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Ancient Scholarship and Grammar
 Trends in Classics -
Supplementary Volumes

Edited by
Franco Montanari and Antonios Rengakos

Scientific Committee
Alberto Bernabe . Margarethe Billerbeck . Claude Calame
Philip R. Hardie . Stephen J. Harrison . Stephen Hinds
Richard Hunter . Christina Kraus . Giuseppe Mastromarco
Gregory Nagy . Theodore D. Papanghelis . Giusto Picone
Kurt Raafiaub . Bernhard Zimmermann

Volume 8

De Gruyter
 Ancient Scholarship
and Gra mmar

Archetypes, Concepts and Contexts

Edited by

Stephanos Matthaios
Franco Montanari
Antonios Rengakos
 ISBN 978-3-11-025403-7
e-ISBN 978-3-11-025404-4
ISSN 1868-4785

Library ofCongms o,tIIlDging-in-PublkllliDn Data:

Ancieot scholarship and gnnunar: archetypes. concept> and con teXtS I edited by Steph.­
n... M.tthai.... Franco Monunari and Antonios Ren�.
p. cm. -- (Trends in classic s. Supplementary volumes; v. 8)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-11-025403-7 (hardcover: alk. paper) - [SBN 978-3-11-025404-4 (ebk.)
1. Greek Janguage-Granunat. Hiotorical. I. Matthaios. Stephan.... 11. Montanari. Franco.
Ill. Rengakos,Antonios.
PA251.Af>3 2011
4RS--dc22
2010050347

Bib/iDgWlphic informAtion pub/isImJ bJ the Deutsche NllIiDnIllbibliDthelr

The Dcunchc Natiooalbibliothck li,t> tIris public.tion in the Dcunchc
Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data an: .vailable in the Internet
at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

o 2011 Waiter de Gruytcr GmbH &. Co. KG. Berlin/New York

Typesctting: Mich.cl Pcscbke. Berlin

Printing: Hubcrt &. Co. GmbH &. ('.0. KG. G8ttingcu
DO Printed OD acid-m:c paper
Printed in Germany

www.degruyter.com
 Contents

Introduction

1. "Philologi a perennis":
History and New Perspectives

Franco Montanari
Ancient Scholarship and Cla.�sical Studies ... ..................................... 11

H. The Ancient Scholars at Work

Richard Hunter
Plato's Ion and the Origin� of Scholarship ........................................ 27

Marco Fantuzzi
Scholarly Panic: TTavlKOS cp6l3os, Homeric Philology
and the Beginning of the Rhesus . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. ... .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. ... .. . . 41
.

Stephanos Matthaios
Eratosthenes of Cyrene:
Readings of his 'Grammar' Definition ............................................. 55

Filippomaria Pontani
Ex Homero grammatica .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . ..
. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. 87

Rene Niinlist
Aristarchus and Allegorical Interpretation ... ................................... 105

Martin Schmidt
Portrait of an Unknown Scholiast ... .............................................. 119

John Lundon
Homeric Commentaries on Papyrus: A Survey ............................. 159

Bruce Karl Bra.�well

Didymus on Pindar ............................................................ .......... 181
vi Contents

Peter Bing
Afterlives of a Tragic Poet: The Hypothesis
in the Helleni�tic Reception of Euripides 199

Stelios Chronopoulos
Re-writing the Personal Joke:
Some A�pects in the Interpretation of 6voIJacrrl KWIJ�5Eiv
in Ancient Scholarship ...... . . . ..................... . . . ...................... . . ......... 207

Konstantinos Spanoudakis
Ancient Scholia and Lost Identities:
The Case of Simichidas ............................ . ......................... . . ......... 225

Ill. The Ancient Grammarians on the Greek Language

and Linguistic Correctness

Jean Lallot
Did the Alexandrian Grammarian� have
a Sen�e of Hi�tory? 241

Louis Basset
Apollonius between Homeric and Helleni�tic Greek:
The Ca�e of the 'Pre-positive Article' ........ . . .................. .. .. . . ......... 251

Philomen Probert
Attic Irregularities:
Their Reinterpretation in the Light of Atticism . .......................... 269
..

Ineke Sluiter
A Champion of Analogy:
Herodian's On Lexical Singularity . .. . ... . . ..... ... .. .. .. .. .. .
. . . . . .. .. . .. . .. . .. 291

IV. Ancient Grammar in Historical Context

Alfon� Wouters - Pierre Swiggers

New Papyri and the History of Ancient Granunar:
The bripp1Wa Chapter in P.Berol. 9917 . .... ..... ... ......... . ..
. ...... . ..
.. .. 313
 Contents vu

WolframAx
Quintilian's 'Granunar' (Inst.1.4-8) and it<; Importance
for the Hi�tory of Roman Granun ar ............................................. 331

Frederic Larubert
Syntax before Syntax:
Uses of the Term o"VvTCX�lS in Greek Granunarians
before Apollonius Dyscolu� ........................................................... 347

Guillaume Bonnet
Syntagms in the Artigraphic Latin Grammars ........................ ........ 361

Louise Vi.�ser
Latin Gr anunatical Manuals in the Early Middle Ages:
Tradition and Adaptation in the Participle Chapter ....................... 375

Valerie van EL�t

Theodosius and hi.� Byzantine Successors on the Participle:
A Didactic Approach .................................................................... 405

Margarethe Billerbeck
The Orus Fragment<; in the Ethnica
of Stephanu� of Byzantium ..
... .......... ..
... ....... ..
.......... .
... ....... ..
....... 429

v. Ancient Grammar in Interdisciplinary Context

Casper C. de Jonge
Dionysiu� of Halicarnassu� and the Scholia
on Thucydides' Syntax ................................................................. 4 51

Anneli Luhtala
Imposition ofNarues in Ancient Gr anunar and Philosophy ........... 479

Maria Chriti
Neoplatonic Commentators on Aristotle:
The 'Arbitrariness of the Linguistic Sign' ...... ................................. 499
V1l1 Contents

List of Contributors 515

Abbreviations 523

Bibliography ................................................................................. 527

General Index 563

Passages Index 573

 Introduction

Ancient Greek schol:mhip--the ypallllCl'T1Kft TE)(vTl in its original de­

signation-and the linguistic theories which were developed in the
frame of this discipline, are currently in the centre of a multifaceted and
steadily growing research activity within Cla.�sical Philology. This activ­
ity is often shared and supported by related field� such as philosophy,
rhetoric, literary theory and modern lingui.�tics. The attractiveness that
ancient scholarship and granunar enjoy among contemporary researchers
is apparent from recent stati.�tics which show the di.�tribution of the rele­
!
vant publication.� during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: While
the first half of the twentieth century reveals a continuous disregard for
the subject, the works published since the 1950s indicate a comtantly
growing interest, clearly evident through a surprising increase especially
during the la.�t decades. Apart from the intemity of current activity,
however, a geographical expansion of the research interest can also be
observed. Although originally a.�sociated almost exclusively with Ger­
man Clas.�icists in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the study
of the ypallllCl'T1Kft TEXVTl now figures a.� one of the central research
areas in the Western philological tradition, in Europe a.� well as in the
United States.
From a historiographical point of view, the main impul�e for the re­
cent development originated during the middle of the twentieth century
from the preparatory work on the new edition of the two most impor­
tant corpora of ancient scholia, the Scholia vetera on the fliad, edited by
H. Erbse (1969-1988), and the Scholia on Aristophanes, publi.�hed in a
joint-project which wa.� initiated by W.J.W. Koster and completed by
D. Holwerda (1969-2007). On the ground of an exhaustive investiga­
tion into the formation and trammission process of these commentaries,2

The statistic. referred to are included in Hyman's review (2008, 425--426) of

Dickey's book (2007). For thi. purpose Hyman meamred the approximately
in
1000 publication. listed in Dickey's bibliography, i.e. a chronologically and
tern,.. of content well representative amount of publications. Most recent re­
search activity and bibliography on the field of ancient scholarship and granl­
mar i. cited in Montanati 2009.
2 On the history of the Sclwlia on the fliad see Erbse 1960 and van den VaIk
1963-1964. After the work ofvan der VaIk 1949, ancient and Byzantine schol-
2 Introduction

based on reliable texts which these editiom provided, the research done
in thi� field triggered a series of further studies through which the tradi­
tional image of the development of ancient scholarship has been cor­
rected in many aspects. In addition to that, the abundant evidence
within the field from the docwnentation of related testimonies trammit­
ted on papyri helped close several gaps in the textual base and provided
a great amount of previou�ly unknown commentaries, lexica and gram­
matical treati�es.3 The hi�tory of the Hellenistic, and especially of the
Alexandrian philological tradition, from which the Byzantine corpora of
scholia originate, ha� increasingly attracted the attention of scholars and
is today reconstructed through new editiom and collectiom of fragments
and through special monographs in a more precise way than ever be­
fore.4 Thi� special trend, however, i� aim due to an external factor: the
growing interest in Hellenistic poetry and in its philological presupposi­
tion� provided a strong impetus for the exploration of the specific disci­
pline that had been founded in Alexandria at that time. Since R. Pfeif­
fer's epoch-making History if Classical Scholarship (1968),5 strongly
motivated through his Callimachus' edition, the history of the Alexan­
drian scholarship ha.� been accompanied by a rich number of publica­
tiom on the Hellenistic 'poet-scholars' and the theoretical background
of their activity.
Moreover, the research activity on ancient grammatical theories
which developed within the philological tradition, first with direct ref­
erence to the interpretation of poetry, then increasingly independent
from the literary context, wa.� promoted in the 1950s. A central aspect
of these studies was the question of the authenticity of the TtxvTJ

arship on the Odyssey is investigated exhaustively by Pontani 2005a. Pontani

prepares also a new edition of the Scholia on the Odyssey; two volumes of this
project, including the scholia on the first four books, have been already pub­
lished; see Pontani 2007-2010.
3 The project Comme,.,taria et lexica Graml i,., papyris reperta (CLG�, founded by
G. Ba..tianini, M. Haslam, H. Maehler, F. Montanari and C. Romer, ainu at
providing new editions and a collection of ancient commentaries and lexica
known through papyri in one major corp\1•.
4 New editions of A1exandrian granunatical fragments and of lexicographic text.
from the Helleni.tic era and the Late Antiquity have been publi.hed in the se­
ries Sammlung griechischnund lamnischer Grammatiker (SGLG), founded by K.
A1pers, H. Erbse and A. Kleinlogel. In another relevant series, F. Montanari's
Pleiadi, a va..t array of editions and studies about ancient scholarship is already
published.
5 The articles collected in the special volume La philologie grecque a I'epoque he/le­
,.,isti<Jue et romaine, edited by F. Montanari 1994, serve as supplement to Pfeif­
fer's History, with particular focus on the history of Hellenistic scholarship.
 Introduction 3

ypa��CXTIK" which is transmitted under the name of Dionysiu� Thrax.

This TEXVll was considered to be the earliest manual of a systematic
description of the Greek language and its constituents derived from the
Alexandrian grammatical tradition. The turning point in the research
activity on ancient grammar is marked by Di Benedetto's articles of
1958 and 1 959, which triggered an enduring debate about the theoreti­
cal competence of the Alexandrian granunarians. Up to that point schol­
ars had assumed that Dionysius' HXVll did not symbolise the beginning
but rather the end point in the establishment of technical grammar in
antiquity." The idea that the grammatical theory was fully developed
during the period of the Alexandrian grammarians appeared to be too
provocative to be endorsed without detailed assessment. The studies that
have been published since then were mainly motivated by the postulate
of the 're-writing' of the hi�tory of ancient grammar. 7 The growing
wish for exhau�tive docunlentation and analysis of ancient linguistic
theory is answered by detailed research into the core period of Alexan­
drian scholarship, from Zenodotus and Aristophanes of Byzantium to
Aristarchu� and on to the grammarians of the first century BC, aL�o
linked with an evaluation and re-examination of the grammatical theory
of Late Antiquity and its theoretical assumption� and background."
However, not only at a historiographical level, but aL�o with respect
to matters of content, can a turning point in current research be ob­
served. The greatest merit of the revived interest in ancient scholarship
and grammar lies in the modernisation of the theoretical debate and of
the perspectives of interpretation, which, at the same time, has caused a
shift of focal point�. During the whole of the nineteenth and the first
half of the twentieth century, ancient scholarship was mostly treated by
Classicists as an auxiliary di�cipline. Commentaries, lexicographical col­
lections and grammati cal treatises from antiquity served a.� instrunlents
for the exploration of textual transmi�sion and criticism as well as for the
interpretation of ancient literary production. In opposition to this atti­
tude, all relevant texts are today being studied closely in their own

(, Fehling 1 956-1 957, I 2 1 4-2 1 5 and 261-263 swm up with this observation the
researchers' consensus about the development of ancient grammar in the life­
time of Dionysiu< Thrax.
7 Thi< postulate goes back to Taylor 1 986a, 1 90.
8 The most importam contribution.< for the exploration of ancient gran11llar
include the edition of the grammatical papyri by Wouters 1 979, the edition
with commentary and translation of Apollonius Dyscolus' Sytlt<IX and Dionysiu<
Thrax' Techne by Wot 1 997 and 1 998, as well a< studies on ancient gran11luti­
cal concepts and their philosophical background by Blank 1 982, Ax 1 986 and
Sluiter 1 990.
4 Introduction

merit. Thereby, the special focus lies on the disciplinary profile, on

ideological and cultural a�pects, as well as on the interaction of scholar­
ship and granunar with other scientific areas in antiquity.
The present volume reflects the current research situation and aim� at
investigating archetypes, concepts and contexts of the ancient philologi­
cal discipline from a historical, methodological and ideological perspec­
tive, following the structure of a preceding conference on this subject
held in Thessaloniki in 2008." Under the heading Ancient Scholarship and
Grammar, the volume intends to grasp the ypOllllcrT1KT) TEXVl1 in its
original unity. In their role as inseparable components of ancient scho­
larship, the parameters 'lingui�tic description' and 'interpretation of lin­
guistic content� in literary contexts' define the broad spectrum of the
contributions included in the volume. The period examined coincides
with the establishment of scholarship as an autonomous discipline from
the third century BC to its peak in the first centuries AD. However, the
volume is not restricted or limited to that period. Archetypes and para­
digms of philological activity during the classical era investigate the ori­
gins of ancient scholarship; at the same time, the interdisciplinary di�­
course between scholarship, philosophy of language and rhetoric is
illustrated. In this way, the thematic spectrum of the volume covers a
wide range, stretching from the fourth century BC to the Byzantine era.
Apart from Greek antiquity, central a�pects of the Latin granunatical
tradition are aL�o addressed, though not to their full extent. Thus, the
foundation of Roman grammar and the development of several gram­
matical concepts are demonstrated either individually or in comparison
with their Greek counterparts, up to the Latin Middle Ages.
The 26 articles included in the volume are arranged, according to
their main subject, in two groups, Scholarship and Grammar; they are
further divided into the following sections: "Philologia perennis": History
and New Perspectives (I.), The Ancient Scholars at Work (H.), The Ancient
Grammarians on the Greek Language and linguistic Correctness (Ill.), Ancient
Grammar in Historical Context (IV.) and, finally, Ancient Grammar in Inter­
disciplinary Context (V.). To balance between the various topics discussed
in each article, and in order to underline the relations between the con­
tributions, we have taken into consideration a 'horizontal' a� well as a
'vertical' interlinking between the different subjects. The horizontal link
i� defined by historical factors, especially by the period of time to which
each article refers. With regard to ancient scholarship, the contributions

9 The conference had the title Lmguage- Text- Uterature. ArchetypeJ, Concept.! and
Context.! of A,uietlt Scholarship and Grammar and was held in Thes.aIoniki in De­
cember 5 to 7. 2008.
 Introduction 5

basically follow the chronological order of the ancient literary text to

which the ancient conunentator referred. Thi� principle often reflects
and correspond� to the importance attributed to special authors and
literary genres by ancient scholars. Thus, Homeric scholarship precedes
all other subjects becalL�e of its paradigmatic value for philological activ­
ity on subsequent literary production. At a vertical level, however, it is
the criterion of content which provides the links between the articles
and the tramition from one to another. Thi� i� the case especially for
those sections which are devoted to the complex of ancient grammar.
Theoretical i�sues are often complementary examined in connection to
their realization in the grarmnatical practice; additionally, theoretical
patterns are described contrastively by investigating their development
through several grammatical traditions and their tran�formation due to
contacts with relevant disciplines in antiquity.
The volume opens with Franco Montanari's contribution Ancient Scho­
larship and Classical Studies, which puts the philological and grammatical
discipline into the context of its hi�torical development. Starting from an
investigation of the ypa��a-rlK,,-concept and its complexity, Montanari
explores the motivation that led to the foundation of scholarship as a
separate di�cipline and poses the question of its legitimacy for the inter­
pretation of literature and the description of language agaimt competing
approaches derived from ancient philosophy and rhetoric. In the second
part of his article, Montanari demonstrates the importance of ancient
scholarship as a role model for the re-definition of philological science
and it� scope during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and out­
lines the process that brought studies on the ancient tradition to the
centre of modem philological research.
The second section of the volume i� devoted to the complex of an­
cient scholarship with special focus on the disciplinary profile of the
ypa��a-rlK" TE)(V11 and on several aspects of the interpretative work on
ancient literature. The first three contributions can be subsumed under
the label 'Archaeology of Scholarship' and deal with the pre-academic
stage of ancient scholarship, as well as with the process that led to its
establi�hment as an autonomOlL� di�cipline: Richard Hunter detaches
Plato's Ion from the context of Plato's poetic theory and treats the dia­
logue as one of the earliest pieces of evidence of theoretical reflection on
the character and potential of literary exegesis in the pre-Helleni�tic
period. For the model of 'poet-scholar', which i� of special significance
for Hellenistic poetry, Marco Fantuzzi presents a parallel dating back to
the classical period: Fantuzzi refers to the opening scene of the Rhesus,
which he does not interpret as poetic transformation, but as a dramatized
fornl of a pre-Aristotelian philological analysis of the lliadic Doloneia.
6 Introduction

Stephanos Matthaios offers an extensive interpretation of Eratosthenes'

definition of ypa��CXT1KTr---the earliest existing definition of Alexan­
drian scholarship--and illustrates the historical background as well as the
ideological assumptiom that led to the establishment of scholarship as an
autonomOlL� discipline.
The next four articles of the second section focus on ancient Ho­
meric scholarship: Filippomaria Pontani explores the question of
whether Homer formed the norm for questions of hellenismos and to
what extent the Homeric language influenced the linguistic theories and
the descriptive models developed by ancient granunariam. Rene Niinlist
analyses Aristarchus' views on the allegorical interpretation of Homer
and, ba�ed on a re-evaluation of existing evidence, presents a picture
differentiated from the anti-allegorical attitude which is often a�cribed to
the Alexandrian scholar by current research. Martin Schmidt outlines
the portrait of an anonymous commentator of Homer known through
several pa�sages in the corpus of the exegetical scholia on the niad and
recomtructs hi� interpretative principles and ideological views about
Homer and Homeric poetry. On the ground of a representative selec­
tion of ancient commentaries on Homer transmitted on papyri, John
Lundon highlights the characteristics that comtitute the genre of ancient
commentary and, with regard to content� and methods, he investigates
the features which these commentaries share with the Homeric exegesis
derived from the Alexandrian tradition.
The la�t four articles within the second section represent further areas
of ancient philological activity. In the field of lyric poetry, Bruce Karl
Bra�well examines Didymus' interpretation of Pindar and offers a new
edition and commentary of selected fragments, thlL� pointing out central
a�pect� of Didymus' analysis of the Pindaric odes. Ba�ed on an examina­
tion of the earliest hypotheses of the Euripidean tragedies, Peter Bing
investigates Euripides' position and his reception in the Helleni�tic era,
essentially from an ideological and cultural perspective. Stelios Chrono­
poulos explores the ancient views on the Old Comedy ba�ed on the
interpretation of personal attacks given by Aristophanes' scholiasts. An­
cient philological activity in the field of Helleni�tic poetry i� represented
by Konstantinos Spanoudaki�' contribution, which investigates the iden­
tity of Simichidas in Theocritus' seventh Idyll ba�ed on the testimony of
the ancient commentators.
A connection between the two main subjects within the scope of
ancient ypa��CXT1K", scholarship and grammar, i� provided by the third
section of the volume, which, starting from the description of language
in literary contexts, focuses on the views of ancient granunarians on the
history of Greek and on the criteria of linguistic correctness. Jean Lallot
 Introduction 7

treats the fundamental question for the Alexandrians' methodological

approach, that is, whether, in their linguistic analysis and argumentation,
they took into con�ideration hi�torical criteria connected to the devel­
opment of Greek. Loui� Basset transfers Lallot's theoretical approach to
the practice of Apollonius Dyscolus and outlines the grammarian's inter­
pretation of the idiosyncratic---according to ancient views--Homeric
use of articles. Philomen Probert shows the importance of the Atticistic
movement for the lingui�tic analysis of ambiguous cases, where gram­
matical rules are broken but the construction� are still accepted as cor­
rect because of their relevance to the Atticistic postulates. Returning to
theory, Ineke Sluiter focuses on the criterion of analogy, the normative
principle par excellence in matters related to lingui�tic correctness, and
analyses its theoretical foundation in Herodian's treatise nep1 llovr,pOVS
AE�eCA)S .
The fourth section deal� with the hi�tory of ancient granunar, put­
ting lingui�tic patterns and grammatical concepts into the context of
their development. Alfon� Wouters and Pierre Swiggers present a first
edition of the section devoted to adverbs of an ancient TEXVT\
ypallllaTIKf) transmitted in P.Berol. 99 1 7 (dated to 300 AD) and, in the
detailed commentary, show continuities as well as innovative moments
in the development of the granmlatical theory of the word class system.
Wolfram Ax explores the history of Roman grammar in an especially
dark period, for which the 'grammatical' chapters in the first book of
Quintilian's lnstitutio oratoria serve a� a unique and, for this reason, valu­
able source for evaluating the development achieved in grammatical
theory during the first century AD. The next two contributions are
concerned with the ancient notion of syntax, in both the Greek and
Roman world�. Frederic Lambert illustrates the diverse meanings of the
Greek tenn O'VvTa�IS in the period before Apollonius Dyscolus and
analyses the establishment of the technical meaning of 'syntax'. Guil­
laume Bonnet examines the Latin views on syntax on the basis of the
syntagmatic relation� between two or more lexemes which constitute an
autonomous meaning. Loui�e Vi�ser and Valerie van El�t describe in two
separate, but, in tenns of their content, homogenous articles, the theo­
ries on participle formulated in Latin and Greek grammatical manual� of
the Middle Ages. Both contributions focus on the didactic aspect that
led to changes in the theoretical fundament borrowed from antiquity
due to its adaptation to the language standard of that time. Finally , an­
cient and Byzantine lexicography is represented by Margarethe Biller­
beck's contribution, which provides an edition with a translation and
commentary of the fragments of Orus transmitted in the Ethnica of
Stephanus of Byzantiunl.
 Introduction

The fifth and last section of the volume presents lingui�tic concepts
in their interdi.�ciplinary context. The contribution� included here refer
to contacts of ancient grammar with rhetoric and philosophy, which had
an enomlOUS influence on the fonnation of ancient granllnatical doc­
trine. Casper C. de Jonge compares the philological interpretation of
Thucydides' syntax with the views of Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the
same topic and investigates the theoretical interrelations between rhe­
torical and grammatical syntax. Anneli Luhtala treats the crucial philoso­
phical question of whether names are given by nature or convention,
and examines its role for the definition of the word cla�ses 'noun' and
'verb' in the theories of Apollonim Dyscolus and of Priscian. Maria
Chriti analyses the testimony of the Neoplatonic commentators regard­
ing Aristotle's views on the 'symbolic' value of names, linking it with
modem theories on the arbitrariness of linguistic sign�.
Now, with the result of a joint work of many colleagues in hand, we
would like to thank all contributors for their participation in the Thessa­
loniki conference and their cooperation during the different phases of
the preparation of this volume for publication. Sincere thanks also go to
our colleagues Evina Sistakou and Christos Tsagalis (Thessaloniki) as
well a� to Heiko Westphal (Berlin) for their valuable help with the sty­
listic revision of some articles and of this introduction. On behalf of the
publi�her Waiter de Grnyter, Sabine Vogt ha� again supported us with her
exceptional conunitment and efficiency, for both of which we are
deeply indebted.

Stephanos Matthaios-Franco Montanari -Antonios Rengakos

Thessaloniki and Genoa in June 201 0
 I. "Philologia perennis":
History and New Perspectives
 Ancient Scholarship and Classical Studies*

Franco Montanari

The definition of 'ancient scholarship' includes numerou.� phenomena

that belong to the literary civilization both of the ancient Greek and the
Latin world. However, I should start by stating that the focus of my
attention refers to ancient Greek culture, although experts will have no
difficulty transferring to Latin culture many of the concepu we will be
dealing with. The term 'scholarship' refers first and foremost to all writ­
ten worb that aim specifically and direcdy to provide an interpretation
of the literary worb on various levels. Thus in thi� sen�e 'scholarship'
refers in the first place to the different form.� of commentary on the texts
(from the extended V1f61lV11 1l0 to short annotations) and to exegetic
treatmenU of a monographic nature (avyypalllloTO) . For thi� set of
worb, it is appropriate to take into account the difference between a
syntagmatic and a paradigmatic procedure in the treatment of the text or
tem to be interpreted.
But one immediately realizes that the term 'scholarship' abo covers
many other genres: in primis the impressive phenomena of lexicography
and linguistic-grammatical studies. Thus the numerou.� form.� of lexico­
graphic works come to mind, ranging from the most ancient collection�
of glosses and A��elS to the great Etymologica of the Byzantine age,
through a long history of material� traced, studied and ordered. To this
category there also belong variOu.� collections of lingui�tic data and of
Realien classified by lexical form (including the onoma�tics) . Equally
lively i� the broad array of studies on language: reflection� on human
language, springing at first from the sphere of philosophy (testified by
Democritu.�, perhaps started even earlier) , were further developed in the
cultural framework of Alexandrian scholarship, where they gave rise to
an independent lingui�tic-grammatical science. In the work by Aristo­
phanes of Byzantium and Ari.�tarchus the solid basi� wa� already laid for
the subsequent extraordinary flowering of thi� field, which would cul­
minate a few centuries later in the epoch-making work of Apollonius
Dyscolus and Herodian. And the shelf 'scholarship' can be expanded to

* English translation by Rachel Damtt Costa.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
gap between the intellectual grasp of a situation and the emotional
development, and it is the latter realm wherein lies the disharmony.
However, although many ideas and feelings are connected with the
parents, analysis reveals very often that they are only subjective and
that in reality they bear little resemblance to the actual past
situation. Therefore, Jung speaks no longer of the real father and
mother but uses the term imago or image to represent the father or
mother, because the feelings and phantasies frequently do not deal
with the real parents but with the distorted and subjective image
created by the imagination of the individual.
Following this distinction Jung sees in the Oedipus complex of
Freud only a symbol for the “childish desire towards the parents and
for the conflict which this craving evokes,” and cannot accept the
theory that in this early stage of childhood the mother has any real
sexual significance for the child.
The demands of the child upon the mother, the jealousy so often
exhibited, are at first connected with the rôle of the mother as
protector, caretaker and supplier of nutritive wants, and only later,
with the germinating eroticism, does the child’s love become
admixed with the developing sexual quality. The chief love objects
are still the parents and he naturally continues to seek and to find in
them satisfaction for all his desires. In this way the typical conflict is
developed which in the son is directed towards the father and in the
daughter towards the mother. This jealousy of the daughter towards
the mother is called the Electra complex from the myth of Electra
who took revenge on her mother for the murder of the husband
because she was in this way deprived of her father.
Normally as puberty is attained the child gradually becomes more
or less freed from his parents, and upon the degree in which this is
accomplished depends his health and future well-being.
This demand of nature upon the young individual to free himself
from the bonds of his childish dependency and to find in the world of
reality his independent existence is so imperious and dominating
that it frequently produces in the child the greatest struggles and
severest conflicts, the period being characterized symbolically as a
self-sacrifice by Jung.
It frequently happens that the young person is so closely bound in
the family relations that it is only with the greatest difficulty that he
can attain any measure of freedom and then only very imperfectly, so
that the libido sexualis can only express itself in certain feelings and
phantasies which clearly reveal the existence of the complex until
then entirely hidden and unrealized. Now commences the secondary
struggle against the unfilial and immoral feelings with a consequent
development of intense resistances expressing themselves in
irritation, anger, revolt and antagonism against the parents, or else
in an especially tender, submissive and yielding attitude which over-
compensates for the rebellion and reaction held within.
This struggle and conflict gives rise to the unconscious phantasy of
self-sacrifice which really means the sacrificing of the childish
tendencies and love type in order to free libido; for his nature
demands that he attain the capacity for the accomplishment of his
own personal fulfilment, the satisfaction of which belongs to the
developed man and woman.
This conception has been worked out in detail by Jung in the book
which is herein presented to English readers.
We now come to the most important of Jung’s conceptions in that
it bears practically upon the treatment of certain types of the
neuroses and stands theoretically in direct opposition to Freud’s
hypothesis. While recognizing fully the influence of the parents and
of the sexual constitution of the child, Jung refuses to see in this
infantile past the real cause for the later development of the illness.
He definitely places the cause of the pathogenic conflict in the
present moment and considers that in seeking for the cause in the
distant past one is only following the desire of the patient, which is to
withdraw himself as much as possible from the present important
period.
The conflict is produced by some important task or duty which is
essential biologically and practically for the fulfilment of the ego of
the individual, but before which an obstacle arises from which he
shrinks, and thus halted cannot go on. With this interference in the
path of progression libido is stored up and a regression takes place
whereby there occurs a reanimation of past ways of libido occupation
which were entirely normal to the child, but which for the adult are
no longer of value. These regressive infantile desires and phantasies
now alive and striving for satisfaction are converted into symptoms,
and in these surrogate forms obtain a certain gratification, thus
creating the external manifestations of the neurosis. Therefore Jung
does not ask from what psychic experience or point of fixation in
childhood the patient is suffering, but what is the present duty or
task he is avoiding, or what obstacle in his life’s path he is unable to
overcome? What is the cause of his regression to past psychic
experiences?
Following this theory Jung expresses the view that the elaborate
phantasies and dreams produced by these patients are really forms
of compensation or artificial substitutes for the unfulfilled
adaptation to reality. The sexual content of these phantasies and
dreams is only apparently and not actually expressive of a real sexual
desire or incest wish, but is a regressive employment of sexual forms
to symbolically express a present-day need when the attainment of
the present ego demand seems too difficult or impossible, and no
adaptation is made to what is possible for the individual’s capability.
[3]

With this statement Jung throws a new light on the work of

analytic psychology and on the conception of the neurotic symptoms,
and renders possible of understanding the many apparent
incongruities and conflicting observations which have been so
disturbing to the critics.

It now becomes proper to ask what has been established by all this
mass of investigation into the soul, and what is its value not only as a
therapeutic measure for the neurotic sufferer, but also for the normal
human being?
First and perhaps most important is the recognition of a definite
psychological determinism. Instead of human life being filled with
foolish, meaningless or purposeless actions, errors and thoughts, it
can be demonstrated that no expression or manifestation of the
psyche, however trifling or inconsistent in appearance, is really
lawless or unmotivated. Only a possession of the technique is
necessary in order to reveal, to any one desirous of knowing, the
existence of the unconscious determinants of his mannerisms, trivial
expressions, acts and behavior, their purpose and significance.
This leads into the second fundamental conception, which is
perhaps even less considered than the foregoing, and that is the
relative value of the conscious mind and thought. It is the general
attitude of people to judge themselves by their surface motives, to
satisfy themselves by saying or thinking “this is what I want to do or
say” or “I intended to do thus and so,” but somehow what one
thought, one intended to say or expected to do is very often the
contrary of what actually is said or done. Every one has had these
experiences when the gap between the conscious thought and action
was gross enough to be observed. It is also a well known experience
to consciously desire something very much and when it is obtained to
discover that this in no wise satisfied or lessened the desire, which
was then transferred to some other object. Thus one became
cognizant of the fact that the feeling and idea presented by
consciousness as the desire was an error. What is the difficulty in
these conditions? Evidently some other directing force than that of
which we are aware is at work.
Dr. G. Stanley Hall uses a very striking symbol when he compares
the mind to an iceberg floating in the ocean with one-eighth visible
above the water and seven-eighths below—the one-eighth above
being that part called conscious and the seven-eighths below that
which we call the unconscious. The influence and controlling power
of the unconscious desires over our thoughts and acts are in this
relative proportion. Faint glimmers of other motives and interests
than those we accept or which we believe, often flit into
consciousness. These indications, if studied or valued accurately,
would lead to the realization that consciousness is but a single stage
and but one form of expression of mind. Therefore its dictum is but
one, often untrustworthy, approach to the great question as to what
is man’s actual psychic accomplishment, and as to what in particular
is the actual soul development of the individual.
A further contribution of equal importance has been the empiric
development of a dynamic theory of life; the conception that life is in
a state of flux—movement—leading either to construction or
destruction. Through the development man has reached he has
attained the power by means of his intelligence and understanding of
definitely directing to a certain extent this life energy or libido into
avenues which serve his interest and bring a real satisfaction for the
present day.
 When man through ignorance and certain inherent tendencies
fails to recognize his needs or his power to fulfil them, or to adapt
himself to the conditions of reality of the present time, there is then
produced that reanimation of infantile paths by which an attempt is
made to gain fulfilment or satisfaction through the production of
symptoms or attitudes.
The acceptance of these statements demands the recognition of the
existence of an infantile sexuality and the large part played by it in
the later life of the individual. Because of the power and imperious
influence exerted by the parents upon the child, and because of the
unconscious attachment of his libido to the original object, the
mother, and the perseverance of this first love model in the psyche,
he finds it very difficult, on reaching the stage of adult development
and the time for seeking a love object outside of the family, to gain a
satisfactory model.
It is exceedingly important for parents and teachers to recognize
the requirements of nature, which, beginning with puberty,
imperiously demand of the young individual a separation of himself
from the parent stem and the development of an independent
existence. In our complex modern civilization this demand of nature
is difficult enough of achievement for the child who has the heartiest
and most intelligent co-operation of his parents and environment—
but for the one who has not only to contend with his own inner
struggle for his freedom but has in addition the resistance of his
parents who would hold him in his childhood at any cost, because
they cannot endure the thought of his separation from them, the task
becomes one of the greatest magnitude. It is during this period when
the struggle between the childish inertia and nature’s urge becomes
so keen, that there occur the striking manifestations of jealousy,
criticism, irritability all usually directed against the parents, of
defiance of parental authority, of runaways and various other psychic
and nervous disorders known to all.
This struggle, which is the first great task of mankind and the one
which requires the greatest effort, is that which is expressed by Jung
as the self-sacrifice motive—the sacrifice of the childish feelings and
demands, and of the irresponsibility of this period, and the
assumption of the duties and tasks of an individual existence.
 It is this great theme which Jung sees as the real motive lying
hidden in the myths and religions of man from the beginning, as well
as in the literature and artistic creations of both ancient and modern
time, and which he works out with the greatest wealth of detail and
painstaking effort in the book herewith presented.
This necessitates a recognition and revaluation of the enormous
importance and influence of the ego and the sexual instinct upon the
thought and reaction of man, and also predicates a displacement of
the psychological point of gravity from the will and intellect to the
realm of the emotions and feelings. The desired end is a synthesis of
these two paths or the use of the intellect constructively in the service
of the emotions in order to gain for the best interest of the individual
some sort of co-operative reaction between the two.
No one dealing with analytic psychology can fail to be struck by the
tremendous and unnecessary burdens which man has placed upon
himself, and how greatly he has increased the difficulties of
adaptation by his rigid intellectual views and moral formulas, and by
his inability to admit to himself that he is actually just a human being
imperfect, and containing within himself all manner of tendencies,
good and bad, all striving for some satisfactory goal. Further, that the
refusal to see himself in this light instead of as an ideal person in no
way alters the actual condition, and that in fact, through the cheap
pretense of being able only to consider himself as a very virtuous
person, or as shocked and hurt when observing the “sins” of others,
he actually is prevented from developing his own character and
bringing his own capacities to their fullest expressions.
There is frequently expressed among people the idea of how
fortunate it is that we cannot see each other’s thoughts, and how
disturbing it would be if our real feelings could be read. But what is
so shameful in these secrets of the soul? They are in reality our own
egoistic desires all striving, longing, wishing for satisfaction, for
happiness; those desires which instinctively crave their own
gratification but which can only be really fulfilled by adapting them
to the real world and to the social group.
Why is it that it is so painful for man to admit that the prime
influence in all human endeavor is found in the ego itself, in its
desires, wishes, needs and satisfactions, in short, in its need for self-
expression and self-perpetuation, the evolutionary impetus in life?
 The basis for the unpleasantness of this idea may perhaps be found
in an inner resistance in nature itself which forces man to include
others in his scheme, lest his own greedy desires should serve to
destroy him. But even with this inner demand and all the ethical and
moral teachings of centuries it is everywhere evident that man has
only very imperfectly learned that it is to his own interest to consider
his neighbor and that it is impossible for him to ignore the needs of
the body social of which he is a part. Externally, the recognition of
the strength of the ego impulse is objectionable because of the ideal
conception that self-striving and so-called selfish seeking are
unworthy, ignoble and incompatible with a desirable character and
must be ignored at all cost.
The futility of this attitude is to be clearly seen in the failure after
all these centuries to even approximate it, as evidenced in our human
relations and institutions, and is quite as ineffectual in this realm as
in that of sexuality where the effort to overcome this imperious
domination has been attempted by lowering the instinct, and seeing
in it something vile or unclean, something unspeakable and unholy.
Instead of destroying the power of sexuality this struggle has only
warped and distorted, injured and mutilated the expression; for not
without destruction of the individual can these fundamental instincts
be destroyed. Life itself has needs and imperiously demands
expression through the forms created. All nature answers to this
freely and simply except man. His failure to recognize himself as an
instrument through which the life energy is coursing and the
demands of which must be obeyed, is the cause of his misery. Despite
his possession of intellect and self-consciousness, he cannot without
disaster to himself refuse the tasks of life and the fulfilment of his
own needs. Man’s great task is the adaptation of himself to reality
and the recognition of himself as an instrument for the expression of
life according to his individual possibilities.
It is in his privilege as a self-creator that his highest purpose is
found.
The value of self-consciousness lies in the fact that man is enabled
to reflect upon himself and learn to understand the true origin and
significance of his actions and opinions, that he may adequately
value the real level of his development and avoid being self-deceived
and therefore inhibited from finding his biological adaptation. He
need no longer be unconscious of the motives underlying his actions
or hide himself behind a changed exterior, in other words, be merely
a series of reactions to stimuli as the mechanists have it, but he may
to a certain extent become a self-creating and self-determining being.
Indeed, there seems to be an impulse towards adaptation quite as
Bergson sees it, and it would seem to be a task of the highest order to
use intelligence to assist one’s self to work with this impulse.

Through the investigation of these different avenues leading into

the hidden depths of the human being and through the revelation of
the motives and influences at work there, although astonishing to the
uninitiated, a very clear and definite conception of the actual human
relationship—brotherhood—of all mankind is obtained. It is this
recognition of these common factors basically inherent in humanity
from the beginning and still active, which is at once both the most
hopeful and the most feared and disliked part of psychoanalysis.
It is disliked by those individuals who have prided themselves
upon their superiority and the distinction between their reactions
and motives and those of ordinary mankind. In other words, they
attempt to become personalities through elevating themselves and
lowering others, and it is a distinct blow to discover that beneath
these pretensions lie the very ordinary elements shared in common
by all. On the other hand, to those who have been able to recognize
their own weaknesses and have suffered in the privacy of their own
souls, the knowledge that these things have not set them apart from
others, but that they are the common property of all and that no one
can point the finger of scorn at his fellow, is one of the greatest
experiences of life and is productive of the greatest relief.
It is feared by many who realize that in these painfully acquired
repressions and symptoms lie their safety and their protection from
directly facing and dealing with tendencies and characteristics with
which they feel unable to cope. The repression and the accompanying
symptoms indicate a difficulty and a struggle, and in this way are a
sort of compromise or substitute formation which permit, although
only in a wasteful and futile manner, the activity of the repressed
tendencies. Nevertheless, to analyze the individual back to his
original tendencies and reveal to him the meaning of these substitute
formations would be a useless procedure in which truly “the last state
of that man would be worse than the first” if the work ceased there.
The aim is not to destroy those barriers upon which civilized man
has so painfully climbed and to reduce him to his primitive state, but,
where these have failed or imperfectly succeeded, to help him to
attain his greatest possibilities with less expenditure of energy, by
less wasteful methods than nature provides. In this achievement lies
the hopeful and valuable side of this method—the development of the
synthesis. It is hopeful because now a way is opened to deal with
these primitive tendencies constructively, and render their effects
not only harmless but useful, by utilizing them in higher aims,
socially and individually valuable and satisfactory.
This is what has occurred normally in those individuals who seem
capable and constructive personalities; in those creative minds that
give so much to the race. They have converted certain psychological
tendencies which could have produced useless symptoms or
destructive actions into valuable productions. Indeed it is not
uncommon for strong, capable persons to state themselves that they
knew they could have been equally capable of a wasteful or
destructive life. This utilization of the energy or libido freed by
removing the repressions and the lifting of infantile tendencies and
desires into higher purposes and directions suitable for the
individual at his present status is called sublimation.
It must not be understood by this discussion that geniuses or
wonderful personalities can be created through analysis, for this is
not the aim of the procedure. Its purpose is to remove the inhibitions
and restrictions which interfere with the full development of the
personality, to help individuals attain to that level where they really
belong, and to prepare people to better understand and meet life
whether they are neurotic sufferers or so-called “normal people” with
the difficulties and peculiarities which belong to all.
This reasoning and method of procedure is only new when the
application is made to the human being. In all improvements of
plants and animals these general principles have been recognized
and their teachings constructively utilized.
Luther Burbank, that plant wizard whose work is known to all the
world, says, “A knowledge of the battle of the tendencies within a
plant is the very basis of all plant improvement,” and “it is not that
the work of plant improvement brings with it, incidentally, as people
mistakenly think, a knowledge of these forces, it is the knowledge of
these forces, rather, which makes plant improvement possible.”
Has this not been also the mistake of man regarding himself, and
the cause, partly at least, of his failure to succeed in actually reaching
a more advanced and stable development?
This recognition of man’s biological relationship to all life and the
practical utilization of this recognition, necessitates a readjustment
of thought and asks for an examination and reconsideration of the
facts of human conduct which are observable by any thoughtful
person. A quiet and progressive upheaval of old ideas has taken place
and is still going on. Analytic psychology attempts to unify and value
all of the various phenomena of man which have been observed and
noted at different times by isolated investigators of isolated
manifestations and thus bring some orderly sequence into the whole.
It offers a method whereby the relations of the human being
biologically to all other living forms can be established, the actual
achievement of man himself adequately valued, and opens a vista of
the possibilities of improvement in health, happiness and
accomplishment for the human being.
Beatrice M. Hinkle.

10 Gramercy Park.
 AUTHOR’S NOTE

My task in this work has been to investigate an individual

phantasy system, and in the doing of it problems of such magnitude
have been uncovered, that my endeavor to grasp them in their
entirety has necessarily meant only a superficial orientation toward
those paths, the opening and exploration of which may possibly
crown the work of future investigators with success.
I am not in sympathy with the attitude which favors the repression
of certain possible working hypotheses because they are perhaps
erroneous, and so may possess no lasting value. Certainly I
endeavored as far as possible to guard myself from error, which
might indeed become especially dangerous upon these dizzy heights,
for I am entirely aware of the risks of these investigations. However,
I do not consider scientific work as a dogmatic contest, but rather as
a work done for the increase and deepening of knowledge.
This contribution is addressed to those having similar ideas
concerning science.
In conclusion, I must render thanks to those who have assisted my
endeavors with valuable aid, especially my dear wife and my friends,
to whose disinterested assistance I am deeply indebted.
C. G. Jung.

Zurich.
CONTENTS
 PAGE
AUTHOR’S NOTE xlvii

PART I

CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION 3

Relation of the Incest Phantasy to the Oedipus Legend—Moral

revulsion over such a discovery—The unity of the antique and
modern psychology—Followers of Freud in this field—The
need of analyzing historical material in relation to individual
analysis.

I.— CONCERNING THE TWO KINDS OF THINKING 8

Antiquity of the belief in dreams—Dream-meanings

psychological, not literal—They concern wish-fulfilments—A
typical dream: the sexual assault—What is symbolic in our
every-day thinking?—One kind of thinking: intensive and
deliberate, or directed—Directed thinking and thinking in
words—Origin of speech in primitive nature sounds—The
evolution of speech—Directed thinking a modern acquisition—
Thinking, not directed, a thinking in images: akin to dreaming
—Two kinds of thinking: directed and dream or phantasy
thinking—Science an expression of directed thinking—The
discipline of scholasticism as a forerunner—Antique spirit
created not science but mythology—Their world of subjective
phantasies similar to that we find in the childmind of to-day;
or in the savage—The dream shows a similar type—Infantile
thinking and dreams a re-echo of the prehistoric and the
ancient—The myths a mass-dream of the people: the dream
the myth of the individual—Phantastic thinking concerns
wishes—Typical cases, showing kinship with ancient myths—
Psychology of man changes but slowly—Phantastic thinking
tells us of mythical or other material of undeveloped and no
longer recognized wish tendencies in the soul—The sexual base
—The wish, because of its disturbing nature, expressed not
directly, but symbolically.
II.— THE MILLER PHANTASIES 42

Miss Miller’s unusual suggestibility—Identifying herself with

others—Examples of her autosuggestibility and suggestive
effect—Not striking in themselves, but from analytic viewpoint
they afford a glance into the soul of the writer—Her phantasies
really tell of the history of her love.

III. THE HYMN OF CREATION 49

—

Miss Miller’s description of a sea-journey—Really a description

of “introversion”—A retreat from reality into herself—The
return to the real world with erotic impression of officer
singing in the night-watch—The undervaluing of such erotic
impressions—Their often deep effect—The succeeding dream,
and poem—The denied erotic impression usurps an earlier
transference: it expresses itself through the Father-Imago—
Analysis of the poem—Relation to Cyrano, Milton and Job—
The attempt to escape the problem by a religious and ethical
pose—Contrast with real religion—Escape from erotic by
transference to a God or Christ—This made effective by mutual
transference: “Love one another”—The erotic spiritualized,
however—The inner conflict kept conscious by this method—
The modern, however, represses the conflict and so becomes
neurotic—The function of Christianity—Its biologic purpose
fulfilled—Its forms of thought and wisdom still available.

IV. THE SONG OF THE MOTH 87

—

The double rôle of Faust: creator and destroyer—“I came not to

send peace, but a sword”—The modern problem of choice
between Scylla of world-renunciation and Charybdis of world-
acceptance—The ethical pose of The Hymn of Creation having
failed, the unconscious projects a new attempt in the Moth-
Song—The choice, as in Faust—The longing for the sun (or
God) the same as that for the ship’s officer—Not the object,
 however: the longing is important—God is our own longing to
which we pay divine honors—The failure to replace by a real
compensation the libido-object which is surrendered, produces
regression to an earlier and discarded object—A return to the
infantile—The use of the parent image—It becomes
synonymous with God, Sun, Fire—Sun and snake—Symbols of
the libido gathered into the sun-symbol—The tendency toward
unity and toward multiplicity—One God with many attributes:
or many gods that are attributes of one—Phallus and sun—The
sun-hero, the well-beloved—Christ as sun-god—“Moth and
sun” then brings us to historic depths of the soul—The sun-
hero creative and destructive—Hence: Moth and Flame:
burning one’s wings—The destructiveness of being fruitful—
Wherefore the neurotic withdraws from the conflict,
committing a sort of self-murder—Comparison with Byron’s
Heaven and Earth.

PART II

I.— ASPECTS OF THE LIBIDO 127

A backward glance—The sun the natural god—Comparison

with libido—Libido, “sun-energy”—The sun-image as seen by
the mystic in introversion—The phallic symbol of the libido—
Faust’s key—Mythical heroes with phallic attributes—These
heroes personifications of the human libido and its typical
fates—A definition of the word “libido”—Its etymological
context.

II.— THE CONCEPTION AND THE GENETIC THEORY OF 139

LIBIDO

A widening of the conception of libido—New light from the

study of paranoia—The impossibility of restricting the
conception of libido to the sexual—A genetic definition—The
function of reality only partly sexual—Yet this, and other
functions, originally derivations from procreative impulse—
The process of transformation—Libido, and the conception of
will in general—Examples in mythology—The stages of the
 libido: its desexualized derivatives and differentiations—
Sublimation vs. repression—Splittings off of the primal libido
—Application of genetic theory of libido to introversion
psychoses—Replacing reality by archaic surrogates—
Desexualizing libido by means of phantastic analogy
formations—Possibly human consciousness brought to present
state in this manner—The importance of the little phrase:
“Even as.”

III. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE LIBIDO. A POSSIBLE 157

— SOURCE OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN DISCOVERIES

An example of transition of the libido—Act of boring with

forefinger: an infantile presexual activity—Similar activities in
patient’s early childhood—Outcome in dementia præcox—Its
phantasies related to mythological products: a reproduction of
the creations of antiquity—The freeing of libido from the
nutritive to enter the sexual function—The epoch of suckling
and the epoch of displaced rhythmic activity—These followed
by the beginnings of onanistic attempts—An obstacle in the
sexual zone produces regression to a previous mode—These
regressions easier in earlier stages of humanity than now—The
ethnological phantasy of boring—Examples—The production
of fire—Its sexual significance—A substitute for coitus—The
invention of fire-making then due to the need of supplying a
symbol for the sexual act—The psychological compulsion for
such transitions of the libido based on an original division of
the will—Regression to incestuous—Prohibition here sends
incestuous component of libido back to presexual—Character
of its application here—The substitution of Mother-Earth for
the parent—Also of infantile boring—Leading then to discovery
of fire—An example in Hindoo literature—The sexual
significance of the mouth—Its other function: the mating call—
The regression which produced fire through boring also
elaborated the mating call—The beginnings of speech—
Example from the Hindoo—Speech and fire the first fruits of
transformation of libido—The fire-preparation regarded as
forbidden, as robbery—The forbidden thing onanism—
Onanism a cheating of sexuality of its purpose—The
ceremonial fire-production a substitute for the possibility of
onanistic regression—Thus a transformation of libido ensues.
IV. THE UNCONSCIOUS ORIGIN OF THE HERO 191
—

The cause of introversion—The forward and backward flow of

the libido—The abnormal third—The conflict rooted in the
incest problem—The “terrible mother”—Miss Miller’s
introversion—An internal conflict—Its product of hypnagogic
vision and poem—The uniformity of the unconscious in all
men—The unconscious the object of a true psychology—The
individual tendency with its production of the hero cult—The
love for the hero or god a love for the unconscious—A turning
back to the mother of humanity—Such regressions act
favorably within limits—Miss Miller’s mention of the Sphinx—
Theriomorphic representations of the libido—Their tendency
to represent father and mother—The Sphinx represents the
fear of the mother—Miss Miller’s mention of the Aztec—
Analysis of this figure—The significance of the hand
symbolically—The Aztec a substitute for the Sphinx—The name
Chi-wan-to-pel—The connection of the anal region with
veneration—Chiwantopel and Ahasver, the Wandering Jew—
The parallel with Chidher—Heroes generating themselves
through their own mothers—Analogy with the Sun—Setting
and rising sun: Mithra and Helios, Christ and Peter,
Dhulqarnein and Chidher—The fish symbol—The two
Dadophores: the two thieves—The mortal and immortal parts
of man—The Trinity taken from phallic symbolism—
Comparison of libido with phallus—Analysis of libido
symbolism always leads back to the mother incest—The hero
myth the myth of our own suffering unconscious—Faust.

V.— SYMBOLISM OF THE MOTHER AND OF REBIRTH 233

The crowd as symbol of mystery—The city as symbol of the

mother—The motive of continuous “union”—The typical
journey of the sun-hero—Examples—A longing for rebirth
through the mother—The compulsion to symbolize the mother
as City, Sea, Source, etc.—The city as terrible mother and as
holy mother—The relation of the water-motive to rebirth—Of
the tree-motive—Tree of life a mother-image—The bisexual
character of trees—Such symbols to be understood
psychologically, not anatomically—The incestuous desire aims
 at becoming a child again, not at incest—It evades incest by
creating myths of symbolic rebirth—The libido spiritualized
through this use of symbols—To be born of the spirit—This
compulsion toward symbolism brings a release of forces bound
up in incest—This process in Christianity—Christianity with its
repression of the manifest sexual the negative of the ancient
sexual cult—The unconscious transformation of the incest wish
into religious exercise does not meet the modern need—A
conscious method necessary, involving moral autonomy—
Replacing belief by understanding—The history of the
symbolism of trees—The rise of the idea of the terrible mother
a mask of the incest wish—The myth of Osiris—Related
examples—The motive of “devouring”—The Cross of Christ:
tree of death and tree of life—Lilith: the devouring mother—
The Lamias—The conquering of the mother—Snake and
dragon: the resistance against incest—The father represents
the active repulse of the incest wish of the son—He frequently
becomes the monster to be overcome by the hero—The
Mithraic sacrificing of the incest wish an overcoming of the
mother—A replacing of archaic overpowering by sacrifice of
the wish—The crucified Christ an expression of this
renunciation—Other cross sacrifices—Cross symbol possesses
significance of “union”—Child in mother’s womb: or man and
mother in union—Conception of the soul a derivative of
mother imago—The power of incest prohibition created the
self-conscious individual—It was the coercion to domestication
—The further visions of Miss Miller.

VI. THE BATTLE FOR DELIVERANCE FROM THE MOTHER 307

—

The appearance of the hero Chiwantopel on horseback—Hero

and horse equivalent of humanity and its repressed libido—
Horse a libido symbol, partly phallic, partly maternal, like the
tree—It represents the libido repressed through the incest
prohibition—The scene of Chiwantopel and the Indian—
Recalling Cassius and Brutus: also delirium of Cyrano—
Identification of Cassius with his mother—His infantile
disposition—Miss Miller’s hero also infantile—Her visions
arise from an infantile mother transference—Her hero to die
from an arrow wound—The symbolism of the arrow—The
onslaught of unconscious desires—The deadly arrows strike
the hero from within—It means the state of introversion—A
 sinking back into the world of the child—The danger of this
regression—It may mean annihilation or new life—Examples of
introversion—The clash between the retrogressive tendency in
the individual unconscious and the conscious forward striving
—Willed introversion—The unfulfilled sacrifice in the Miller
phantasy means an attempt to renounce the mother: the
conquest of a new life through the death of the old—The hero
Miss Miller herself.

VII. THE DUAL MOTHER ROLE 341

—

Chiwantopel’s monologue—His quest for the “one who

understands”—A quest for the mother—Also for the life-
companion—The sexual element in the wish—The battle for
independence from the mother—Its peril—Miss Miller’s use of
Longfellow’s Hiawatha—An analysis of Hiawatha—A typical
hero of the libido—The miraculous birth—The hero’s birth
symbolic because it is really a rebirth from the mother-spouse
—The twofold mother which in Christian mythology becomes
twofold birth—The hero his own procreator—Virgin
conception a mask for incestuous impregnation—Hiawatha’s
early life—The identification of mother-nature with the mother
—The killing of a roebuck a conquering of the parents—He
takes on their strength—He goes forth to slay the father in
order to possess the mother—Minnehaha, the mother—
Hiawatha’s introversion—Hiding in the lap of nature really a
return to the mother’s womb—The regression to the presexual
revives the importance of nutrition—The inner struggle with
the mother, to overpower and impregnate her—This fight
against the longing for the mother brings new strength—The
Mondamin motive in other myths—The Savior-hero the fruit of
the entrance of the libido into the personal maternal depths—
This is to die, and be born again—Hiawatha’s struggle with the
fish-monster—A new deliverance from the mother—And so
again with Megissogwon, the Magician—The hero must again
and again conquer the mother—Then follows his marriage with
Minnehaha—Other incidents, his death: the sinking of the sun
in the west—Miss Miller also reminded by Chiwantopel’s
longing of Wagner’s Siegfried—Analysis of the Siegfried myth
—The treasure-guarding dragon—The dragon the son’s
repressed longing for the mother—Symbolism of the cave—The
separation from the mother, the hero’s conquering of the
 dragon—The symbolism of the cup—Drinking from the mother
—Cup of the blood of Christ—The resultant mysterious union
of man—Profane interpretations of this mystery—The phallic
significance of the serpent—The snake as representing the
introverting libido—Self-procreation: or creation of the world
through introversion—The world thus an emanation of the
libido—The hero himself a serpent—The psychoanalytic
treatment of regression—The hidden libido touched upon
causes a struggle: that is, the hero fights the fight with the
treasure-guarding dragon—The awakening of Brunhilde—
Siegfried finding his mother: a symbol of his own libido—The
conquest of the terrible mother brings the love and life-giving
mother.

VIII. THE SACRIFICE 428

—

Miss Miller’s vision again—The paradoxical striving of the

libido away from the mother toward the mother—The
destroying mother becomes beneficent on being conquered—
Chiwantopel a hero of words, not deeds—He has not that will
to live which breaks the magic circle of the incestuous—His
identification with the author, and her wish for the parents—
The end is the devouring of the daughter’s libido by the mother
—Sexuality of the unconscious merely a symbol—Idle
dreaming the mother of the fear of death—This downward
path in the poetry of Hölderlin—The estrangement from
reality, the introversion leading to death—The necessity of
freeing libido for a complete devotion to life—Otherwise bound
by unconscious compulsion: Fate—Sublimation through
voluntary work—Creation of the world through cosmic
sacrifice—Man discovers the world when he sacrifices the
mother—The incest barrier as the producer of thought—
Budding sexuality drawing the individual from the family—The
mind dawns at the moment the child begins to be free of the
mother—He seeks to win the world, and leave the mother—
Childish regression to the presexual brings archaic phantasies
—The incest problem not physical, but psychological—Sacrifice
of the horse: sacrifice of the animal nature—The sacrifice of the
“mother libido”: of the son to the mother—Superiority of
Christian symbol: the sacrifice, not only of lower nature, but
the whole personality—Miss Miller’s phantasy passes from
sacrifice of the sexual, to sacrifice of the infantile personality—
 Problem of psychoanalysis, expressed mythologically, the
sacrifice and rebirth of the infantile hero—The libido wills the
destruction of its creation: horse and serpent—The end of the
hero by means of earthquake—The one who understands him
is the mother.

“Therefore theory, which gives to facts their value and

significance, is often very useful, even if it is partially false, for it
throws light on phenomena which no one observed, it forces an
examination, from many angles, of facts which no one had hitherto
studied, and it gives the impulse for more extended and more
productive researches.
“It is, therefore, a moral duty for the man of science to expose
himself to the risk of committing error and to submit to criticism, in
order that science may continue to progress. A writer has attacked
the author for this very severely, saying, here is a scientific ideal
very limited and very paltry. But those who are endowed with a
mind sufficiently serious and impersonal as not to believe that all
that they write is the expression of truth absolute and eternal,
approve of this theory which places the aims of science well above
the miserable vanity and paltry ‘amour propre’ of the scientist.”—
Guglielmo Ferrero.
Les Lois Psychologiques du Symbolisme—1895. Preface, p. viii.
 PART I

INTRODUCTION

Any one who can read Freud’s “Interpretation of the Dream”

without scientific rebellion at the newness and apparently unjustified
daring of its analytical presentation, and without moral indignation
at the astonishing nudity of the dream interpretation, and who can
allow this unusual array of facts to influence his mind calmly and
without prejudice, will surely be deeply impressed at that place
where Freud calls to mind the fact that an individual psychologic
conflict, namely, the Incest Phantasy, is the essential root of that
powerful ancient dramatic material, the Oedipus legend. The
impression made by this simple reference may be likened to that
wholly peculiar feeling which arises in us if, for example, in the noise
and tumult of a modern street we should come across an ancient
relic—the Corinthian capital of a walled-in column, or a fragment of
inscription. Just a moment ago we were given over to the noisy
ephemeral life of the present, when something very far away and
strange appears to us, which turns our attention to things of another
order; a glimpse away from the incoherent multiplicity of the present
to a higher coherence in history. Very likely it would suddenly occur
to us that on this spot where we now run busily to and fro a similar
life and activity prevailed two thousand years ago in somewhat other
forms; similar passions moved mankind, and man was likewise
convinced of the uniqueness of his existence. I would liken the
impression which the first acquaintance with the monuments of
antiquity so easily leaves behind to that impression which Freud’s
reference to the Oedipus legend makes—for while we are still
engaged with the confusing impressions of the variability of the
Individual Soul, suddenly there is opened a revelation of the simple
greatness of the Oedipus tragedy—that never extinguished light of
the Grecian theatre.
This breadth of outlook carries in itself something of revelation.
For us, the ancient psychology has long since been buried among the
shadows of the past; in the schoolroom one could scarcely repress a
sceptical smile when one indiscreetly reckoned the comfortable
matronly age of Penelope and the age of Jocasta, and comically
compared the result of the reckoning with the tragic-erotic struggles
in the legend and drama. We did not know at that time (and who
knows even to-day?) that the mother can be the all-consuming
passion of the son, which perhaps undermines his whole life and
tragically destroys it, so that not even the magnitude of the Oedipus
Fate seems one jot overdrawn. Rare and pathologically understood
cases like Ninon de Lenclos and her son[4] lie too far removed from
most of us to give a living impression. But when we follow the paths
traced out by Freud, we arrive at a recognition of the present
existence of such possibilities, which, although they are too weak to
enforce incest, are still strong enough to cause disturbances of
considerable magnitude in the soul. The admission of such
possibilities to one’s self does not occur without a great burst of
moral revulsion. Resistances arise which only too easily dazzle the
intellect, and, through that, make knowledge of self impossible.
Whenever we succeed, however, in stripping feelings from more
scientific knowledge, then that abyss which separates our age from
the antique is bridged, and, with astonishment, we see that Oedipus
is still a living thing for us. The importance of such an impression
should not be undervalued. We are taught by this insight that there is
an identity of elementary human conflicts existing independent of
time and place. That which affected the Greeks with horror still
remains true, but it is true for us only when we give up a vain illusion
that we are different—that is to say, more moral, than the ancients.
We of the present day have nearly succeeded in forgetting that an
indissoluble common bond binds us to the people of antiquity. With
this truth a path is opened to the understanding of the ancient mind;
an understanding which so far has not existed, and, on one side,
leads to an inner sympathy, and, on the other side, to an intellectual
comprehension. Through buried strata of the individual soul we
come indirectly into possession of the living mind of the ancient
culture, and, just precisely through that, do we win that stable point
of view outside our own culture, from which, for the first time, an
objective understanding of their mechanisms would be possible. At
least that is the hope which we get from the rediscovery of the
Oedipus problem.
The enquiry made possible by Freud’s work has already resulted
fruitfully; we are indebted to this stimulation for some bold attacks
upon the territory of the history of the human mind. There are the
works of Riklin,[5] Abraham,[6] Rank,[7] Maeder,[8] Jones,[9]—recently
Silberer has joined their ranks with a beautiful investigation entitled
“Phantasie und Mythus.”[10] We are indebted to Pfister[11] for a
comprehensive work which cannot be overlooked here, and which is
of much importance for Christian religious psychology. The leading
purpose of these works is the unlocking of historical problems
through the application of psychoanalytic knowledge; that is to say,
knowledge drawn from the activity of the modern unconscious mind
concerning specific historical material.
I must refer the reader entirely to the specified works, in order that
he may gain information concerning the extent and the kind of
insight which has already been obtained. The explanations are in
many cases dubious in particulars; nevertheless, this detracts in no
way from the total result. It would be significant enough if only the
far-reaching analogy between the psychologic structure of the
historical relics and the structure of the recent individual psychologic
products alone were demonstrated. This proof is possible of
attainment for every intelligent person through the work done up to
this time. The analogy prevails especially in symbolism, as Riklin,
Rank, Maeder, and Abraham have pointed out with illuminating
examples; it is also shown in the individual mechanisms of
unconscious work, that is to say in repression, condensation, etc., as
Abraham explicitly shows.
Up to the present time the psychoanalytic investigator has turned
his interest chiefly to the analysis of the individual psychologic
problems. It seems to me, however, that in the present state of affairs
there is a more or less imperative demand for the psychoanalyst to
broaden the analysis of the individual problems by a comparative
study of historical material relating to them, just as Freud has
already done in a masterly manner in his book on “Leonardo da
Vinci.”[12] For, just as the psychoanalytic conceptions promote
understanding of the historic psychologic creations, so reversedly
historical materials can shed new light upon individual psychologic
problems. These and similar considerations have caused me to turn
my attention somewhat more to the historical, in the hope that, out
of this, new insight into the foundations of individual psychology
might be won.
 CHAPTER I
CONCERNING THE TWO KINDS OF
THINKING

It is a well-known fact that one of the principles of analytic

psychology is that the dream images are to be understood
symbolically; that is to say, that they are not to be taken literally just
as they are presented in sleep, but that behind them a hidden
meaning has to be surmised. It is this ancient idea of a dream
symbolism which has challenged not only criticism, but, in addition
to that, the strongest opposition. That dreams may be full of import,
and, therefore, something to be interpreted, is certainly neither a
strange nor an extraordinary idea. This has been familiar to mankind
for thousands of years, and, therefore, seems much like a banal truth.
The dream interpretations of the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
story of Joseph who interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, are known to
every one, and the dream book of Artemidorus is also familiar. From
countless inscribed monuments of all times and peoples we learn of
foreboding dreams, of significant, of prophetic and also of curative
dreams which the Deity sent to the sick, sleeping in the temple. We
know the dream of the mother of Augustus, who dreamt she was to
be with child by the Deity transformed into a snake. We will not heap
up references and examples to bear witness to the existence of a
belief in the symbolism of dreams. When an idea is so old, and is so
generally believed, it is probably true in some way, and, indeed, as is
mostly the case, is not literally true, but is true psychologically. In
this distinction lies the reason why the old fogies of science have
from time to time thrown away an inherited piece of ancient truth;
because it was not literal but psychologic truth. For such
discrimination this type of person has at no time had any
comprehension.
 From our experience, it is hardly conceivable that a God existing
outside of ourselves causes dreams, or that the dream, eo ipso,
foresees the future prophetically. When we translate this into the
psychologic, however, then the ancient theories sound much more
reconcilable, namely, the dream arises from a part of the mind
unknown to us, but none the less important, and is concerned with
the desires for the approaching day. This psychologic formula
derived from the ancient superstitious conception of dreams, is, so to
speak, exactly identified with the Freudian psychology, which
assumes a rising wish from the unconscious to be the source of the
dream.
As the old belief teaches, the Deity or the Demon speaks in
symbolic speech to the sleeper, and the dream interpreter has the
riddle to solve. In modern speech we say this means that the dream
is a series of images, which are apparently contradictory and
nonsensical, but arise in reality from psychologic material which
yields a clear meaning.
Were I to suppose among my readers a far-reaching ignorance of
dream analysis, then I should be obliged to illustrate this statement
with numerous examples. To-day, however, these things are quite
well known, so that one must proceed carefully with every-day dream
material, out of consideration for a public educated in these matters.
It is a special inconvenience that no dream can be recounted without
being obliged to add to it half a life’s history which affords the
individual foundations of the dream, but there are some few typical
dreams which can be told without too great a ballast. One of these is
the dream of the sexual assault, which is especially prevalent among
women. A girl sleeping after an evening happily spent in dancing,
dreams that a robber breaks open her door noisily and stabs through
her body with a lance. This theme, which explains itself, has
countless variations, some simple, some complicated. Instead of the
lance it is a sword, a dagger, a revolver, a gun, a cannon, a hydrant, a
watering pot; or the assault is a burglary, a pursuit, a robbery, or it is
some one hidden in the closet or under the bed. Or the danger may
be illustrated by wild animals; for instance, a horse which throws the
dreamer to the ground and kicks her in the body with his hind foot;
lions, tigers, elephants with threatening trunks, and finally snakes in
endless variety. Sometimes the snake creeps into the mouth,
sometimes it bites the breast like Cleopatra’s legendary asp,
sometimes it comes in the rôle of the paradisical snake, or in the
variations of Franz Stuck, whose pictures of snakes bear the
significant titles “Vice,” “Sin,” “Lust.” The mixture of lust and anxiety
is expressed incomparably in the very atmosphere of these pictures,
and far more brutally, indeed, than in Mörike’s charming poem.
The Maiden’s First Love Song

What’s in the net?

Behold,
But I am afraid,
Do I grasp a sweet eel,
Do I seize a snake?
Love is a blind
Fisherwoman;
Tell the child
Where to seize.
Already it leaps in my hands.

Oh, Pity, or delight!

With nestlings and turnings
It coils on my breast,
It bites me, oh, wonder!
Boldly through the skin,
It darts under my heart.
Oh, Love, I shudder!

What can I do, what can I begin?

That shuddering thing;
There it crackles within
And coils in a ring.
It must be poisoned.
Here it crawls around.
Blissfully I feel as it worms
Itself into my soul
And kills me finally.

All these things are simple, and need no explanation to be

intelligible. Somewhat more complicated, but still unmistakable, is
the dream of a woman; she sees the triumphal arch of Constantine. A
cannon stands before it, to the right of it a bird, to the left a man. A
shot flashes out of the tube; the projectile hits her; it goes into her
pocket, into her purse. There it remains, and she holds her purse as if
something very precious were in it. The image disappears, and she
continues to see only the stock of the cannon, and over that
Constantine’s motto, “In hoc signo vinces.”
These few references to the symbolic nature of dreams are perhaps
sufficient. For whomsoever the proof may appear insufficient, and it
is certainly insufficient for a beginner, further evidence may be found
in the fundamental work of Freud, and in the works of Stekel and
Rank which are fuller in certain particulars. We must assume here
that the dream symbolism is an established fact, in order to bring to
our study a mind suitably prepared for an appreciation of this work.
We would not be successful if we, on the contrary, were to be
astonished at the idea that an intellectual image can be projected into
our conscious psychic activity; an image which apparently obeys
such wholly other laws and purposes than those governing the
conscious psychic product.
Why are dreams symbolic? Every “why” in psychology is divided
into two separate questions: first, for what purpose are dreams
symbolic? We will answer this question only to abandon it at once.
Dreams are symbolic in order that they can not be understood; in
order that the wish, which is the source of the dream, may remain
unknown. The question why this is so and not otherwise, leads us out
into the far-reaching experiences and trains of thought of the
Freudian psychology.
Here the second question interests us, viz., How is it that dreams
are symbolic? That is to say, from where does this capacity for
symbolic representation come, of which we, in our conscious daily
life, can discover apparently no traces?
Let us examine this more closely. Can we really discover nothing
symbolic in our every-day thought? Let us follow our trains of
thought; let us take an example. We think of the war of 1870 and
1871. We think about a series of bloody battles, the siege of
Strassburg, Belfort, Paris, the Treaty of Peace, the foundation of the
German Empire, and so on. How have we been thinking? We start
with an idea, or super-idea, as it is also called, and without thinking
of it, but each time merely guided by a feeling of direction, we think
about individual reminiscences of the war. In this we can find
nothing symbolic, and our whole conscious thinking proceeds
according to this type.[13]
 If we observe our thinking very narrowly, and follow an intensive
train of thought, as, for example, the solution of a difficult problem,
then suddenly we notice that we are thinking in words, that in wholly
intensive thinking we begin to speak to ourselves, or that we
occasionally write down the problem, or make a drawing of it so as to
be absolutely clear. It must certainly have happened to any one who
has lived for some time in a foreign country, that after a certain
period he has begun to think in the language of the country. A very
intensive train of thinking works itself out more or less in word
form; that is, if one wants to express it, to teach it, or to convince any
one of it. Evidently it directs itself wholly to the outside world. To
this extent, this directed or logical thinking is a reality thinking,[14]
having a real existence for us; that is to say, a thinking which adjusts
itself to actual conditions,[15] where we, expressed in other words,
imitate the succession of objectively real things, so that the images in
our mind follow after each other in the same strictly causal
succession as the historical events outside of our mind.[16]
We call this thinking, thinking with directed attention. It has, in
addition, the peculiarity that one is tired by it, and that, on this
account, it is set into action only for a time. Our whole vital
accomplishment, which is so expensive, is adaptation to
environment; a part of it is the directed thinking, which, biologically
expressed, is nothing but a process of psychic assimilation, which, as
in every vital accomplishment, leaves behind a corresponding
exhaustion.
The material with which we think is language and speech concept,
a thing which has been used from time immemorial as something
external, a bridge for thought, and which has a single purpose—that
of communication. As long as we think directedly, we think for
others and speak to others.[17]
Speech is originally a system of emotional and imitative sounds—
sounds which express terror, fear, anger, love; and sounds which
imitate the noises of the elements, the rushing and gurgling of water,
the rolling of thunder, the tumults of the winds, the tones of the
animal world, and so on; and, finally, those which represent a
combination of the sounds of perception and of affective reaction.[18]
Likewise in the more or less modern languages, large quantities of