first to
publish some of Pikler’s research in English. A new edition of what’s called the
RIE Manual is now available and updated with further work in English, some of
which has been written by Gerber’s followers. You can find the RIE Manual at
www.rie.org. Pikler’s works in English can be accessed at www.Pikler.org and at
the European website for Pikler, which is www.aipl.org.
The approaches to infant-toddler care created by these two women has made
a “dent” in the early care and education world. The authors of this text are proud
and humble to support these approaches.
The Ten Principles: A Philosophy of Respect

A keystone of both Magda Gerber and Emmi Pikler’s work is respect. Until Gerber
introduced its use to the United States, the word respect was not part of the vocabu-
lary of most American infant-toddler caregivers. Respect is one of the major themes
that runs throughout Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers, and respect is an important
component of the curriculum the book advocates. This curriculum is all-inclusive
and centers on connections and relationships. Briefly, the term curriculum is about
educating, but in the infant-toddler world, care and education are one and the same.
In this book, curriculum has to do with respecting and responding to each child’s
needs in warm, respectful, and sensitive ways that promote attachment and allow
children to explore and play on their own. Curriculum embraces everything that
happens during the day—whether the child is alone or with other children or hav-
ing sensitive interactions with an adult. Those adult-child interactions may be part
of caregiving activities, both planned and unplanned, but they go way beyond.
Even the down times during the day, when caregivers just hang out with the little
ones, can include the kinds of interactions that make up curriculum.
Perhaps the most important feature of this book is the consistency with which
it outlines well-established practices designed to promote infants’ and toddlers’
total well-being. The book also looks at the importance of sensitive care and
good program planning, and the impact they have on the identity formation of
infants and toddlers.
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Preface xxi
The Ten Principles found on pages 10–16 are the underlying framework for
this book. Respect is an attitude that shows up in behavior. Respectful behaviors on
the part of caregivers are the basis of the Ten Principles, which show how respect
applies to treating babies as people when caregiving, communicating with them,
and facilitating their growth, development, and learning. The book refers to the
Ten Principles in every chapter. In addition, a Principles in Action feature in each
chapter uses a scenario to further explain the individual principles.
A Focus on Application and Practice

Knowing about is different from knowing how to. Knowing about means learning
theory. Knowing how to puts theory into action. We purposely organized this
book to emphasize action because we know that even people with considerable
understanding of infants and toddlers have trouble acting on that understanding
unless they have also learned to apply theory. Knowledge does not necessarily
build skill.
Caregivers who have knowledge but lack confidence in their ability to use it
may suffer from “analysis paralysis,” which prevents them from making quick
decisions, stating their feelings clearly, and taking needed action. A common
pattern when analysis paralysis strikes is inaction, indecision, then overemo-
tional or otherwise inappropriate reaction, followed by more inaction. When
adults have analysis paralysis and either cannot react or react inconsistently,
infants cannot learn to predict what will happen as a result of their own actions.
This learning to predict what effect they have on the world is a primary accom-
plishment of infants in early life.
Terminology
In this book, the youngest children—those from newborn to walking—are called
infants. Children who are walking (from about a year old to two years) are called
young toddlers. Children from two to three are called older toddlers. Children
from three to five are called preschoolers. Please note that these labels and
descriptions apply to children who are typically developing. When development
is atypical, the labels and descriptions don’t fit as well. For example, a child who
has reached the stage when other children walk may have many other character-
istics of that age group even though she doesn’t walk; not all toddlers toddle, but
that doesn’t mean they should be thought of as infants.
If you visit many infant-toddler programs, you will find that the adults in
the teacher/caregiver role go by different titles. Educarer, teacher, caregiver, and
infant care teacher are four different terms used. In this book we have mainly
used the word caregiver to emphasize the importance of “caring” in programs
for the youngest children. The caregiver role incorporates that of teacher and
educator.
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xxii Preface
Organization of the Text

By starting with the interactive aspect of caregiving, we highlight this philosophy
from the beginning pages. Thus the book is organized in a unique way. Part 1
(Chapters 1–4) is about caregiving. It focuses on the caregivers’ actions and rela-
tionships with the children and how these actions and relationships make up the
curriculum. Part 2 (Chapters 5–11) presents child development information,
along with the curriculum implications of that information. It also includes topics
related to early childhood special education. Part 3 (Chapters 12–14) takes a pro-
grammatic point of view (looking at both center and family child care programs)
and includes environments as well as adult-adult relationships. Appendix A gives a
checklist for determining quality in infant-toddler programs. Appendix B includes
a popular and well-used environmental chart that combines the information from
all three parts of the book into one concise but comprehensive chart designed for
practical use in program planning and implementation. The glossary at the end of
the book consists of the key terms from all the chapters.
A Focus on Diversity and Inclusion

Honoring diversity and including children with special needs in infant-
toddler programs is a strong point of this text. Topics related to early childhood
special education appear throughout the text, but also have their own place at
the end of each chapter in Part 2. We have focused more on cultural differences
and inclusion with each edition. Though we present a cohesive philosophy, we
urge readers to recognize that there are multiple views on every aspect of infant-
toddler care. Strive to honor differences and work respectfully with families who
represent them. It is important to respect and respond to linguistic differences in
positive ways, supporting the child’s home language, whatever it might be.
Our emphasis on self-reflection helps caregivers who might feel uncomfort-
able in the face of differences. Only when caregivers understand themselves can
they understand infants, toddlers, and their families. Sensitivity is an important
qualification for anyone who works with very young children. For that reason,
the reader is asked to focus on personal experience throughout this book.
New to the Tenth Edition

We made five additions to this edition.
First: Even Greater Focus on Play

Play has become a huge interest for early childhood professionals as academics
and school readiness issues creep down into the nursery! In light of that devel-
opment, the play chapter in this book has been expanded. Eva Kallo’s overview
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Preface xxiii
of play is now included and gives more structure to what Magda Gerber and
Emmi Pikler taught for many years. As infants and toddlers play, they run into
problems. Immobile babies struggle with how to get the toy just beyond their
reach, and toddlers struggle with how to make something large fit into some-
thing smaller. It is so easy for adults to help out and make both children happy
by showing the toddler how the pieces fit together or by putting the toy within
reach of the baby. Both Gerber and Pikler cautioned against the goal of just mak-
ing children happy, and taught adults not to rescue children who were working
on solving a problem. Sticking to something and not giving up, even when frus-
trated, is the kind of trait that benefits adult personalities and makes them suc-
cessful people, even more than being born with a high IQ. Traits like persistence
are the subject of researchers such as Angela Duckworth, who labels the subject
of her research “grit.” Gerber would be surprised at the term grit, but that’s just
what she supported! It is clear from the work of Pikler that grit starts in infancy
and is influenced by the adult’s willingness to allow and even encourage problem
solving.
Second: The Issue of “Screens” for Infants and Toddlers

New to this edition is the subject of “screens” for infants and toddlers. The
American Academy of Pediatrics and other researchers have focused a good
deal of attention on the effect of electronic devices with screens in the first two
or three years of a child’s life. What do very young children learn from them?
Certainly not language as the videos designed to make babies “smart” like the
genius they were named for used to advertise. Does it hurt young children’s
development if the focus on digital images takes them away from time spent in
the real world with people and objects? Most likely. Does it matter if the screens
are interactive such as Skype on computers or FaceTime on smart phones?
Maybe. The research is just now being conducted by the American Academy of
Pediatrics. Stay tuned.
Third: Focus on Self-Regulation

Self-regulation is also getting a good deal of attention these days. Children who
start school need to be able to regulate their behavior and the feelings behind
their behavior to succeed in classrooms. If you look back to the beginning, self-
regulation is a lot more than just a school readiness issue. Self-regulation is a
whole system that starts at birth and continues to develop throughout life. It is
not just about “being good” but involves body processes, feelings, and cognition.
Though we have added aspects of self-regulation in most of the chapters in this
edition, we have put it in the spotlight in the play chapter. Self-regulation is
about moving from an automatic response to a more considered one. It’s about
making choices that serve the individual. During play, aspects of self-regulation
show up as a physical skill, as emotional development, and also in intellectual
achievement as infants and toddlers figure out how to make things happen that
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xxiv Preface
they want to happen. Through play babies begin to develop the ability to move
from an automatic or habitual response to making a choice that promotes a play-
ful intention. They work on gaining self-control rather than going on automatic.
As babies grow into toddlers, they begin to make believe. That kind of play is
directly connected to self-regulation as they gain experience by playing out vari-
ous scenarios. By toddlerhood self-regulation helps them improve focus, and
they practice acting appropriately in ways that keep the play moving. A toddler
talking to herself shows how self-regulation is developing, and this increased
focus enables her to play with another toddler.
Fourth: Language Development Research

Babies are born with the ability to hear the sounds in all languages, even though
few grownups have that ability. Patricia Kuhl, a neuroscientist, has studied
babies’ neural networks and provides expanded knowledge on how infants man-
age to move away from hearing the sounds of multiple languages to focusing on
their mother tongue. Between 8 and 10 months, increases in brain activity enable
infants to become excellent native speakers, as the ability to hear sounds in other
languages decreases. The good news is that training can increase the capacity for
native speakers to differentiate sounds in nonnative languages. We continue to
learn more about language development as the brain research continues.
Fifth: Website Resources

The quality and quantity of websites has grown a great deal in the last few years.
Many websites have been added to the Tenth Edition to provide the reader with
immediate access to in-depth information. These resources are embedded in the
chapters where the specific topic is being discussed and encourage critical think-
ing. They also encourage the reader to explore more content across the curricu-
lum in other areas related to early care and education. The websites are updated
frequently, and many represent professional organizations that have been serving
the needs of very young children and their families for many years.
Retained Features
A What Do You See? feature starts each chapter by showing a child or children
in a situation related to the material to follow and immediately engages the stu-
dent in the chapter’s subject matter. Students are encouraged to think back on
these scenes later in the chapter. In some of these scenes the age of the children is
mentioned, but not all. We left out age labels in the spirit of Magda Gerber, who
used to say, “Why does it matter how old the child is?” She was an advocate for
appreciating what a child was able to do, whether he was the “right age” or not.
The Video Observation is a popular feature in each chapter that introduces and
encourages students to think about the issues and concepts presented in online
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Preface xxv
video clips related to the chapter material. At the book’s Online Learning Center,
students can watch these live-action examples of what they are reading about and
can respond to questions analyzing what they observe in each video clip.
The Principles in Action feature is a case study scenario followed by questions
to help students apply the content they have learned to a “real-life” situation.
The Principles in Action connects to the Appropriate Practice feature through
boxes called Appropriate Practice in Action. The Appropriate Practice feature
summarizes points of the National Association for the Education of Young Chil-
dren (NAEYC) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice related to
the chapter topics. Each Appropriate Practice feature has four sections:
1. Overview of Development
2. Developmentally Appropriate Practice
3. Individually Appropriate Practice
4. Culturally Appropriate Practice
Sections 2 through 4 list points to keep in mind and practical suggestions for
interacting with infants and toddlers based on the NAEYC guidelines.
A Developmental Pathways feature is included in each of the chapters in Part 2.
Each feature begins with generalizations about stages of development by showing a
chart of behaviors related to the chapter topic (for example, attachment, perception,
or motor skills), and then uses examples of two different children to show diverse
developmental pathways. The details of each example are explored as to what you
see, what you might think, what you might not know, and what you might do.
The For Further Reading and References lists for each chapter have been
expanded and updated. In order to keep the book compact and affordable to
students, this edition has the References in the book’s Online Learning Center
at www.mhhe.com/itc10e. There instructors and students will also find a variety
of resources to help them teach from and learn from the text.
Pedagogy
Each chapter contains a pedagogical system designed to provide learning sup-
port for students and to encourage students to reflect on and apply what they
learn. Pedagogical features include:
• Focus Questions that prepare students for the content to follow
• Boldfaced in-text key terms that highlight key terminology and define
it in context of the paragraph in which it appears
• The Principles in Action boxes that allow students to apply the princi-
ples to scenarios
• Appropriate Practice boxes that provide practical suggestions related
to the NAEYC guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice and
refer to the Principles in Action boxes, showing how appropriate practice
can be applied to the scenarios
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xxvi Preface
• Developmental Pathways boxes that list typical development and

variations
• Online Resources sections that list study resources available to the
student at the Online Learning Center
• Chapter Summaries that contain key ideas of the chapters
• Key Terms sections that list all key terms from the chapter, with page
references, and that are collated in an end-of-book glossary
• Thought/Activity Questions that encourage students to review, reflect,
and apply what they are learning
• For Further Reading lists that suggest additional readings
• Video Observation features in each chapter with pedagogy to help
readers think about the video clips they view at the Online Learning
Center
• NAEYC Program Standards listed in the margins next to related
material
• Reflection questions designed to help readers consider their own feelings
and experiences that relate to what they are reading
Student and Instructor Resources and

Supplements
For the Student
• The Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/itc10e includes related

Web links, practice quizzes, video observations, flashcards and other
interactive exercises, chapter references, a glossary, and Spanish language
resources.
• English-Spanish Early Childhood Glossary: The Online Learning
Center offers an English-Spanish glossary of Early Childhood
terms taken from the text. Ofelia Garcia of Cabrillo College developed
this glossary to support Spanish-speaking students and students
who anticipate working in communities where English is not the
first language.
• The Caregiver’s Companion: Readings and Professional Resources:
Available separately, The Caregiver’s Companion includes practical arti-
cles to extend student understanding of important topics, observation
guidelines, and a wealth of forms to use when becoming a professional
caregiver.
For the Instructor

• The instructor’s side of the Online Learning Center contains an instruc-
tor’s manual, PowerPoint slides, and a test bank.
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Preface xxvii
• Observing Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers: This video, free to adopters

of this text, includes real-life scenes of infants, toddlers, and caregivers. Use
this video with students to practice observation techniques and to show
the real worlds of young children and their caregivers. In addition, you can
have students watch video clips online, as each chapter contains a Video
Observation feature with discussion questions.
• More instructor resources are available at the Online Learning Center
at www.mhhe.com/itc10e.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge and thank the reviewers who provided feedback
that helped us prepare this Tenth Edition of Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers.
These instructors include:
Helen M. David, EdD, University of California, Los Angeles

Denise Da Ros-Voseles, Northeastern State University, Broken Arrow, Oklahoma
Linda A. Dove, Western Michigan University
Cynthia P. Galloway, Horry-Georgetown Technical College
Sharon Hirschy, Collin College
Marsha Peralta, Folsom Lake College, Los Rios Community College
Norma Simpson, Heartland Community College
Ruslan Slutsky, The University of Toledo
gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd xxvii 5/7/14 4:01 PM

gon10343_fm_i-xxx.indd xxviii 5/7/14 4:01 PM
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
almost impassable for chaises. A little before I arrived at Sault au
Récollet, the woods end, and the country is turned into corn-fields,
meadows, and pastures. [285]
About a French mile from the town are two lime-kilns on the road.
They are built of a grey lime-stone, burnt hard, and of pieces of rock-
stone, towards the fire. The height of the kiln from top to bottom is
seven yards.
The lime-stone which they burn here, is of two kinds. One is quite
black, and so compact, that its constituent particles cannot be
distinguished, some dispersed grains of white and pale grey spar
excepted. Now and then there are thin cracks in it filled with a white
small-grained spar.
I have never seen any petrefactions in this stone, though I looked

very carefully for them. This stone is common on the isle of Montreal,
about ten or twenty inches below the upper soil. It lies in strata of five
or ten inches thickness. This stone is said to give the best lime; for,
though it is not so white as that of the following grey lime-stone, yet it
makes better mortar, and almost turns into stone, growing harder
and more compact every day. There are examples, that when they
have been about to repair a house made partly of this mortar, the
other stones of which the house consists, sooner broke in pieces
than the mortar itself. [286]
The other kind is a grey, and sometimes a dark grey lime-stone,

consisting of a compact calcareous-stone, mixed with grains of spar,
of the same colour. When broken, it has a strong smell of stink-
stone. It is full of petrified striated shells or pectinites. The greatest
part of these petrefactions are, however, only impressions of the
hollow side of the shells. Now and then I found likewise petrefied
pieces of the shell itself, though I could never find the same shells in
their natural state on the shores; and it seems inconceivable how
such a quantity of impressions could come together, as I shall
presently mention.
I have had great pieces of this lime-stone, consisting of little else

than pectinites, lying close to one another. This lime-stone is found
on several parts of the isle, where it lies in horizontal strata of the
thickness of five or ten inches. This stone yields a great quantity of
white lime, but it is not so good as the former, because it grows
damp in wet weather.
Fir-wood is reckoned the best for the lime-kilns, and the thuya wood
next to it. The wood of the sugar-maple, and other trees of a similar
nature, are not fit for it, because they leave a great quantity of coals.
[287]
Grey pieces of rock-stone are to be seen in the woods and fields

hereabouts.
The leaves of several trees and plants began now to get a pale hue;
especially those of the red maple, the smooth sumach 118, the
Polygonum sagittatum, Linn. and several of the ferns.
A great cross is erected on the road and the boy who shewed me the
wood, told me that a person was buried there, who had wrought
great miracles.
At noon I arrived at Sault au Récollet, which is a little place, situated

on a branch of the river St. Lawrence, which flows with a violent
current between the isles of Montreal and Jesus. It has got its name
from an accident which happened to a recollet friar, called Nicolas
Veil, in the year 1625. He went into a boat with a converted Indian,
and some Indians of the nation of Hurons, in order to go to Quebec;
but, on going over this place in the river, the boat overset, and both
the friar and his proselyte were drowned. The Indians (who have
been suspected of occasioning the oversetting of the boat) swam to
the shore, saved what they could of the friars effects, and kept them.
[288]
The country hereabouts is full of stones, and they have but lately
began to cultivate it; for all the old people could remember the places
covered with tall woods, which are now turned into corn-fields,
meadows, and pastures. The priests say, that this place was
formerly inhabited by some converted Hurons. These Indians lived
on a high mountain, at a little distance from Montreal when the
French first arrived here, and the latter persuaded them to sell that
land. They did so, and settled here at Sault au Récollet, and the
church which still remains here, was built for them, and they have
attended divine service in it for many years. As the French began to
increase on the isle of Montreal, they wished to have it entirely to
themselves, and persuaded the Indians again to sell them this spot,
and go to another. The French have since prevailed upon the Indians
(whom they did not like to have amongst them, because of their
drunkenness, and rambling idle life) to leave this place again, and go
to settle at the lake des Deux Montagnes, where they are at present,
and have a fine church of stone. Their church at Sault au Récollet is
of wood, looks very old and ruinous, though its inside is pretty good,
and is made use of by the Frenchmen in this place. They have
already [289]brought a quantity of stones hither, and intend building a
new church very soon. The botanical observations which I made
during these days, I shall reserve for another publication.
Though there had been no rain for some days past, yet the moisture
in the air was so great, that as I spread some papers on the ground
this afternoon, in a shady place, intending to put the seeds I
collected into them, they were so wet in a few minutes time, as to be
rendered quite useless. The whole sky was very clear and bright,
and the heat as intolerable as in the middle of July.
One half of the corn-fields are left fallow alternately. The fallow
grounds are never ploughed in summer; so the cattle can feed upon
the weeds that grow on them. All the corn made use of here is
summer corn, as I have before observed. Some plough the fallow
grounds late in autumn; others defer that business till spring; but the
first way is said to give a much better crop. Wheat, barley, rye, and
oats are harrowed, but pease are ploughed under ground. They sow
commonly about the 15th of April, and begin with the pease. Among
the many kinds of pease which are to be got here, they prefer the
green ones to all [290]others for sowing. They require a high, dry,
poor ground, mixed with coarse sand. The harvest time commences
about the end, and sometimes in the middle of August. Wheat
returns generally fifteen, and sometimes twenty fold; oats from
fifteen to thirty fold. The crop of pease is sometimes forty fold, but at
other times only ten fold; for they are very different. The plough and
harrow are the only instruments of husbandry they have, and those
none of the best sort neither. The manure is carried upon the fallow
grounds in spring. The soil consists of a grey stony earth, mixed with
clay and sand. They sow no more barley than is necessary for the
cattle; for they make no malt here. They sow a good deal of oats, but
merely for the horses and other cattle. Nobody knows here how to
make use of the leaves of deciduous trees as a food for the cattle,
though the forests are furnished with no other than trees of that kind,
and though the people are commonly forced to feed their cattle at
home during five months.
I have already repeatedly mentioned, that almost all the wheat which
is sown in Canada is summer wheat, that is such as is sown in
spring. Near Quebec it sometimes happens, when the summer is
less warm, or [291]the spring later than common, that a great part of
the wheat does not ripen perfectly before the cold commences. I
have been assured that some people, who live on the Isle de Jesus,
sow wheat in autumn, which is better, finer, and gives a more
plentiful crop, than the summer wheat; but it does not ripen above a
week before the other wheat.
September the 25th. In several places hereabouts, they enclose the

fields with a stone fence, instead of wooden pales. The plenty of
stones which are to be got here, render the labour very trifling.
Here are abundance of beech trees in the woods, and they now had
ripe seeds. The people in Canada collect them in autumn, dry them,
and keep them till winter, when they eat them, instead of walnuts and
hazel nuts; and I am told they taste very well.
There is a salt spring, as the priest of this place informed me, seven
French miles from hence, near the river d’Assomption; of which
during the war, they have made a fine white salt. The water is said to
be very briny.
Some kinds of fruit-trees succeed very well near Montreal, and I had
here an opportunity of seeing some very fine pears and apples of
various sorts. Near Quebec the [292]pear-trees will not succeed,
because the winter is too severe for them; and sometimes they are
killed by the frost in the neighbourhood of Montreal. Plum-trees of
several sorts were first brought over from France, succeed very well,
and withstand the rigours of winter. Three varieties of America
walnut-trees grow in the woods; but the walnut-trees brought over
from France die almost every year down to the very root, bringing
forth new shoots in spring. Peach-trees cannot well agree with this
climate; a few bear the cold, but, for greater safety, they are obliged
to put straw round them. Chesnut-trees, mulberry-trees, and the like,
have never yet been planted in Canada.
The whole cultivated part of Canada has been given away by the
king to the clergy, and some noblemen; but all the uncultivated parts
belong to him, as likewise the place on which Quebec and Trois
Rivieres are built. The ground on which the town of Montreal is built,
together with the whole isle of that name, belongs to the priests of
the order of St. Sulpicius who live at Montreal. They have given the
land in tenure to farmers and others who were willing to settle on it,
in so much that they have more upon their hands at [293]present. The
first settlers paid a trifling rent for their land; for frequently the whole
lease for a piece of ground, three arpens broad and thirty long,
consists in a couple of chicken; and some pay twenty, thirty, or forty
sols for a piece of land of the same size. But those who came later,
must pay near two ecus (crowns) for such a piece of land, and thus
the land-rent is very unequal throughout the country. The revenues
of the bishop of Canada do not arise from any landed property. The
churches are built at the expence of the congregations. The
inhabitants of Canada do not yet pay any taxes to the king; and he
has no other revenues from it, than those which arise from the
custom-house.
The priests of Montreal have a mill here, where they take the fourth
part of all that is ground. However the miller receives a third part of
this share. In other places he gets the half of it. The priests
sometimes lease the mill for a certain sum. Besides them nobody is
allowed to erect a mill on the isle of Montreal, they having reserved
that right to themselves. In the agreement drawn up between the
priests and the inhabitants of the isle, the latter are obliged to get all
their corn ground in the mills of the former. [294]
They boil a good deal of sugar in Canada of the juice running out of
the incisions in the sugar-maple, the red maple, and the sugar-birch;
but that of the first tree is most commonly made use of. The way of
preparing it has been more minutely described by me, in the
Memoirs of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 119.
September the 26th. Early this morning I returned to Montreal. Every
thing began now to look like autumn. The leaves of the trees were
pale or reddish, and most of the plants had lost their flowers. Those
which still preserved them were the following 120:
Several sorts of asters, both blue and white.
Golden rods of various kinds.
Common milfoil.
Common self-heal.
The crisped thistle.
The biennial oenothera.
The rough-leaved sun-flower, with tri-foliated leaves.
The Canada violet. [295]
A species of gentian.
Wild vines are abundant in the woods hereabouts, climbing up very

high trees.
I have made enquiry among the French, who travel far into the
country, concerning the food of the Indians. Those who live far north,
I am told, cannot plant any thing, on account of the great degree of
cold. They have, therefore, no bread, and do not live on vegetables;
flesh and fish is their only food, and chiefly the flesh of beavers,
bears, rein-deer, elks, hares, and several kinds of birds. Those
Indians who live far southward, eat the following things. Of
vegetables they plant maize, wild kidney beans 121 of several kinds,
pumpions of different sorts, squashes, a kind of gourds, watermelons
and melons 122. All these plants have been cultivated by the Indians,
long before the arrival of the Europeans. They likewise eat various
fruits which grow in their woods. Fish and flesh make a very great
part of their food. And they chiefly like the flesh of wild cattle, roe-
bucks, stags, bears, beavers, and some other quadrupeds. Among
their dainty dishes, they reckon the water-taregrass 123, which the
French call [296]folle avoine, and which grows in plenty in their lakes,
in stagnant waters, and sometimes in rivers which flow slowly. They
gather its seeds in October, and prepare them in different ways, and
chiefly as groats, which taste almost as well as rice. They make
likewise many a delicious meal of the several kinds of walnuts,
chesnuts, mulberries, acimine 124, chinquapins 125, hazel-nuts,
peaches, wild prunes, grapes, whortle-berries of several sorts,
various kinds of medlars, black-berries, and other fruit and roots. But
the species of corn so common in what is called the old world, were
entirely unknown here before the arrival of the Europeans; nor do the
Indians at present ever attempt to cultivate them, though they see
the use which the Europeans make of the culture of them, and
though they are fond of eating the dishes which are prepared of
them.
September the 27th. Beavers are abundant all over North-America,

and they are one of the chief articles of the trade in Canada. The
Indians live upon their flesh during a great part of the year. It is
certain that these animals multiply very fast; but it is no less so, that
[297]vast numbers of them are annually killed, and that the Indians
are obliged at present to undertake distant journies, in order to catch
or shoot them. Their decreasing in number is very easily accounted
for; because the Indians, before the arrival of the Europeans, only
caught as many as they found necessary to clothe themselves with,
there being then no trade with the skins. At present a number of
ships go annually to Europe, laden chiefly with beavers skins; the
English and French endeavour to outdo each other, by paying the
Indians well for them, and this encourages the latter to extirpate
these animals. All the people in Canada told me, that when they
were young, all the rivers in the neighbourhood of Montreal, the river
St. Lawrence not excepted, were full of beavers and their dykes; but
at present they are so far extirpated, that one is obliged to go several
miles up the country before one can meet with one. I have already
remarked above, that the beaver skins from the north, are better
than those from the south.
Beaver-flesh is eaten not only by the Indians, but likewise by the

Europeans, and especially the French, on their fasting days; for his
holiness, in his system, has ranged the beaver among the fish. The
[298]flesh is reckoned best, if the beaver has lived upon vegetables,
such as the asp, and the beaver-tree 126; but when he has eaten fish,
it does not taste well, To-day I tasted this flesh boiled, for the first
time; and though every body present, besides myself, thought it a
delicious dish, yet I could not agree with them. I think it is eatable,
but has nothing delicious. It looks black when boiled, and has a
peculiar taste. In order to prepare it well, it must be boiled in several
waters from morning till noon, that it may lose the bad taste it has.
The tail is likewise eaten, after it has been boiled in the same
manner, and roasted afterwards; but it consists of fat only, though
they would not call it so; and cannot be swallowed by one who is not
used to eat it.
Much has already been written concerning the dykes, or houses of

the beavers; it is therefore unnecessary to repeat it. Sometimes,
though but seldom, they catch beavers with white hair.
Wine is almost the only liquor which people above the vulgar are
used to drink. They make a kind of spruce beer of the top of the
white fir 127, which they drink [299]in summer; but the use of it is not
general; and it is seldom drank by people of quality. Thus great sums
go annually out of the country for wine; as they have no vines here,
of which they could make a liquor that is fit to be drank. The common
people drink water; for it is not yet customary here to brew beer of
malt; and there are no orchards large enough to supply the people
with apples for making cyder. Some of the people of rank, who
possess large orchards, sometimes, out of curiosity, get a small
quantity of cyder made. The great people here, who are used from
their youth to drink nothing but wine, are greatly at a loss in time of
war; when all the ships which brought wine are intercepted by the
English privateers. Towards the end of the last war, they gave two
hundred and fifty Francs, and even one hundred Ecus, for a
barrique, or hogshead, of wine.
The present price of several things, I have been told by some of the
greatest merchants here, is as follows. A middling horse costs forty
Francs 128 and upwards; a good horse is valued at an hundred
Francs, [300]or more. A cow is now sold for fifty Francs; but people
can remember the time when they were sold for ten Ecus 129. A
sheep costs five or six livres at present; but last year, when every
thing was dear, it cost eight or ten Francs. A hog of one year old, and
two hundred, or an hundred and fifty pound weight, is sold at fifteen
Francs. M. Couagne, the merchant, told me, that he had seen a hog
of four hundred weight among the Indians. A chicken is sold for ten
or twelve Sols 130; and a turkey for twenty sols. A Minot 131 of wheat
sold for an Ecu last year; but at present it cost forty Sols. Maize is
always of the same price with wheat, because here is but little of it;
and it is all made use of by those who go to trade with the Indians. A
Minot of oats costs sometimes from fifteen to twenty Sols; but of late
years it has been sold for twenty-six, or thirty Sols. Pease bear
always the same price with wheat. A pound of butter costs
commonly about eight or ten Sols; but last year it rose up to sixteen
Sols. A dozen of eggs used to cost but three Sols; however, now are
[301]sold for five. They make no cheese at Montreal; nor is there any
to be had, except what is got from abroad. A water-melon generally
costs five or six Sols; but if of a large size, from fifteen to twenty.
There are as yet no manufactures established in Canada; probably,

because France will not lose the advantage of selling off its own
goods here. However, both the inhabitants of Canada, and the
Indians, are very ill off for want of them, in times of war.
Those persons who want to be married, must have the consent of

their parents. However, the judge may give them leave to marry, if
the parents oppose their union, without any valid reason. Likewise, if
the man be thirty years of age, and the woman twenty-six, they may
marry, without farther waiting for their parents consent.
September the 29th. This afternoon I went out of town, to the south-
west part of the isle, in order to view the country, and the œconomy
of the people, and to collect several seeds. Just before the town are
some fine fields, which were formerly cultivated, but now serve as
pastures. To the north-west appears the high mountain, which lies
westward of Montreal, and is very fertile, and covered with fields and
[302]gardens from the bottom to the summit. On the south-east side is
the river St. Lawrence, which is very broad here; and on its sides are
extensive corn-fields and meadows, and fine houses of stone, which
look white at a distance. At a great distance south-eastward, appear
the two high mountains near fort Chamblais, and some others near
lake Champlain, raising their tops above the woods. All the fields
hereabouts are filled with stones of different sizes; and among them,
there is now and then a black lime-stone. About a French mile from
the town, the high road goes along the river, which is on the left-
hand; and on the right-hand all the country is cultivated and
inhabited. The farm-houses are three, four, or five arpens distant
from each other. The hills near the river are generally high and pretty
steep; they consist of earth; and the fields below them are filled with
pieces of rock-stone, and of black lime-slate. About two French miles
from Montreal, the river runs very rapidly, and is full of stones; in
some places there are some waves. However, those who go in boats
into the southern parts of Canada, are obliged to work through such
places.
Most of the farm-houses in this neighbourhood are of stone, partly of

the black [303]lime-stone, and partly of other stones in the
neighbourhood. The roof is made of shingles or of straw. The gable
is always very high and steep. Other buildings, such as barns and
stables, are of wood.
Wild-geese and ducks, began now to migrate in great flocks to the

southern countries.
October the 2d. The two preceding days, and this, I employed chiefly
in collecting seeds.
The last night’s frost had caused a great alteration in several trees.
Walnut-trees of all sorts flied their leaves in plenty now. The flowers
of a kind of nettle 132 were all entirely killed by the frost. The leaves of
the American lime-tree were likewise damaged. In the kitchen-
gardens the leaves of the melons were all killed by the frost.
However, the beech, oak, and birch, did not seem to have suffered at
all. The fields were all covered with a hoar-frost. The ice in the pools
of water was a geometrical line and a half in thickness.
The biennial oenothera 133 grows in abundance on open woody hills,

and fallow [304]fields. An old Frenchman, who accompanied me as I
was collecting its seeds, could not sufficiently praise its property of
healing wounds. The leaves of the plant must be crushed, and then
laid on the wound.
Sœurs de Congregation are a kind of religious women, different from
nuns. They do not live in a convent, but have houses both in the
town and country. They go where they please, and are even allowed
to marry, if an opportunity offers; but this, I am told, happens very
seldom. In many places in the country, there are two or more of
them: they have their house commonly near a church, and generally
the parsonage house is on the other side of the church. Their
business is to instruct young girls in the Christian religion, to teach
them reading, writing, needle-work, and other female
accomplishments. People of fortune board their daughters with them
for some time. They have their boarding, lodging, beds, instruction,
and whatever else they want, upon very reasonable terms. The
house where the whole community of these ladies live, and from
whence they are sent out into the country, is at Montreal. A lady that
wants to become incorporated [305]among them, must pay a
considerable sum of money towards the common stock; and some
people reckon it to be four thousand livres. If a person be once
received, she is sure of a subsistence during her life-time.
La Chine is a fine village, three French miles to the south-east of

Montreal, but on the same isle, close to the river St. Lawrence. The
farm-houses ly along the river-side, about four or five arpens from
each other. Here is a fine church of stone, with a small steeple; and
the whole place has a very agreeable situation. Its name is said to
have had the following origin. As the unfortunate M. Salée was here,
who was afterwards murdered by his own countrymen further up in
the country, he was very intent upon discovering a shorter road to
China, by means of the river St. Lawrence. He talked of nothing at
that time but his new short way to China. But as his project of
undertaking this journey, in order to make this discovery, was
stopped by an accident which happened to him here, and he did not
that time come any nearer China, this place got its name, as it were,
by way of joke.
This evening I returned to Montreal. [306]
October the 5th. The governor-general at Quebec is, as I have

already mentioned before, the chief commander in Canada. Next to
him is the intendant at Quebec; then follows the governor of
Montreal, and after him the governor of Trois Rivieres. The intendant
has the greatest power next to the governor-general; he pays all the
money of government, and is president of the board of finances, and
of the court of justice in this country. He is, however, under the
governor-general; for if he refuses to do any thing to which he seems
obliged by his office, the governor-general can give him orders to do
it, which he must obey. He is allowed, however, to appeal to the
government in France. In each of the capital towns, the governor is
the highest person, then the lieutenant-general, next to him a major,
and after him the captains. The governor-general gives the first
orders in all matters of consequence. When he comes to Trois
Rivieres and Montreal, the power of the governor ceases, because
he always commands where he is. The governor-general commonly
goes to Montreal once every year, and mostly in winter; and during
his absence from Quebec, the lieutenant-general commands
[307]there. When the governor-general dies, or goes to France,
before a new one is come in his stead, the governor of Montreal
goes to Quebec to command in the mean while, leaving the major to
command at Montreal.
One or two of the king’s ships are annually sent from France to
Canada, carrying recruits to supply the places of those soldiers, who
either died in the service, or have got leave to settle in the country,
and turn farmers, or to return to France. Almost every year they send
a hundred, or a hundred and fifty people over in this manner. With
these people they likewise send over a great number of persons,
who have been found guilty of smuggling in France. They were
formerly condemned to the gallies, but at present they send them to
the colonies, where they are free as soon as they arrive, and can
choose what manner of life they please, but are never allowed to go
out of the country, without the king’s special licence. The king’s ships
likewise bring a great quantity of merchandizes which the king has
bought, in order to be distributed among the Indians on certain
occasions. The inhabitants of Canada pay very little to the king. In
the year 1748, a beginning was, [308]however, made, by laying a duty
of three per cent on all the French goods imported by the merchants
of Canada. A regulation was likewise made at that time, that all the
furs and skins exported to France from hence, should pay a certain
duty; but what is carried to the colonies pays nothing. The merchants
of all parts of France and its colonies, are allowed to send ships with
goods to this place; and the Quebec merchants are at liberty likewise
to send their goods to any place in France, and its colonies. But the
merchants at Quebec have but few ships, because the sailors wages
are very high. The towns in France which chiefly trade with Canada,
are Rochelle and Bourdeaux; next to them are Marseilles, Nantes,
Havre de Grace, St. Malo, and others. The king’s ships which bring
goods to this country, come either from Brest or from Rochefort. The
merchants at Quebec send flour, wheat, pease, wooden utensils, &c.
on their own bottoms, to the French possessions in the West-Indies.
The walls round Montreal were built in 1738, at the king’s expence,
on condition the inhabitants should, little by little, pay off the cost to
the king. The town at present pays annually 6000 livres for them to
government, of which 2000 are [309]given by the seminary of priests.
At Quebec the walls have likewise been built at the king’s expence,
but he did not redemand the expence of the inhabitants, because
they had already the duty upon goods to pay as above mentioned.
The beaver trade belongs solely to the Indian company in France,
and nobody is allowed to carry it on here, besides the people
appointed by that company. Every other fur trade is open to every
body. There are several places among the Indians far in the country,
where the French have stores of their goods; and these places they
call les postes. The king has no other fortresses in Canada than
Quebec, Fort Chamblais, Fort St. Jean, Fort St. Frederic, or
Crownpoint, Montreal, Frontenac, and Niagara. All other places
belong to private persons. The king keeps the Niagara trade all to
himself. Every one who intends to go to trade with the Indians must
have a licence from the governor-general, for which he must pay a
sum according as the place he is going to is more or less
advantageous for trade. A merchant who sends out a boat laden with
all sorts of goods, and four or five persons with it, is obliged to give
five or six hundred livres for the permission; and there are places for
which they give a [310]thousand livres. Sometimes one cannot buy
the licence to go to a certain trading place, because the governor-
general has granted, or intends to grant it to some acquaintance or
relation of his. The money arising from the granting of licences,
belongs to the governor-general; but it is customary to give half of it
to the poor: whether this is always strictly kept to or not, I shall not
pretend to determine.
End of the Third Volume.
[311]
1 De verdronkene landen. ↑
2 It seems Mr. Kalm has forgotten his own assertions in the first volume. Dr.
Colden, Dr. Franklin, and Mr. Bartram, have been the great promoters and
investigators of nature in this country; and how would the inhabitants of Old
England have gotten the fine collections of North-American trees, shrubs, and
plants, which grow at present almost in every garden, and are as if it were
naturalized in Old England, had they not been assisted by their friends, and by the
curious in North-America. One need only cast an eye on Dr. Linnæus’s new edition
of his Systema, and the repeated mention of Dr. Garden, in order to be convinced
that the English in America have contributed a greater share towards promoting
natural history, than any nation under heaven, and certainly more than the French,
though their learned men are often handsomely pensioned by their great
Monarque: on the other hand the English study that branch of knowledge, from the
sole motive of its utility, and the pleasure it affords to a thinking being, without any
of those mercenary views, held forth to the learned of other countries. And as to
the other parts of literature, the English in America are undoubtedly superior to the
French in Canada, witness the many useful institutions, colleges, and schools
founded in the English colonies in North-America, and so many very considerable
libraries now erecting in this country, which contain such a choice of useful and
curious books, as were very little known in Canada, before it fell into the hands of
the English; not to mention the productions of original genius written by Americans
born. F. ↑
3 See Vol. I. p. 364. ↑
4 The country of the Illinois is on the river Ohio, near the place where the English
have found some bones, supposed to belong to elephants. See Vol. I. p. 135. in
the note. ↑
5 In France the young blanched leaves, which scarce peep out of molehills, and
have yet a yellow colour, are universally eaten as a sallad, under the name of
Pisenlit. F. ↑
6 See Vol. II. ↑
7 A sol in France is about the value of one half penny sterling. ↑
An Arpent in France contains 100 French perches, and each of those 22 French
8
feet; then the French foot being to the English as 1440 to 1352, an arpent is
about 2346 English feet and 8 inches long. See Ordonnances de Louis XIV. sur le
fait des Eaux & Forêts. Paris, 1687. p. 112. F. ↑
9 Mr. Kalm says, in his original, that the length of an arpent was so determined,
that they reckoned 84 of them in a French lieue or league; but as this does by
no means agree with the statute arpent of France, which by order of king Lewis
XIV, was fixed at 2200 feet, Paris measure, (see the preceding note) we thought
proper to leave it out of the text. F. ↑
10 Marmor schistosum, Linn. Syst. III. p. 40. Marmor unicolor nigrum. Wall.. Min.
pag. 61. n. 2. Lime-slates, schistus calcareus. Forst. Introd. to Min. p. 9. F. ↑
11 See the Memoirs of that Academy, for the year 1750, page 284.
The Stillingia Sylvatica is probably one of these roots. F. ↑
12 Saint Jean. ↑
13 Sea Wolves. ↑
14 See their Memoirs for the year 1752, p. 308, sect. 9. ↑
15 Abies foliis subtus argenteis. ↑
16 It seems, that for the future, the fair sex in the English colonies in North-
America, will no longer deserve the reproaches Mr. Kalm stigmatizes them with
repeatedly, since it is generally reported, that the ladies of late have vied one with
another, in providing their families with linen, stockings, and home-spun cloath of
their own making, and that a general spirit of industry prevails among them at this
present time. F. ↑
17 Perdrix blanches. ↑
18 See Br. Zool. Suppl. plate XIII. f. 1. F. ↑
19 See a figure of this hare in its white state, in the Suppl. to Br. Zool. plate XLVII.
f. 1. F. ↑
20But by this means they would loose that superiority, which in their wild state
they have over the tame cattle; as all the progenies of tamed animals
degenerate from the excellence of their wild and free ancestors. F. ↑
21 See Vol. I. p. 207. ↑
22 Cotton-tree. Mr. Kalm mentions before, that this name is given to the Asclepias
Syriaca. See Vol. III. p. 28. F. ↑
Mr. Kalm describes it thus: Poa culmo subcompresso, panicula tenuissima,
23
spiculis trifloris minimis, flosculis basi pubescentibus. ↑
24 The sol is the lowest coin in Canada, and is about the value of a penny in the
English colonies. A livre, or franc, (for they are both the same) contains twenty
sols; and three livres, or francs, make an ecu, or crown. ↑
25 Tophus Tubalcaini, Linn. Syst. Nat. III. p. 187, n. 5. Minera ferri subaquosa nigro
cærulescens. Wall. Mineral. p. 263. Germ. Ed. p. 340. n. 3. Iron ockres in the
shape of crusts, are sometimes cavernous, as the Brush ore. Forster’s Mineral, p.
48. ↑
26 This lime-stone, seems to be a marle, or rather a kind of stone-marle: for there
is a whitish kind of it in the Krim-Tartary, and near Stiva or Thebes, in Greece,
which is employed by the Turks and Tartars for making heads of pipes, and that
from the first place is called Keffekil, and in the latter, Sea-Scum: it may be very
easily cut, but grows harder in time. F. ↑
27 La haute Ville & la basse Ville. ↑
28 A kind of Franciscan friars, called Ordo Sti. Franciscì strictioris observantiæ. ↑
29 Le Seminaire. ↑
30 Nitrum suillum, Linn. Syst. III. p. 86. Lapis suillus prismaticus Waller. Mineral. p.
59. a. 1. Stink-stone, Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy. p. 40. ↑
31 Meaning Quel bec. ↑
32 The river St. Lawrence, was no more a barrier to the victorious British fleets in
the last war, nor were the fortifications of Quebec capable to withstand the
gallant attacks of their land army, which disappointed the good Frenchmen in
Canada of their too sanguine expectations, and at present, they are rather happy
at this change of fortune, which has made them subjects of the British sceptre,
whose mild influence they at present enjoy. F. ↑
33 Botanists know this plant by the name of Panax quinquefolium, foliis ternatis
quinatis Linn. Mat. Med. § 116. Sp. plant. p. 15, 12. Gronov. Fl. Virg. p. 147.
See like wise Catesby’s Nat. Hist. of Carolina. Vol. III. p. 16. t. 16. Laffitau Gins.
51. t. 1. Father Charlevoix Hist. de la Nouvelle France. Tom. IV. p. 308. fig. XIII.
and Tom. V. p. 24. ↑
34 Peter Osbeck’s voyage to China, Vol. I. p. 223. ↑
35 Mr. Osbeck seems to doubt whether the Europeans reap any advantages from
the Ginseng trade or not, because the Chinese do not value the Canada roots
so much as those of the Chinese-Tartary and therefore the former bear scarce half
the price of the latter. See Osbeck’s Voyage to China, Vol. I. p. 223. F. ↑
36 This is directly opposite to Mr. Osbeck’s assertion. See the preceding page,
114. note †. F. ↑
37It is the Adiantum pedatum of Linn. sp. pl. p. 1557. Cornutus, in his Canadens.
plant. historia, p. 7. calls it Adiantum Americanum, and gives together with the
description, a figure of it, p. 6. ↑
38 Adiantum Capillus Veneris. True Maiden-hair. ↑
39 This is a kind of cabbage, with large round eatable roots, which grow out above
the ground wherein it differs from the turnep-cabage (Brassica Napobrassica)
whose root grows in the ground. Both are common in Germany, and the former
likewise in Italy. ↑
40 This amount seems to be highly probable, for we find [126]in Marco Paolo, that
Kublai-Khan, one of the successors of Genghizkhan, after the conquest of the
southern part of China, sent ships out, to conquer the kingdom of Japan, or, as
they call it, Nipan-gri, but in a terrible storm the whole fleet was cast away, and
nothing was ever heard of the men in that fleet. It seems that some of these ships
were cast to the shores, opposite the great American lakes, between forty and fifty
degrees north latitude, and there probably erected these monuments, and were
the ancestors of some nations, who are called Mozemlecks, and have some
degree of civilization. Another part of this fleet, it seems, reached the country
opposite Mexico, and there founded the Mexican empire, which, according to their
own records, as preserved by the Spaniards, and in their painted annals, in
Purchas’s Pilgrimage, are very recent; so that they can scarcely remember any
more than seven princes before Motezuma II. who was reigning when the
Spaniards arrived there, 1519, under Fernando Cortez; consequently the first of
these princes, supposing each had a reign of thirty-three years and four months,
and adding to it the sixteen years of Motezuma, began to reign in the year 1270,
when Kublai-Khan, the conqueror of all China and of Japan, was on the throne,
and in whose time happened, I believe, the first abortive expedition to Japan,
which I mentioned above, and probably furnished North-America, with civilized
inhabitants. There is, if I am not mistaken, a great similarity between the figures of
the Mexican idols, and those which are usual among the Tartars, who embrace the
doctrines and religion of the Dalaï-Lama, whose religion Kublai-Khan first
introduced among the Monguls, or Moguls. The savage Indians of North-America,
it seems, have another origin, and are probably descended from the Yukaghiri and
Tchucktchi, inhabitants of the most easterly and northerly part of Asia, where,
according to the accounts of the Russians, there is but a small traject to America.
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