Introduction of Automobile or Vehicle:

An Automobile is a self propelled vehicle which contains the power source for its propulsion

and is used for carrying passengers and goods on the ground, such as car, bus, trucks, etc.,,

Types of Automobile:

The automobiles are classified by the following ways,

1. On the Basis of Load:

2. On the Basis of Wheels :

3. On the basis of Fuel Used:

4. On the basis of body style:

5. On the basis of Transmission:

 6. On the basis of Drive:

7. On the basis of Driving Axle

8. Position of Engine:

Vehicle construction and Components;

The main components of an automobile refer to the following components;

 An automobile is made up of mainly two units, these are Chassis and Body.

+ =
Frame :

The frame is the skeleton of the vehicle. It servers as a main foundation and base for

alignment for the chassis.

Types;
 Chassis;

If the frame contains the base components its called as chassis. The components are

like Engine, radiator, clutch, gearbox, silencer, road wheels, fuel tank, wirings, differential

units, etc..,

Body:

Components of an Engine;

Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly
complex machines. There are hundreds of components that have to perform their functions

satisfactorily to produce output power. There are two types of engines, viz., spark ignition

(S1) and compression-ignition (CI) engine. Let us now go through the important engine

components and the nomenclature associated with an engine.

Terms connected with i.c. engines;

Definition of

An engine is a device, which transforms one form of energy into another form. Normally,

most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are

called
Engine Components

The major components of the engine and their functions are briefly described below.

Cylinder Block:

The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The cylinder of a

multicylinder engine is cast as a single unit, called cylinder block. The cylinder head is mounted

on the cylinder block.

The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water- cooling

with cooling fins in the case of air-cooling. Cylinder head gasket is incorporated between the

cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinder head is held tight to the cylinder block by number

of bolts or studs. The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called

crankcase, which becomes a sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase.

The inner surface of the cylinder block, which is machined and finished accurately to cylindrical

shape, is called bore or face.

Cylinder

As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating

motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled
with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes. The cylinder is

supported in the cylinder block.

Piston

It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the

combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the

piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output

shaft.

Combustion Chamber

The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top during

the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the

consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the

cylinder.

Inlet Manifold

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air

or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.

Gudgeon Pin

It forms the link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.

Exhaust Manifold

The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which

the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.

Inlet and Exhaust Valves

Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder

head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve)

and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder.

Connecting Rod
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to the

crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end and the big end. Small end

is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankshaft by

crankpin.

Crankshaft

It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft. In

the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is pair of crank arms and balance weights. The

balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The

crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.

Piston Rings

Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the piston and the

cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases

Camshaft

The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The

associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the

drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.

Cams

These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the

valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.

Fly Wheel

The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine

fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform

torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called

the flywheel.

Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine:

Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine are listed below;

Cylinder Block:

Cylinder Block Basic frame of gasoline engine. Contains the cylinder.

Piston:

Piston A sliding plug that harnesses the force of the burning gases in the cylinder.

Piston Rings:

Piston rings seal the compression gases above the piston keep the oil below the piston rings.

Piston Pins:

Piston Pins Also known as the wrist pin, it connects the piston to the small end of the connecting

rod. It transfers the force and allows the rod to swing back and forth.

Connecting Rod:

Connecting Rod Connects the piston and piston pin to the crankshaft.

Crankshaft:
Crankshaft Along the the piston pin and connecting rod it converts the up and down motion

(reciprocating) of the engine to spinning (rotary) motion.

Flywheel:

Flywheel Carries the inertia when there is no power stroke.

Cylinder Head:

Cylinder Head Forms the top of the combustion chamber. Contains the valves, the passageways

for the fuel mixture to move in and out of the engine.

Intake and Exhaust Valves:

Intake and Exhaust Valves Doorway that lets the gases in and out of the engine.

Camshaft:

Camshaft Through the use of an eccentric the cam lobes push the valves open. The valve springs

close them.

Timing Gears:

Timing Gears These gears drive the camshaft from the crankshaft.

Variable Valve Timing

It is inherent to the operation of internal combustion engines to possess inlet and exhaust valves
(4-stroke) or ports (2-stroke) for proper functioning. The idea here is to entrap the incoming
fresh charge in a well-designed combustion chamber and then initiate ignition in order to
release and convert the stored fuel chemical energy into the thermal energy. Subsequent to this
release of energy, a mechanical system, such as piston-connecting-rod-crankshaft, is needed for
conversion of the thermal energy into the mechanical energy of the crankshaft. The incoming
fresh charge usually consists of fuel, air, and possibly exhaust gas recalculated (EGR) chemical
species. EGR is used for nitric oxide (NO X) emission control purposes. In this scenario, the
roles that valves, particularly the intake valves,
operation, optimum performance, and minimization of pollutants emission. In this tutorial,
these aspects are addressed in a concise manner.

Historically speaking, many different types of valves and valve actuation mechanisms have
been tried in the past. Most have disappeared to the point that at present time nearly all 4-stroke
engines use poppet valves opened by a cam and closed by a spring. A typical valve timing for a
4-stroke engine is shown in Fig. 1. At wide open throttle operation of an SI engine, the exhaust
gases rushing out of the exhaust valve can assist pulling fresh charge into the cylinder (moving
the intake manifold fresh charge even before the piston has moved appreciably), therefore
justifying opening of the intake valve (IVO) even before TDC, see Fig. 1. At part load
operation, however, situation is a bit more complex and the below-atmospheric pressure created
by the partially open throttle valve can become less than the chamber pressure at the time when
intake valve is opened. This causes backflow of burned gases from the cylinder into the intake
system during the valve overlap period. The overlap period is the time during which both intake
and exhaust valves are open (intake is being opened and exhaust being closed). Too early IVO
will also cause fresh charge to be lost out of the exhaust, for example, NASCAR engines.

At the closing, it is customary to delay the IVC beyond the BDC to take advantage of the
inertia of the fresh charge rushing into the engine, see Fig. 1. This will increase what is referred
to as the of the engine. The volumetric efficiency indicates the
breathing ability of the engine and is defined as the actual mass of the fresh air trapped in the
cylinder (after valves are closed) divided by the theoretical mass of air calculated based on the
piston displacement volume. The higher the volumetric efficiency, the higher the engine ability
to trap fresh air, providing opportunity for combustion of a more mass of fuel on account of a
more entrapped oxygen, thereby producing higher power for the same piston displacement.
Furthermore, the engine brake power rises and then falls off with speed for a number of
reasons: mainly the fall in volumetric efficiency, and the fall in mechanical efficiency. The
delayed closure of the intake valve for achieving higher volumetric efficiency usually works
best at higher engine speeds due to sufficiently high inertia of the incoming fresh charge. Note
that the IVO does also affect the volumetric efficiency through the magnitude of the backflow
into the intake system mentioned earlier.

In engines, even though attempts are made to thoroughly scavenge the chamber from burned
gases, there is always a certain amount of burned gases left to be mixed with the incoming fresh
charge. As far as the combustion (really, flame burning rate) is concerned, the amount of this
residual burned gases left from the previous cycle combustion is not desirable. The higher the
quantity of residual burned gases, the slower the flame mass burning rate. It is known that
increases in the valve overlap period will elevate the fraction of the residual gases in the
entrapped charge. Also, past research indicates that the amount of the residual gases correlates
inversely with the engine load (i.e. throttle valve position in SI engines), being maximum at
idle condition. This is the primary reason for engine stability problems at idle condition. It
should therefore be clear that the valve overlap period can affect engine stability and hence
efficiency. On the positive side, this residual gases is useful to lower the burned gases
temperature after combustion is complete, reducing the NOX emissions. Figure 2 shows effects
of the valve overlap period on emissions of NO X and hydrocarbon (HC) at two different engine
loads.

In summary, adjustments in valve timing (usually achieved by camshaft phasing) affect the raw
emissions, engine torque/power, and idle stability. However, researchers have shown benefits
in tailoring valve lift profile, primarily to achieve higher efficiency and power, although
emission benefits were also seen. Combination of adjustments in valve timing and changes in
valve lift are being used to influence both emission levels and engine efficiency and, hence,
fuel economy. Finally, potential of SI engine load control is being considered through variable
lift designs. Research has shown that improvements in fuel economy and emission can be
achieved through an optimized combination of variable valve timing and lift, see Fig. 3. To
conclude, the adjustment of the valve timing in spark-ignited (SI) engines is dictated by a set of
conflicting targets and goals. These goals cannot be achieved with fixed valve timing. Systems
that provide variable timing and lift have recently found widespread use in engine design.
Figure 1. Indicates positions of intake and exhaust valves openings and closures
with respect to the top-dead and bottom-dead centers, TDC and BDC
respectively. TDC and BDC indicate the uppermost and lowermost positions of
the piston top on the diagram. The angles shown are crankshaft angles. EVO and

EVC are exhaust valve opening and closures angles.

Figure 2. Effects of valve overlap on emission of pollutants at 2000 rpm and

two different engine loads. HC and NOX are hydrocarbon and nitric oxides
emissions.
 (a)
Fuel delivery system:
-electrically driven fuel pump draws fuel from tanks to distribute
-fuel and manifold pressure kept constant by pressure regulator

Air induction system:

-air flow meter generate voltage signal according to air flow
-cold start magnetic injection valve give good fuel atomisation and also provide extra
fuel during warm up condition

Fig. 1. Electronic fuel injection system- L-Jetronic with air flow meter

Electronic control unit (ECU):

-sensors for manifold pressure, engine speed and temperature at intake manifold
-sensor measures operating data from locations and transmitted electrically to ECU

Injection timing:
-injected twice for every revolution of crank shaft
-triggering of injectors

*Diesel injection system:

Requirements of diesel injection system:

-fuel must introduce precisely defined period of cycle
-amounts metered very accurately
-rate of injection meet desired heat release pattern
-quantities of fuel meet changing speed and load condition
-good atomisation of fuel
-good spray pattern for rapid mixing of fuel and air
-no dribbling and after injection of fuel i.e. sharp injection
-injection timing suits the speed and load requirements
-distribution of fuel in multi-cylinder should uniform
-weight, size and cost of fuel injection system should be less

Types of diesel injection system:

(a) Air injection system:

-fuel supplied through camshaft driven fuel pump
-fuel valve is also connected with high pressure airline to inject into cylinder
-multi-stage compressor which supply air at a pressure of about 60 to 70 bar

Fig. 2. Air injection system

-blast air sweeps the fuel along with it
-good atomization results in good mixture formation and hence high mean effective pressure
-heavy and viscous fuels are used
-fuel pump require small pressure
-but it is complicated due to compressor arrangement and expensive
-bulky engine and low bhp
-overheating and burning of valve seat

(b) Solid injection system:

-Fuel directly injected to combustion chamber without primary atomisation termed as solid
injection.
-Also known as airless mechanical injection
-2 units-pressurise and atomising unit
3 different types which are described below,

(i) Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system:

-separate metering and compression pump is used for each cylinder
-reciprocating fuel pump is used to meter and set the injection pressure of the fuel
-heavy gear arrangements which gives jerking noise, hence name is given is jerk pump
-jerk pump is used for medium and high speed diesel engines

Fig. 3. Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system

 Fig. 4. Unit injector

(ii) Common rail system:

-high pressure fuel pump delivers fuel to an accumulator whose pressure is constant
-plunger type of pump is used
-driving mechanism is not stressed with high pressure hence noise is reduced
-common rail or pipe is connected in between accumulator and distributing elements
-separate metering and timing elements connected to automatic injector
-self-governing type

Fig. 5. Common rail system

(iii) Distributor system:

-fuel pump pressurises, meters and times the fuel supply to rotating distributor
-number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump equals to the number of cylinder
-One metering element which ensure uniform distribution
 Fig. 6. Distributor system

* Fuel Injectors
3 main types of fuel injectors,
Blast injector:
-these are superseded by mechanically operated injectors used in air injection system
Mechanically operated injector:
-consist of a set of camshaft, cams and rocker gear and other cams for controlling the timing of the
fuel injection
Automatic injector:
-consists of spring loaded needle valve and operated hydraulically by the pressure of fuel
-quanity of fuel is metered by the fuel pump

Types of nozzles:
(a) Depends on the type of combustion chamber,
Open combustion chamber:
-fuel seeks air
-air swirl is created due to inclined induction port
-multi-hole nozzle injects fuel at a pressure of about 200 to 300 bar to slow moving air
-provide good cold starting performance and improved thermal efficiency

Pre-combustion chamber:
-air velocity is very much high
-single hole nozzle with 65 to 100 bar injection pressure is used
-used in high speed engine due to rapid combustion
-external heating device for easy starting of the engine

(b) Open and closed type of nozzle,

Open type:
-consists of fuel orifices and open to burner
-cheap and less efficient
ex- opposed piston two-stroke Junkers diesel engine
Closed type: pressure drop is minimised compared to open type

(c) Different types of nozzle for different combustion chamber

(i) Single hole nozzle:
-used in open combustion chamber
-size of hole larger than 0.2 mm
-very high injection pressure required

(ii) Multi-hole nozzle:

-no. of hole varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 1.5 to 0.35 mm
-injection rate is not uniform

(iii) Pintle nozzle:

-a projection or pintle is provided in the nozzle to avoid weak injection and dribbling
-pintle may be cylindrical or conical shape
-cone angle varied from 0 to
-provide good atomisation and reduced penetration
-fuel pressures are lower than single and multi-hole nozzle

(iv) Pintaux nozzle:

-injected fuel in upstream of air
-development of pintle nozzle with auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body
-reduced delay period and increased thermal efficiency

Turbocharger:

The turbo charger utilizes the wasted heat energy in the exhaust system, to run a compressor which

compresses the intake air. Compressed intake air has more density and hence more fuel can be

injected increasing the power of the engine. Turbo charging is an ideal way to increase the engine

power without increasing the engine size.

("spinning top"), is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an engine's efficiency and

power by forcing extra air into the combustion chamber. This improvement over a naturally

aspirated engine's output results because the turbine can force more air, and proportionately more fuel,

into the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.

Turbochargers were originally known as turbo superchargers when all forced induction devices were

classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term is usually applied to only

mechanically driven forced induction devices. The key difference between a turbocharger and a

conventional supercharger is that the latter is mechanically driven by the engine, often through a belt
exhaust gas. Compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more

efficient, but less responsive. Twin charger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a

turbocharger.

Turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines.

They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines. They have

also been found useful in automotive fuel cells.

Figure: Turbocharger

CATALYTIC CONVERTER

As indicated by the meaning of chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that causes or quickens a compound
response without itself being influenced. Catalysts take an interest in the responses, however are neither
reactants nor results of the response they catalyze. An exhaust system is a vehicle discharges control
gadget which changes over lethal by-results of burning in the fumes of an interior ignition motor to less
poisonous substances by method for catalyzed compound responses . It lessens temperature at which
CO and HC change over into CO2 and H2O. Big and large exhaust systems utilize platinum gathering
of respectable metals.
The contaminations have negative effect on air quality, environment and human wellbeing that leads in
stringent standards of poison outflow. Quantities of option innovations like change in motor plan, fuel
pretreatment, utilization of option energizes, fuel added substances, fumes treatment or better tuning of the
ignition procedure and so forth, are being considered to lower the release levels of the engine. Out of
various progressions available for auto vapor radiation control a fumes framework is found to best choice to
control CO, HC and NOx discharges from petrol driven vehicles while diesel particulate channel and
oxidation forces converter or diesel oxidation impulse have so far been the most potential other option to
control particulates outpourings from diesel driven vehicle [5]. An exhaust system (CC) is put inside
the tailpipe through which destructive fumes gasses containing unburnt fuel, CO, NOx are transmitted .

Three-way Catalytic Converter

Similar to the oxidation converter, the reduction catalytic converter helps to eliminate hydrocarbons
and carbon-monoxide emanations, in addition to oxides of nitrogen discharges, or NOx. NOx outflows are
created in the motor burning chamber when it reaches extremely high temperatures more than 2,500 degrees
Fahrenheit, approximately. In this type of converter, a reduction reaction also occurs in addition to two
oxidation reactions same as two-way converter. The reduction reaction occurs during the conversion of
oxides of nitrogen to nitrogen and oxygen. So this type of converter is also known as reduction type
catalytic converter.

Conversion Reactions in Three Way Catalytic Converter

CxH4x + 2xO2 xCO2 + 2xH2O (conversion of hydrocarbons)

2xCO + O2 2xCO2 (conversion of carbon mono-oxides)
2NOx N2 + xO2 [O2 + 2H2 2O] (Decomposition of oxides of nitrogen
Introduction to the Transmission Systems in Automobile:

It is a system by means of which power developed by the engine is transmitted to the road wheels to propel

the vehicle.

Chief function of the device is to receive power at one torque and angular velocity and to deliver it at

another torque and the corresponding angular velocity.

REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

1. To provide for disconnecting the engine from the driving wheels.

2. When the engine is running, to enable the connection to the driving wheels to be made smoothly and

without shock.

3. To enable the leverage between the engine and driving wheels to be varied.

4. It must reduce the drive-line speed from that of the engine to that of the driving wheels in a ratio of

somewhere between about 3:1 and 10:1 or more, according to the relative size of engine and weight of

vehicle.

5. Turn the drive, if necessary, through 90° or perhaps otherwise re-align it.

6. Enable the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds.

7. Provide for relative movement between the engine and driving wheels.

The most common transmission systems that have been used for the automotive industry are:
Manual Transmission:

The first transmission invented was the manual transmission system. The driver needs to disengage

the clutch to disconnect the power from the engine first, select the target gear, and engage the clutch

again to perform the gear change. This will challenge a new driver. It always takes time for a new

driver to get used to this skill.

Automatic Transmission:

An automatic transmission uses a fluid-coupling torque converter to replace the clutch to avoid

engaging/disengaging clutch during gear change. A completed gear set, called planetary gears, is used

to perform gear ratio change instead of selecting gear manually. A driver no longer needs to worry

about gear selection during driving. It makes driving a car much easier, especially for a disabled or

new driver. However, the indirect gear contact of the torque converter causes power loss during

power transmission, and the complicated planetary gear structure makes the transmission heavy and

easily broken.

Semi-Automatic Transmission:

A semi-automatic transmission tries to combine the advantages of the manual and automatic

transmission systems, but avoid their disadvantages. However, the complicated design of the semi-

automatic transmission is still under development, and the price is not cheap. It is only used for some

luxury or sports cars currently.

Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.):-

The Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.) is a transmission in which the ratio of the

rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can

be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The

other mechanical transmissions described above only allow a few different gear ratios to be selected,
but this type of transmission essentially has an infinite number of ratios available within a finite

range.

It provides even better fuel economy if the engine is constantly made run at a single speed. This

transmission is capable of a better user experience, without the rise and fall in speed of an engine, and

the jerk felt when changing gears.

MANUAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Manual transmissions also referred as stick shift transmission or just 'straight drive', or

standard transmission because you need to use the transmission stick every time you change the gears.

To perform the gear shift, the transmission system must first be disengaged from the engine. After the

target gear is selected, the transmission and engine are engaged with each other again to perform the

power transmission. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by

locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission.

Fig: The transmission system delivers the engine power to wheels.

 Fig: Layout of Automobile Power Transmission System

Components of manual transmission

The main components of manual transmission are:

Clutch

Gear box

Slip joint

Universal joint

Propeller shaft

Final drive

Differential unit

Rear axle

Clutch:

Clutch is a device which is used in the transmission system of automobile to engage and disengage the

engine to the transmission or gear box. It is located between the transmission and the engine. When

the clutch is engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels in a rear- wheel-drive

transmission and the vehicle moves. When the clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted from

the engine to the rear wheels and vehicle stops even if engine is running.
It works on the principle of friction. When two friction surfaces are brought in contact with each other

and they are united due to the friction between them. If one is revolved the other will also revolve.

The friction depends upon the surface area contact. The friction surfaces are so designed that the

driven member initially slips on driving member when initially pressure is applied. As pressure

increases the driven member is brought gradually to speed the driving member.

The three main parts of clutch are:

The driving member consists of a flywheel mounted on the engine crank shaft. The flywheel is bolted to

cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers. Thus the entire

assembly of flywheel and cover rotates all the times. The clutch housing and the cover provided with

openings dissipate the heat generated by friction during the clutch operation.

The driving member consists of a disc or plate called clutch plate. It is free to slide length wise on the

splines of the clutch shaft. It carries friction materials on both of its surfaces when it is gripped
between the flywheel and the pressure plate; it rotates the clutch shaft through splines.

The operating members consists of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out bearing, release levers

and springs necessary to ensure the proper operation of the clutch.

Now the driving member in an automobile is flywheel mounted on crank shaft, the driven member is

the pressure plate mounted on transmission or gear box input shaft. Friction surfaces or clutch plates

is placed between two members.

Types of Friction Materials:

The friction materials of the clutch plate are generally of 3 types:

Mill Board type friction materials mainly include asbestos material with different types of

impregnates.

Molded type friction materials are made from a matrix of asbestos fiber and starch or any other

suitable binding materials. They are then heated to a certain temperature for moulding in dies under

pressure. They are also made into sheets by rolling, pressing and backs till they are extremely hard

and dense. Metallic wires are used sometimes to increase wear properties.

Woven types facing materials are made by impregnating a cloth with certain binders or by weaving

threads of copper or brass wires covered with long fiber asbestos and cotton. The woven sheets treated

with binding solution are baked and rolled.

Table: Coefficients of Riction for Clutch Facing Materials

Sl. No. Material Coefficient of Material(µ)

1. Leather 0.27

2. Cork 0.37

3. Cotton fabric 0.4-0.5

Asbestos Base
4. 0.35-0.4
Materials

Properties of Good Clutching:

Operation of Clutch:
When the clutch pedal is pressed through pedal movement, the clutch release bearing presses on the

clutch release lever plate which being connected to clutch release levers, forces these levers forward.

This causes the pressure plate to compress pressure springs, thus allowing it to move away from the

clutch driven plate. This action releases the pressure on the driven plate and flywheel, the flywheel is

now free to turn independently, without turning the transmission.

When the clutch pedal is released, reverse action takes place i.e. the driven plate is again forced

against the flywheel by the pressure plate- because of the force exerted by pressure springs. The

pressure plate will keep on pressing the facings of driven plate until friction created becomes equal to

the resistance of the vehicle. Any further increase in pressure will cause the clutch plate and the

transmission shaft to turn along with flywheel, thus achieving vehicle movement.

Single Clutch Plate:

It is the most common type of clutch plate used in motor vehicles. Basically it consists of only one

clutch plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch plate. The flywheel is mounted on engine crankshaft

and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs, and is free to

slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged the clutch plate

is gripped between the flywheel and pressure plate. The friction linings are on both the sides of the

clutch plate. Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and the pressure plate the clutch

plate revolves the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves the clutch shaft also revolves. Clutch shaft is

connected to the transmission gear box. Thus the engine power is transmitted to the crankshaft and

then to the clutch shaft.

When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of the springs, and

the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Thus the flywheel remains

rotating as long as the engine is running and the clutch shaft speed reduces slowly and finally it stops

rotating. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be engaged, otherwise it remains

engaged due to the spring forces.

Multi-plate Clutch:

Multi-plate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates instead of only one clutch plate as in case of

single plate clutch. As The number of clutch plates are increased, the friction surfaces also increases.

The increased number of friction surfaces obliviously increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit

torque.

The plates are alternately fitted to engine and gear box shaft. They are firmly pressed by strong coil

springs and assembled in a drum. Each of the alternate plate slides on the grooves on the flywheel and

the other slides on splines on the pressure plate. Thus, each alternate plate has inner and outer splines.

The multi-plate clutch works in the same way as a single plate clutch by operating the clutch pedal.

The multi-plate clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars and motor cycles for

transmitting high torque. The multi-plate clutch may be dry or wet. When the clutch is operated in an

oil bath, it is called a wet clutch. When the clutch is operated dry it is called dry clutch. The wet

clutch is used in conjunction with or part of the automatic transmission.

Cone Clutch:

Cone clutch consists of friction surfaces in the form of cone. The engine shaft consists of female cone.

The male cone is mounted on the splined clutch shaft. It has friction surfaces on the conical portion.

The male cone can slide on the clutch shaft. Hen the clutch is engaged the friction surfaces of the

male cone are in contact with that of the female cone due to force of the spring. When the clutch pedal

is pressed, the male cone slides against the spring force and the clutch is disengaged.

The only advantage of the cone clutch is that the normal force acting on the friction surfaces is greater

than the axial force, as compare to the single plate clutch in which the normal force acting on the
friction surfaces is equal to the axial force. The disadvantage in cone clutch is that if the angle of the

cone is made smaller than 200 the male cone tends to bind in the female cone and it becomes difficult

to disengage the clutch. Cone clutches are generally now only used in low peripheral speed

applications although they were once common in automobiles and other combustion engine

transmissions. They are usually now confined to very specialist transmissions in racing, rallying, or in

extreme off-road vehicles, although they are common in power boats. Small cone clutches are used in

synchronizer mechanisms in manual transmissions.

Dog & Spline Clutch:

This type of clutch is used to lock two shafts together or to lock a gear to shaft. It consists of a sleeve

having two sets of internal splines. It slides on a splined shaft with smallest diameter splines. The

bigger diameter splines match with the external dog clutch teeth on driving shaft. When the sleeve is

made to slide on the splined shaft, its teeth match with the dog clutch teeth of the driving shaft. Thus

the sleeve turns the splined shaft with the driving shaft.

The clutch is said to be engaged. To disengage the clutch, the sleeve is moved back on the splined

shaft to have no contact with the driving shaft. This type of clutch has no tendency to slip. The driven

shaft revolves exactly at the same speed of the driving shaft, as soon as the clutch is engaged. This is

also known as positive clutch.

Centrifugal Clutch:

The centrifugal clutch uses centrifugal forces, instead of spring force for keeping it in engaged

position. Also, it does not require clutch pedal for operating the clutch. The clutch is operated

automatically depending on engine speed. The vehicle can be stopped in gear without stalling the

engine. Similarly the gear can be started in any gear by pressing the accelerator pedal.

A centrifugal clutch works through centrifugal force. The input of the clutch is connected to the

engine crankshaft while the output drives gear box shaft, chain, or belt. As engine

R.P.M. increases, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward and force the clutch to engage. The

most common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that engage the inside of the rim of

housing.

On the center shaft there are an assorted amount of extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe.

When the center shaft spins fast enough, the springs extend causing the clutch shoes to engage the

friction face. It can be compared to a drum brake in reverse. The weighted arms force these disks

together and engage the clutch.

When the engine reaches a certain RPM, the clutch activates, working almost like a

continuously variable transmission. As the load increases the R.P.M. drops thereby disengaging the

clutch and letting the rpm rise again and reengaging the clutch. If tuned properly, the clutch will tend

to keep the engine at or near the torque peak of the engine.

These results in a fair bit of waste heat, but over a broad range of speeds it is much more useful then a

direct drive in many applications. Weaker spring/heavier shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a

lower R.P.M. while a stronger spring/lighter shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a higher R.P.M.

Semi-centrifugal Clutch:-

A semi centrifugal clutch is used to transmit power from high powered engines and racing car engines

where clutch disengagements requires appreciable and tiresome drivers effort. The transmission of
power in such clutches is partly by clutch springs and rest by centrifugal action of an extra weight

provided in system. The clutch springs serve to transmit the torque up to normal speeds, while the

centrifugal force assists at speeds higher than normal.

Besides clutch, pressure plate and splines shaft it mainly consists of: Compression

spring (3 numbers)

Weighted levers (3 numbers)

At normal speeds when the power transmission is low the spring keeps the clutch engaged, the

weighted levers do not have any pressure on the pressure plate. At high speed, when the power

transmission is high the weights fly off and levers exert pressure on the plate which keeps the clutch

firmly engaged. Thus instead of having more stiff springs for keeping the clutch engaged firmly at

high speeds, they are less stiff, so that the driver may not get any strain in operating the clutch.

when the speed decreases, the weights fall and the levers do not exert any pressure on the pressure

plate. Only the spring pressure is exerted on the pressure plate which is sufficient to keep the clutch

engaged.
Electromagnetic Clutch:

An electromagnetic clutch is a clutch (a mechanism for transmitting rotation) that is engaged and

disengaged by an electromagnetic actuator. In this type of clutch, the flywheel consists of winding.

The current is supplied to the winding from battery or dynamo.

When the current passes through the winding it produces an electromagnetic field which attracts the

pressure plate, thereby engaging the clutch. When supply is cutoff, the clutch is disengaged. The gear

lever consists of a clutch release switch. When then the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear

the witch is operated cutting off the current to the winding which causes the clutch disengaged. At

low speeds when the dynamo output is low, the clutch is not firmly engaged.

Therefore three springs are also provided on the pressure plate which helps the clutch engaged firmly at low

speed also. Cycling is achieved by turning the voltage/current to the electromagnet on and off. Slippage

normally occurs only during acceleration. When the clutch is fully engaged, there is no relative slip,

assuming the clutch is sized properly, and thus torque transfer is 100% efficient.

The electromagnetic clutch is most suitable for remote operation since no linkages are required to

control its engagement. It has fast, smooth operation. However, because energy dissipates as heat in

the electromagnetic actuator every time the clutch is engaged, there is a risk of overheating.

Consequently the maximum operating temperature of the clutch is limited by the temperature rating of

the insulation of the electromagnet. This is a major limitation. Another disadvantage is higher initial

cost.
Gear Box;

A gearbox is a mechanical method of transferring energy from one device to another and is used to

increase torque while reducing speed. Torque is the power generated through the bending or twisting

of a solid material. This term is often used interchangeably with transmission.Located at the junction

point of a power shaft, the gearbox is often used to create a right angle change in direction, as is seen

in a rotary mower or a helicopter. Each unit is made with a specific purpose in mind, and the gear

ratio used is designed to provide the level of force required. This ratio is fixed and cannot be changed

once the box is constructed. The only possible modification after the fact is an adjustment that allows

the shaft speed to increase, along with a corresponding reduction in torque.In a situation where

multiple speeds are needed, a transmission with multiple gears can be used to increase torque while

slowing down the output speed. This design is commonly found in automobile transmissions. The

same principle can be used to create an overdrive gear that increases output speed while decreasing

torque.
Principle of Gearing

Consider a simple 4-gear train. It consists of a driving gear A on input shaft and a driven gear D on

the output shaft. In between the two gears there are two intermediate gears B, C. Each of these gears

are mounted on separate shaft.We notice that:

Gear A drives Gear B

Gear B drives Gear C

Gear C drives Gear D

Therefore, the over all speed ratios are:

Synchromesh

Sliding Mesh Gear Box

It is the simplest gear box. The following figure shows 4-speed gear box in neutral position. 4 gears

are connected to the lay shaft/counter shaft. A reverse idler gear is mounted on another shaft and
to select four different gear ratios and a reverse gear.

Gears in Neutral:

When the engine is running and clutch is engaged the clutch shaft gear drives the countershaft gear.

The countershaft rotates opposite in direction of the clutch shaft. In neutral position only the clutch

shaft gear is connected to the countershaft gear. Other gears are free and hence the transmission main

shaft is not turning. The vehicle is stationary.

First or low shaft gear:

By operating the gear shift lever the larger gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh

with the first gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in the same direction as that of the clutch

shaft. Since the smaller countershaft is engaged with larger shaft gear a gear reduction of

approximately 4:1 is obtained i.e. the clutch shaft turns 4 times for each revolution of main shaft.
Second speed gear:

By operating the gear shift lever the third gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh

with the third gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in same direction as clutch shaft. A gear

reduction of approximately 3:1is obtained.

Third speed gear:
By operating the gear shift lever, the second gear of the main shaft and countershaft are demeshed and

then the third gear of the main shaft are forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External Teeth on

the clutch shaft gear mesh with the internal teeth in the third and top gear. The main shaft turns in

same direction as clutch shaft. A gear reduction of approximately 2:1is obtained i.e. the clutch shaft

turns 2 times for each revolution of main shaft.

Fourth speed gear/ Top or High-Speed Gear:

By operating the gear shaft lever the third gears of the main and countershaft is demeshed and the gears present on the

main shaft along with the shaft is forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External teeth present on the main shaft

engage with the internal teeth present on the main shaft. The main shaft turns along with the clutch shaft and a gear

ratio of approximately 1:1 is obtained.

Reverse gear:

By operating the gear shift lever, the last gear present on the main shaft is engaged with the reverse

idler gear. The reverse idler gear is always in mesh with the counters haft gear. Interposing the idler

gear between the counter-shaft reverse gear and main shaft gear, the main shaft turns in the direction

opposite to the clutch shaft. This reverses the rotation of the wheels so that the wheel backs.
Constant Mesh Gear Box:

In this type of gear box, all gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears

of the countershaft (Lay shaft). Two dog clutches are provided on the main shaft- one between the

clutch gear and the second gear, and the other between the first gear and reverse gear. The main shaft

is splined and all the gears are free on it. Dog clutch can slide on the shaft and rotates with it. All the

gears on the countershaft are rigidly fixed with it.

When the left hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gear shift lever, it meshes

with the clutch gear and the top speed gear is obtained. When the left hand dog clutch meshes with the

second gear, the second speed gear is obtained. Similarly by sliding the right hand dog clutch to the

left and right, the first speed gear and reverse gear are obtained respectively. In this gear box because
all the gears are in constant mesh they are safe from being damaged and an unpleasant grinding sound

does not occur while engaging and disengaging them.

Syncromesh Gear Box:

In sliding Mesh Gear box the two meshing gears need to be revolve at equal peripheral speeds to

achieve a jerk less engagement and it is true for constant mesh gear box in which the peripheral

speeds of sliding dog and the corresponding gear on the output shaft must be equal. The peripheral

speed is given byWhere d1 and N1 are pitch circle diameter and r.p.m. of gear and d2 andN2 diameter

and r.p.m. of attached dog respectively. Now N1 a difference in

gear and dog which necessitates double declutching. The driver has to disengage the clutch twice in

quick succession therefore it is referred as double declutching. There are two steps involved in this

process:

The clutch is disengaged i.e. first declutching and the gear system is placed in its neutral position.

Now the clutch is reengaged and acceleration pedal is pressed to adjust the engine speed according to

engaged and then the clutch is reengaged

It is that gear box in which sliding synchronizing units are provided in place of sliding dog clutches as

in case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronizing unit, the speed of both the driving

and driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched together through train of gears. The

arrangement of power flow for the various gears remains the same as in constant mesh gear box. The

synchronizer is made of frictional materials. When the collar tries to mesh with the gear, the

synchronizer will touch the gear first and use friction force to drive the gear to spin at the same speed

as the collar. This will ensure that the collar is meshed into the gear very smoothly without

grinding.Synchromesh gear devices work on the principle that two gears to be engaged are first

bought into frictional contact which equalizes their speed after which they are engaged readily and

smoothly.

The following types of devices are mostly used in vehicles:

A synchronizing system is used for smooth meshing. Synchromesh works like a friction clutch. In the

following figure two conical surfaces cone-1 is the part of the collar and the cone-2 is the part of the

gear wheel. Cone1, 2 are revolving at different speeds. While cone-2 is revolving, cone-1 gradually

slides into it. Friction slows or speeds up the gear wheel. Finally both the cones revolve at same

speed.

In the following Fig collar and gear wheel are separate and they are revolving at different speeds. The

internal cone comes in contact with the outer cone of the gear wheel. Friction slows or speeds up the gear

wheel

And when the collar and gear wheel rotate at same speed the spring loaded outer ring of the collar is

pushed forward. The dog slide smoothly into mesh without clashing. The collar and gear wheel lock

and revolve at same speed. This the principle of synchromesh.

U- Joint:

A universal joint, U-joint, Cardan joint, Hardy-Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint is a linkage that transmits

rotation between two non parallel shafts whose axes are coplanar but not coinciding., and is

commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It is used in automobiles where it is used to

transmit power from the gear box of the engine to the rear axle. The driving shaft rotates at a uniform

angular speed, where as the driven shaft rotates at a continuously varying angular speed.

A complete revolution of either shaft will cause the other to rotate through a complete revolution at

the same time. Each shaft has fork at its end. The four ends of the two fork are connected by a centre

piece, the arms of which rest in bearings, provided in fork ends. The centre piece can be of any shape

of a cross, square or sphere having four pins or arms. The four arms are at right angle to each other.

When the two shafts are at an angle other than 180° (straight), the driven shaft does not rotate with

constant angular speed in relation to the drive shaft; the more the angle goes toward 90° the jerkier the

average speed of the driven shaft remains the same as that of driving shaft, and so speed ratio of the

driven to the driving shaft on average is 1:1 over multiple rotations.

The angular the driven shaft, as a function of the angular speed of the driving shaft the

angle of the driving shaft is found using:

= / (1-

For a given and set angle between the two shafts it can be seen that there is a cyclical variation in the input

to output velocity ratio. Maximum values occur when sin = 1, i.e. when = 900 and 2700. The

denominator is greatest when = 0or 1800 and this condition gives the minimum ratio of the velocities
Components of Joint

Slip Joint in the Propeller Shaft;

Hook Joint in the Propeller Shaft;

The Drive Shaft

The drive shaft, or propeller shaft, connects the transmission output shaft to the differential pinion

shaft. Since all roads are not perfectly smooth, and the transmission is fixed, the drive shaft has to be

flexible to absorb the shock of bumps in the road. Universal, or "U-joints" allow the drive shaft to flex

(and stop it from breaking) when the drive angle changes.

Drive shafts are usually hollow in order to weigh less, but of a large diameter so that they are strong.

High quality steel, and sometimes aluminum are used in the manufacture of the drive shaft. The shaft

must be quite straight and balanced to avoid vibrating. Since it usually turns at engine speeds, a lot of

damage can be caused if the shaft is unbalanced, or bent. Damage can also be caused if the U-joints

are worn out.

There are two types of drive shafts, the Hotchkiss drive and the Torque Tube Drive. The Hotchkiss

drive is made up of a drive shaft connected to the transmission output shaft and the differential pinion

gear shaft. U-joints are used in the front and rear. The Hotchkiss drive transfers the torque of the

output shaft to the differential. No wheel drive thrust is sent to the drive shaft. Sometimes this drive

comes in two pieces to reduce vibration and make it easier to install (in this case, three U-joints are

needed).The two-piece types need ball bearings in a dustproof housing as center support for the shafts.

Rubber is added into this arrangement for noise and vibration reduction.

The torque tube drive shaft is used if the drive shaft has to carry the wheel drive thrust. It is a hollow
steel tube that extends from the transmission to the rear axle housing. One end is fastened to the axle

housing by bolts. The transmission end is fastened with a torque ball. The drive shaft fits into the

torque tube. A U-joint is located in the torque ball, and the axle housing end is splined to the pinion

gear shaft. Drive thrust is sent through the torque tube to the torque ball, to transmission, to engine

and finally, to the frame through the engine mounts. That is, the car is pushed forward by the torque

tube pressing on the engine.

Differential Unit:

Differentials are a variety of gearbox, almost always used in one of two ways. In one of these, it

receives one input and provides two outputs; this is found in every automobile. In

automobile and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows each of the driving wheels to rotate at

different speeds, while supplying equal torque to each of them. In the other, less commonly

encountered, it combines two inputs to create an output that is the sum (or difference) of the inputs. In

automotive applications, the differential and its housing are sometimes collectively called a

"pumpkin" (because the housing resembles a pumpkin).

Purpose:-

The differential gear box has following functions:

The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear- or front-wheel-drive car or

truck:

Power is supplied from the engine, via the transmission or gearbox, to a drive shaft termed as

propeller shaft, which runs to the differential. A spiral bevel pinion gear at the end of the propeller

shaft is encased within the differential itself, and it meshes with the large spiral bevel ring gear termed

as crown wheel. The ring and pinion may mesh in hypoid orientation.

The ring gear is attached to a carrier, which holds what is sometimes called a spider, a cluster of four

bevel gears in a rectangle, so each bevel gear meshes with two neighbors and rotates counter to the

third that it faces and does not mesh with. Two of these spider gears are aligned on the same axis as

the ring gear and drive the half shafts connected to the vehicle's driven wheels.

These are called the side gears. The other two spider gears are aligned on a perpendicular axis which

changes orientation with the ring gear's rotation. These two gears are just called pinion gears, not to

be confused with the main pinion gear. (Other spider designs employ different numbers of pinion

gears depending on durability requirements.)

As the carrier rotates, the changing axis orientation of the pinion gears imparts the motion of the ring
gear to the motion of the side gears by pushing on them rather than turning against them (that is, the

same teeth stay in contact), but because the spider gears are not restricted from turning against each

other, within that motion the side gears can counter-rotate relative to the ring gear and to each other

under the same force (in which case the same teeth do not stay in contact).

Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full

rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has further to travel,

and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The side gears will

rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to

each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.

The rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the side gears. This is why if the

wheels are lifted off the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (preventing the ring

gear from turning inside the differential), manually rotating one wheel causes the other to rotate in the

opposite direction by the same amount.

When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential movement of the planetary

system of gears other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight
differences in wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel

path), etc.

Automatic Transmission:

An automatic transmission (commonly "AT" or "Auto") is an automobile gearbox that can change

gear ratios automatically as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually.

Automatic Transmission Modes:

In order to select the mode, the driver would have to move a gear shift lever located on the steering

column or on the floor next to him/her. In order to select gears/modes the driver must push a button in

(called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. In some

vehicles position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central

console. Vehicles conforming to U.S. Government standards must have the modes ordered P- R-N-D-

L (left to right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Prior to this, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions

often utilized a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries

owing to un-intentional gear miss-selection, as well the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump

into Reverse from Low gear during engine braking maneuvers.

Automatic Transmissions have various modes depending on the model and make of the transmission.

Some of the common modes are:

Park Mode (P):-

This selection mechanically locks the transmission, restricting the car from moving in any direction.

A parking pawl prevents the transmission and therefore the vehicle from moving, although the

vehicle's non-drive wheels may still spin freely. For this reason, it is recommended to use the hand

brake (or parking brake) because this actually locks the (in most cases, rear) wheels and prevents them

from moving. This also increases the life of the transmission and the park pin mechanism, because

parking on an incline with the transmission in park without the parking brake engaged will cause

undue stress on the parking pin. An efficiently-adjusted hand brake should also prevent the car from
moving if a worn selector accidentally drops into reverse gear during early morning fast-idle engine

warm ups.

Reverse (R):-

This puts the car into the reverse gear, giving the ability for the car to drive backwards. In order for

the driver to select reverse they must come to a complete stop, push the shift lock button in (or pull

the shift lever forward in the case of a column shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a complete

stop can cause severe damage to the transmission. Many modern automatic gearboxes have a safety

mechanism in place, which does to some extent prevent (but doesn't completely avoid) inadvertently

putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving.

This mechanism usually consists of a solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either side of the

Reverse position, which is electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal. Therefore, the brake

pedal needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions

prevent or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is moving.

Neutral/No gear (N):-

This disconnects the transmission from the wheels so the car can move freely under its own weight.

This is the only other selection in which the car can be started.

Drive (D):-

This allows the car to move forward and accelerate through its range of gears. The number of gears a

transmission has depends on the model, but they can commonly range from 3, 4 (the most common),

5, 6 (found in VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox), 7 (found in Mercedes 7G gearboxes, BMW M5 and

VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox) and 8 in the newer models of Lexus cars. Some cars when put into D

will automatically lock the doors or turn on the Daytime Running Lamps.

Overdrive ([D], Od, Or A Boxed D):-

This mode is used in some transmissions to allow early Computer Controlled Transmissions to engage
the Automatic Overdrive. In these transmissions, Drive (D) locks the Automatic Overdrive off, but is

identical otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged under steady speeds or low acceleration

at approximately 35-45 mph (approx. 72 km/h). Under hard acceleration or below 35-45 mph, the

transmission will automatically downshift. Vehicles with this option should be driven in this mode

unless circumstances require a lower gear.

Second (2 or S):-

This mode limits the transmission to the first two gears, or more commonly locks the transmission in

second gear. This can be used to drive in adverse conditions such as snow and ice, as well as climbing

or going down hills in the winter time. Some vehicles will automatically up-shift out of second gear in

this mode if a certain rpm range is reached, to prevent engine damage.

First (1 or L):-

This mode locks the transmission in first gear only. It will not accelerate through any gear range. This,

like second, can be used during the winter season, or for towing.

As well as the above modes there are also other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and model.

Some examples include:

D5:- In Hondas and Acuras equipped with 5-speed automatic transmissions, this mode is used

commonly for highway use (as stated in the manual), and uses all five forward gears.

D4:- This mode is also found in Honda and Acura 4 or 5-speed automatics and only uses the first 4

gears. According to the manual, it is used for "stop and go traffic", such as city driving.

D3:- This mode is found in Honda and Acura 4-speed automatics and only uses the first 3 gears.

According to the manual, it is used for stop & go traffic, such as city driving. This mode is also found

in Honda and Acura 5-speed automatics.

This is the manual selection of gears for automatics, such as Porsche's Tiptronic. This feature can also

be found in Chrysler and General Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum and Pontiac G6. The

driver can shift up and down at will, by toggling the shift lever (console mounted) like a semi-
automatic transmission. This mode may be engaged either through a selector/position or by actually

changing gear (e.g. tipping the gear-down paddles mounted near the driver's fingers on the steering

wheel).

The predominant form of automatic transmission is hydraulically operated, using a fluid coupling/

torque converter and a set of planetary gear-sets to provide a range of torque multiplication.

Parts and Operation:-

A hydraulic automatic transmission consists of the following parts:

Torque Converter/Fluid Coupling: -Unlike a manual transmission system, automatic transmission

does not use a clutch to disconnect power from the engine temporarily when shifting gears. Instead, a

device called a torque converter was invented to prevent power from being temporarily disconnected

from the engine and also to pre-vent the vehicle from stalling when the transmission is in gear.
A fluid coupling/torque converter consists of a sealed chamber containing two toroidal- shaped, vaned

components, the pump and turbine, immersed in fluid (usually oil). The pump or driving torus (the

latter a General Motors automotive term) is rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an internal

combustion engine or electric motor. The pump's motion imparts a relatively complex centripetal

motion to the fluid. Simplified, this is a centrifugal force that throws the oil outwards against the

coupling's housing, whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the turbine or driven torus (the

latter also a General Motors term).

Here, Corolis force reaction transfers the angular fluid momentum outward and across, applying

torque to the turbine, thus causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump. The fluid leaving the

center of the turbine returns to the pump, where the cycle endlessly repeats. The pump typically is

connected to the flywheel of the engine in fact, the coupling's enclosure may be part of the flywheel

proper, and thus is turned by the engine's crankshaft. The turbine is connected to the input shaft of the

transmission. As engine speed increases while the transmission is in gear, torque is transferred from

the engine to the input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle. In this regard, the

behavior of the fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual

transmission.

A torque converter differs from a fluid coupling in that it provides a variable amount of torque

multiplication at low engine speeds, increasing "breakaway" acceleration. This is accomplished with a

third member in the "coupling assembly" known as the stator, and by altering the shapes of the vanes

inside the coupling in such a way as to curve the fluid's path into the stator. The stator captures the

kinetic energy of the transmission fluid in effect using the left-over force of it to enhance torque

multiplication.
Tiptronic transmission is a special type of automatic transmission with a computer controlled

automatic shift. The driver can switch the transmission to manual mode, which lets her shift the gear

at her wish sequentially up (+) or down (-) without disengaging the clutch. This works just like a

manual transmission; however, it still uses a torque converter to transfer power from the engine.

Unfortunately, this is less efficient than a manual transmission.

Planetary Gear-Set: - The automatic system for current automobiles uses a planetary gear set instead

of the traditional manual transmission gear set. The planetary gear set contains four parts: sun gear,

planet gears, planet carrier, and ring gear. Based on this planetary set design, sun gear, planet carrier,

and ring gear spin centrifugally. By locking one of them, the planetary set can generate three different

gear ratios, including one reverse gear, without engaging and disengaging the gear set. The gear set is

actuated by hydraulic servos controlled by the valve body, providing two or more gear ratios.

Clutch Packs And Bands: - A clutch pack consists of alternating disks that fit inside a clutch drum.

Half of the disks are steel and have splines that fit into groves on the inside of the drum.
`The other half have a friction material bonded to their surface and have splines on the inside edge

that fit groves on the outer surface of the adjoining hub. There is a piston inside the drum that is

activated by oil pressure at the appropriate time to squeeze the clutch pack together so that the two

components become locked and turn as one.

A band is a steel strap with friction material bonded to the inside surface. One end of the band is

anchored against the transmission case while the other end is connected to a servo. At the appropriate

time hydraulic oil is sent to the servo under pressure to tighten the band around the drum to stop the

drum from turning.

The bands come into play for manually selected gears, such as low range or reverse, and operate on

the planetary drum's circumference. Bands are not applied when drive/overdrive range is selected, the

torque being transmitted by the sprag clutches instead.

The sun gear is connected to a drum, which can be locked by a band. The ring gear is directly

connected to the input shaft, which transfers power from the engine. The planet carrier is connected to

the output shaft, which transfers power into the wheels.

Based on this design, when in neutral, both band and clutch sets are released. Turning the ring gear

can only drive planet gears but not the planet carrier, which stays static if the car is not moving. The

planet gears drive the sun gear to spin freely. In this situation, the input shaft is not able to transfer

power to the output shaft. When shifting to 1st gear, the band locks the sun gear by locking the drum.
The ring gear drives the planet carrier to spin. In this situation, the ring gear (input shaft) spins faster

than the planet carrier (output shaft).

To shift to higher gear, the band is released and the clutch is engaged to force the sun gear and planet

carrier (output shaft) to spin at the same speed. The input shaft will also spin at the same speed as the

output shaft, which makes the car run faster than in 1st gear. Using a compound planetary gear set

generates more gear ratios with a special gear ratio, over-drive gear whose gear ratio is small than 1.

This will make the gear shift smoother. Both the band and clutch piston are pressurized by the

hydraulic system. The part connecting the band or clutches to the hydraulic system is called the shift

valve, while the one connecting the hydraulic system to the output shaft is called the governor.

The governor is a centrifugal sensor with a spring loaded valve. The faster the governor spins, the

more the valve opens. The more the valve opens, the more the fluid goes through and the higher the

pressure applied on the shift valve. Therefore, each band and clutch can be pushed to lock the gear

based on a specific spin speed detected by the governor from the output shaft. To make the hydraulic

system work efficiently, a complex maze of passages was designed to replace a large number of tubes.

For modern cars, an electronic con-trolled (computer controlled) solenoid pack is used to detect

throttle position, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, brake pedal position, etc., and to

automatically choose the best gear for a moving vehicle.

Principally, a type of device known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for routine upshifts/downshifts.

Operating much as a ratchet, it transmits torque only in one direction, freewheeling or "overrunning"

in the other. The advantage of this type of clutch is that it eliminates the sensitivity of timing a

simultaneous clutch release/apply on two planetaries, simply "taking up" the drivetrain load when

actuated,and releasing automatically when the next gear's sprag clutch assumesthe torq
Valve Body: - Hydraulic control center that receives pressurized fluid from a main pump operated by

the fluid coupling/torque converter. The pressure coming from this pump is regulated and used to run

a network of spring-loaded valves, check balls and servo pistons.

The valves use the pump pressure and the pressure from a centrifugal governor on the output side (as

well as hydraulic signals from the range selector valves and the throttle valve or modulator) to control

which ratio is selected on the gearset; as the car and engine change speed, the difference between the

pressures changes, causing different sets of valves to open and close.

Each of the many valves in the valve body has a specific purpose and is named for that function. For

example the 2-3 shift valves activate the 2nd gear to 3rd gear up-shift or the 3-2 shift timing valve

which determines when a downshift should occur.

The hydraulic pressure controlled by these valves drives the various clutch and brake band actuators,

thereby controlling the operation of the planetary gearset to select the optimum gear ratio for the
current operating conditions. However, in many modern automatic transmissions, the valves are

controlled by electro-mechanical servos which are controlled by the Engine Management System or a

separate transmission controller.

The most important valve and the one that you have direct control over is the manual valve. The

manual valve is directly connected to the gear shift handle and covers and uncovers various passages

depending on what position the gear shift is placed in. When you place the gear shift in Drive, for

instance, the manual valve directs fluid to the clutch pack(s) that activates 1st gear.

It also sets up to monitor vehicle speed and throttle position so that it can determine the optimal time

and the force for the 1 - 2 shifts. On computer controlled transmissions, you will also have electrical

solenoids that are mounted in the valve body to direct fluid to the appropriate clutch packs or bands

under computer control to more precisely control shift points.

Hydraulic & Lubricating Oil: - A component called Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) which is

part of the transmission mechanism provides lubrication, corrosion prevention, and a hydraulic

medium to convey mechanical power.

Primarily it is made of refined petroleum and processed to provide properties that promote smooth

power transmission and increase service life. ATF is one of the parts of the automatic transmission

that needs routine service as the vehicle ages.

Semi Automatic Transmission

A semi-automatic transmission (also known as clutch less manual transmission, automated manual

transmission, e-gear, shift-tronic, flappy paddle gearbox, or paddle shift gearbox) is a system which

uses electronic sensors, processors and actuators to do gear shifts on the command of the driver. This

removes the need for a clutch pedal which the driver otherwise needs to depress before making a gear

change, since the clutch itself is actuated by electronic equipment which can synchronize the timing

and torque required to make gear shifts quick and smooth.

The system was designed by European automobile manufacturers to provide a better driving
experience, especially in cities where congestion frequently causes stop-and-go traffic patterns. Like a

tiptronic transmission, a semi-automatic transmission can also be switched to manual mode to

perform gear shifting at the drivers wish.

The two most common semi-automatic transmissions

Direct shift transmission: In direct shift transmission direct shift gear box is used. The Direct-Shift

Gearbox or D.S.G. is an electronically controlled, twin-shaft dual-clutch manual gearbox, without a

conventional clutch pedal, with full automatic or semi-manual control.

Unlike the conventional manual transmission system, there are two different gear/collar sets, with

each connected to two different input/output shafts. The outer clutch pack drives gears 1, 3, 5 and

reverse. It is just like two conventional manual transmission gear boxes in one. The inner clutch pack

drives gears 2, 4, and 6. Instead of a standard large dry single-plate clutch, each clutch pack is a

collection of four small wet interleaved clutch plates.

Due to space constraints, the two clutch assemblies are concentric. To automatically shift from 1st

gear to 2nd gear, first the computer detects that the spinning speed of the input shaft is too high, and

compared with a conventional manual transmission.

Using direct contact of the clutch instead of fluid coupling also improves power transmission

efficiency. Another advanced technology used for direct shift trans-mission allows it to perform

the input shaft,

and then shifting to the next gear. This makes gear shifting very smooth.
Operation Modes Of D.S.G.:-"D" mode:

When the motor vehicle is stationary, in neutral, both clutch packs are fully disengaged. When the

driver has selected D for drive (after pressing the foot brake pedal), the transmission's first gear is

selected on the first shaft, and the clutch prepares to engage. At the same time, the second gear is also

selected, but the clutch pack for second gear remains fully disengaged. When the driver releases the

brake pedal, the clutch pack for the first gear takes up the drive, and the vehicle moves forward.

Pressing the accelerator pedal increases forward speed. As the car accelerates, the transmission's

computer determines when the second gear (which is connected to the second clutch) should be fully

utilized.

Depending on the vehicle speed and amount of power being requested by the driver (full throttle or

part-throttle normal driving), the D.S.G. then up-shifts. During this sequence, the DSG disengages the

first clutch while engaging the second clutch (all power from the engine is now going through the

second shaft), thus completing the shift sequence. This sequence happens in 8 ms, and there is

practically no power loss.

Once the vehicle has shifted up to second gear, the first gear is immediately de-selected, and third

gear (being on the same shaft as 1st and 5th) is pre-selected, and is pending. Once the time comes to

shift, the second clutch disengages and the first clutch re-engages. This method of operation continues

in the same manner up to 6th gear.Downshifting is similar to up-shifting but in reverse order. The

car's computer senses the car slowing down or more power required, and thus lines up a lower gear on

one of the shafts not in use, and then completes the downshift.

The actual shift timings are determined by the D.S.G.'s Electronic Control Unit, or E.C.U., which

commands a hydro-mechanical unit, and the two units combined are called a "mechatronics" unit.

Because the D.S.G. & E.C.U. uses "fuzzy logic", the operation of the DSG is said to be "adaptive";

i.e. the DSG will "learn" how the user drives the car, and will tailor the shift points accordingly.
In the vehicle instrument display, between the speedometer and tachometer, the available shift

positions are shown, the current position of the shift lever is highlighted, and the current gear ratio is

also displayed as a number. Under "normal", progressive acceleration and deceleration, the DSG

shifts in a "sequential" mode, i.e. under acceleration: 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5 > 6, and the same sequence

reversed for deceleration. However, if the car is being driven at sedate speeds, with a light throttle

opening, and the accelerator pedal is then pressed fully to the floor, this activates the "kick- down"

function. During kick-down, the DSG can skip gears, going from 6th gear straight down to 3rd gear.

"S" mode:

The floor selector lever also has an S position. When S is selected, "sport" mode is activated in the

DSG. Sport mode still functions as a fully automatic mode, identical in operation to "D" mode, but

up-shifts and down-shifts are made much higher up the engine rev-range. This aids a sportier driving

manner, by utilizing considerably more of the available engine power, and also maximizing engine

braking. However, this mode does have a worsening effect on the vehicle fuel consumption, when

compared to D mode. S is also highlighted in the instrument display, and like D mode, the currently

used gear ratio is displayed as a number.

Manual (Tiptronic) Mode:

Additionally, the floor shift lever also has another plane of operation, for manual or tiptronic mode,

with spring-loaded "+" and " from the

driver (in vehicles with the drivers seat on the right, the lever is pushed to the left, and in left-hand

drive cars, the stick is pushed to the right) when in "D" mode only. When this plane is selected, the

D.S.G. can now be controlled like a manual gearbox, even though under a sequential shift pattern.

The readout in the instrument display changes to 6 -5- 4- 3- 2- 1, and just like the automatic modes,

the currently used gear ratio is highlighted. To change up a gear, the lever is pushed forwards (against

a spring pressure) towards the "+", and to change down, the lever is pulled rearwards towards the "

The DSG box can now be operated with the gear changes being (primarily) determined by the driver. This method of

operation is commonly called "tiptronic". When accelerating in Manual/tiptronic mode, the D.S.G. will still
automatically change up just before the red-line and when decelerating, it will change down automatically at very low

revs, just before the engine idle speed (tick over). Furthermore, if the driver calls for a gear when it is not appropriate

(i.e., engine speed near the red-line, and a down change is requested) the D.S.G. will delay the change until the engine

revs are at an appropriate level to cope with the requested gear.

Paddle Shifters:

-powered cars paddle shifters are available. The paddle shifters have two

distinct advantages: the driver can safely keep both hands on the steering wheel when using the

Manual/tiptronic mode; and the driver can immediately manually override either of the automatic

programs (D or S) on a temporary basis, and gain instant manual control of the D.S.G. box.

If the manual override of one of the automatic programs (D or S) is utilized intermittently, the

gearbox will "default" back to the previously selected automatic mode after a predetermined duration

of inactivity of the paddles, or when the car becomes stationary. Alternatively, should the driver wish

to revert immediately to automatic control, this can be done by holding the "+" paddle for at least two

seconds.

Electro Hydraulic Manual Transmission:

In electro-hydraulic manual transmission (also known as sequential transmission) the gear set is

almost the same as the conventional transmission system, except that the shifting of the se-lector is

and each has a ball sliding in it. Each fork hooks up to a ball and can be moved forward and backward

when the drum is turning. Based on the pattern of the grooves on the drum, by turning the drum, each

fork can move forward and backward in turn, which makes gear selection sequential. Therefore, it is

impossible for an electro-hydraulic manual transmission to perform a gear shift from 1st to 3rd or 4th

to 2nd. The shifting must be sequential, like 1st 2nd 3rd or

Hotchkiss drive;

The Hotchkiss drive is a system of power transmission. It was the dominant form of power

transmission for front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout cars in the 20th century. The name comes from

the French automobile firm of Hotchkiss, although it is clear that other makers (such as

Peerless) used similar systems before Hotchkiss.

During the early part of the 20th century the two major competing systems of power transmission

were the shaft-drive and chain-drive configurations. The Hotchkiss drive is a shaft- drive system

(another type of direct-drive transmission system is the torque tube, which was also popular until the

1950s).

All shaft-drive systems consist of a driveshaft (also called a "propeller shaft" or Cardan

shaft) extending from the transmission in front to the differential in the rear. The differentiating

characteristic of the Hotchkiss drive is the fact that it uses universal joints at both ends of

the driveshaft, which is not enclosed. The use of two universal joints, properly phased and with

parallel alignment of the drive and driven shafts, allows the use of simple cross- type universals. (In a
torque-tube arrangement only a single universal is used at the end of the transmission tail shaft, and

this universal should be a constant velocity joint.)

In the Hotchkiss drive, slip-splines or a plunge-type (ball and trunnion u-joint) eliminate thrust

transmitted back up the driveshaft from the axle, allowing simple rear-axle positioning using parallel

leaf springs. (In the torque-tube type this thrust is taken by the torque tube to the transmission and

thence to the transmission and motor mounts to the frame. While the torque-tube type requires

additional locating elements, such as a Panhard rod, this allows the use of coil springs.)

Some Hotchkiss drive shafts are made in two pieces with another universal joint in the center for

greater flexibility, typically in trucks and specialty vehicles built on truck frames. Some installations

use rubber mounts to isolate noise and vibration. The 1984 1987 RWD Toyota Corolla (i.e., Corolla

SR5 and GT-S) coupe is another example of a car that uses a 2-part Hotchkiss driveshaft with a

rubber-mounted center bearing.

This design was the main form of power transmission for most cars from the 1920s through

the 1970s. Presently (circa 2012), it remains common in pick-up trucks, and sport utility vehicles

Torque tube Drive

A torque tube system is a driveshaft technology, often used in automobiles with a front engine and

rear drive. It is not as widespread as the Hotchkiss drive, but is still occasionally used to this day.

Drive shafts are sometimes also used for other vehicles and machinery.

The "torque" that is referred to in the name is not that of the driveshaft, along the axis of the car, but

that applied by the wheels. The design problem that the torque tube solves is how to get the traction

forces generated by the wheels to the car frame. The "torque tube" transmits this force by directly

coupling the axle differential to the transmission and therefore propels the car forward by pushing on

the engine/transmission and then through the engine mounts to the car frame[citation needed].

In contrast, the Hotchkiss drive has the traction forces transmitted to the car frame by using other

suspension components such as leaf springs or trailing arms. A ball and socket type of joint called a

"torque ball" is used at one end of the torque tube to allow relative motion between the axle and

transmission due to suspension travel. Since the torque tube does not constrain the axle in the lateral

(side-to-side) direction a pan hard rod is often used for this purpose. The combination of the pan hard

rod and the torque tube allows the easy implementation of soft coil springs in the rear to give good

ride quality.

In addition to transmitting the traction forces, the torque tube is hollow and contains the rotating

driveshaft. Inside the hollow torque ball is the universal joint of the driveshaft that allows relative

motion between the two ends of the driveshaft. In most applications the drive shaft uses a single

universal joint which has the disadvantage that it causes speed fluctuations in the driveshaft when the

shaft is not straight. The Hotchkiss drive uses two universal joints which has the effect of canceling

the speed fluctuations and gives a constant speed even when the shaft is no longer straight .
 UNIT-IV

Suspension system;

Suspension system is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that

connects a vehicle to its wheels . It is basically cushion for passengers protects the luggage or any

cargo and also itself from damage and wear.

Sir William Brush is the father of suspension system in automobiles.

The main role of suspension system are as follows:

Principle :

When a tire hits an obstruction, there is a reaction force. The size of this reaction force depends on the

unsprung mass at each wheel assembly.

In general, the larger the ratio of sprung weight to unsprung weight, the less the body and vehicle

occupants are affected by bumps, dips, and other surface imperfections such as small bridges. A large

sprung weight to unsprung weight ratio can also impact vehicle control.

No road is perfectly flat i.e. without irregularities. Even a freshly paved highways have subtle

e imperfections that apply forces

on wheels.

According to all forces have both magnitude and direction. A bump in the

road causes the wheel to move up and down perpendicular to the road surface. The magnitude of
course ,depends on whether the wheel is striking a giant bump or a tiny speck. Thus, either the wheel

experiences a vertical acceleration as it passes over an imperfection.

The suspension of a car is actually part of the chassis, which comprises all of the important systems

located beneath the car's body. These system include :

Components of Suspension system;

There are three fundamental components of any suspension system.

Types of Suspension system;

Advantages;

Braking System;

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object or

preventing its motion. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the kinetic

energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed.

For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be

stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms

as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy

into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking

methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to

a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the

surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of

braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes

with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (k=mv2/2) an object moving at 10 m/s

has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the

theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast

vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts

may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on

the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.

Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft

and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent.

The Saab B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an

air brake. Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while

braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their

engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston

pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is

similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetic. One brake may use

several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction: Frictional

brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit

wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and

do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and

excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes usefriction.

Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear
surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum,

such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly

called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating

disc, commonly called a "disc brake".

Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat

shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum,

and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with

shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. Pumping brakes are often used where a

pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have

the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some

engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes

can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a

hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the

machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator

to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives

use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat.

Types of Braking system in Automobile;

Anti-lock braking system (ABS)

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor

vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking,

preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an

automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were

practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this at a much faster

rate and with better control than a driver could manage.

ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery

surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, ABS

can significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably.

Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the front-

to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known

as electronic brake force distribution(EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or

electronic stability control(ESC).

Operation

The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake). Typically ABS

includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors,

and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors

the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a

condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to

the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns

faster.

Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic

pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This

process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some

anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second.[17] Because of this,

the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in

extreme conditions.

The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold,

because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the

outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing vehicles. If a fault

develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument

panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.

Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-

mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road

vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are

rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years.

Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of

two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor,

and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that
the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC

software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated

systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in

the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside

of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much.

ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration of the

vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and

take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control

throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.

Components of ABS

There are four main components of ABS:

Speed sensors

A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These sensors use a

magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential induces a

magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a voltage in the

sensor. Since the voltage induced in the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this sensor can

become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations

in the magnetic field and thus cause inaccurate readings to the controller.
Valves

There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has

three positions:

In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the

brake.

In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the

pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.

In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is clogged

it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system from

modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.

Pump

The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have released it.

A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After a valve release the

pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking

system. The controller will modulate the pumps status in order to provide the desired amount of pressure and

reduce slipping.

Controller

The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel

speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will

then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves

on and off.

Use
There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler

systems works as follows,

The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that

are out of the ordinary. Right before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration.

If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five

seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop

spinning in less than a second.

The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure to

that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration

again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is

that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the

point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.

This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction

surface, allowing steering even in the most emergency braking conditions.

When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the

rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been

triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.

Hydraulic braking system

The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in

motion. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be

made of composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon or ceramic-matrix composites.

This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of

brake pads (mounted on a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically,

pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and

attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes (both disc and drum) convert motion to heat, but if the brakes
get too hot, they will become less effective because they cannot dissipate enough heat. This condition

of failure is known as brake fade.

Construction of Braking system;

The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters, and

mopeds, consists of the following:

Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated steel

pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a

brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake

fluid (other fluids may also be used).

At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later, disc

brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have shown better

heat dissipation and greater resistance to 'fading' and are therefore generally safer than drum brakes.

So four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most

basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake for the

rear wheel.The following description uses the terminology for and configuration of a simple

In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s)

in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber

through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system,

forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or two

caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage of the fluid).
The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor,

and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a brakingtorque to be generated, slowing the

vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor or

is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials such as kevlar

orsintered glass.

Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in my master cylinder assembly to

return the master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the

caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper assembly, moving it back into its

housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.

The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system,

none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use.

Pneumatic braking system

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles

in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake pad needed

to stop the vehicle.

Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which must be

linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers in addition to their use in
railroad trains.

George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5,

1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which led to various

forms of the automatic brake. In the early 20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted

by manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles

Construction of Braking system;

Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of service

brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking brake, there is a disc

or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure.

Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes

(the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing

the air under pressure (approx 100 120 psi or 690 830 kPa) to the brake chamber, causing the brake

to be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend

towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the

atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa).

Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure

for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency

brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes,

thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result

in full spring brake pressure immediately.

A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply

system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional

air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo,

etc.).
Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road vehicle (does not show all air reservoirs

and all applicable air valves). The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft

pulley via a beltor directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine

lubrication and cooling systems.

Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and

oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and smaller purge reservoir. As

an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti-freeze device and oil

separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is

then distributed via a four way protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a

parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The system also includes

various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves.Air brake systems may include a wig wag

device which deploys to warn the driver if the system air pressure drops too low.

Control system

The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit and the

trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel circuits which

receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The

service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates both circuits.

The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring

brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The trailer brake consists of a
direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate control or service line (marked

blue). The supply line receives air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay

valve and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The operating signals for the

relay are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air valve, trailer service brake hand control

(subject to a country's relevant heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime mover park brake hand

control.

Advantages of Air Brakes;

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such as

automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake pedal

to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for large multitrailer

vehicles:

Introduction of Steering system

Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allow a vessel (ship,boat) or vehicle

(car, motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail transport by

which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches (and also known as 'points' in British
English) provide the steering function.

The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a hand operated

steering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the steering column, which may contain

universal joints (which may also be part of the collapsible steering column design), to allow it to

deviate somewhat from a straight line. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different types of

vehicles, for example, a tiller or rear wheel steering. Tracked vehicles such as bulldozers

andtanks usually employ differential steering that is, the tracks are made to move at different

speeds or even in opposite directions, using clutches and brakes, to bring about a change of course or

direction.

Wheeled vehicle steering - Basic geometry

Ackermann steering geometry

the wheel moving

from right to left. A positive caster angle aids in directional stability, as the wheel tends to trail, but a

large angle makes steering more difficult.

Curves described by the rear wheels of a conventional automobile. While the vehicle moves with a

constant speed its inner and outer rear wheels do not.

The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions. This is

typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the fundamental concepts is

that of caster angle each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of the wheel; this makes the

steering tend to be self-centering towards the direction of travel.

The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conforms to a variation of

Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually

travelling a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for driving in

a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the vertical plane also

influences steering dynamics (see camber angle) as do the tires.

 Rack and pinion, recirculating ball, worm and sector

Rack and pinion steering mechanism:

Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car chassis. For most high

volume production, this is usually mounted on the other side of this panel

Steering box of a motor vehicle, the traditional (non-assisted), you may notice that the system allows

you to adjust the braking and steering systems, you can also see the attachment system to the frame.

Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steering wheel turns the

pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting

circular motion into linear motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side motion). This

motion applies steering torque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously used kingpins of

the stub axle of the steered wheels via tie rods and a short lever arm called the steering arm.

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback and direct steering "feel".

A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, the only

cure is replacement.

Older designs often use the recalculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility
vehicles. This is a variation on the older sector design; the steering column turns a large screw (the

"worm gear") which meshes with a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as the worm gear

is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the Pitman arm, which is connected to the

steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recalculating ball version of this apparatus reduces

the considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between the teeth of the worm and those of the

screw; at either end of the apparatus the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal

to the box which connects them with the other end of the apparatus, thus they are "recalculated".

The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical advantage, so that

it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally limited to smaller

and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering, however, this is no longer an

important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on newer cars.

The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center, where a minute turn

of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable

via a screw on the end of the steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated

because it will create excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will wear very

rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and

direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.

The worm and sector was an older design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles, and the

Ford Falcon (1960s).

Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go- karts

often use a very direct linkage in the form of abellcrank (also commonly known as a Pitman arm)

attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable- operated

steering linkages (e.g. the Capstan and Bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-built

vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.

Steering Gear Boxes;

The steering gears converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the
link rod of the steering linkages. Moreover it also provides necessary leverage so that the driver is
able to steer the vehicle without fatigue.

There are various types of steering gear boxes are available in automobile.

Power steering

In automobiles, power steering (also known as power assisted steering (PAS) or steering assist

system) helps drivers steer by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel.

Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the steering mechanism, so the driver needs to

provide only modest effort regardless of conditions. Power steering helps considerably when a vehicle

is stopped or moving slowly. Also, power steering provides some feedback of forces acting on the

front wheels to give an ongoing sense of how the wheels are interacting with the road; this is typically

called d feel".

Representative power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic

cylinder, which is part of a servo system. These systems have a direct mechanical connection between

the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels.

This means that power-steering system failure (to augment effort) still permits the vehicle to be

steered using manual effort alone.

Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction vehicles) have no

direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage; they require power. Systems of this kind, with

no mechanical connection, are sometimes called "drive by wire" or "steer by wire", by analogy with

aviation's "fly-by-wire". In this context, "wire" refers to electrical cables that carry power and data,

not thin-wire-rope mechanical control cables.

In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems.

As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the

power-steering system.

Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle; this hinge

allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic

cylinders move the halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.

Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of the power to assist in

swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become heavier and

switched to front wheel drive, particularly using negative offset geometry, along with increases in tire

width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering axis has increased, often

to the point where major physical exertion would be needed were it not for power assistance.

To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems: or more correctly power-

assisted steering on road going vehicles there has to be a mechanical linkage as a failsafe. There are

two types of power steering systems; hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic- electric hybrid

system is also possible.A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an

engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric power steering (EPS)

is more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only needs

to provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run

constantly.

In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver

preference. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage and

disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not lost when the engine

fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic assistance stops working if the engine stops, making the steering

doubly heavy as the driver must now turn not only the very heavy steering without any help but

also the power-assistance system itself.

 Speed Sensitive Steering

An outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at

low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto makers perceive that motorists might need to

make large steering inputs while manoeuvering for parking, but not while traveling at high speed. The

first vehicle with this feature was the Citroën SM with itsDiravi layout[citation needed], although

rather than altering the amount of assistance as in modern power steering systems, it altered the

pressure on a centring cam which made the steering wheel try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead

position. Modern speed-sensitive power steering systems reduce the mechanical or electrical

assistance as the vehicle speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming

more common.
 UNIT V

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

5.1. Natural Gas as a Fuel in Automobile;

A natural gas vehicle (NGV) is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses compressed natural gas

(CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a cleaner alternative to other fossil fuels. Natural gas

vehicles should not be confused with vehicles powered by propane(LPG), which is a fuel with a

fundamentally different composition. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles

by 2011, led by Iran with 2.86 million, Pakistan (2.85 million), Argentina (2.07 million), Brazil

(1.70 million), and India (1.10 million).

The Asia-Pacific region leads the world with 6.8 million NGVs, followed by Latin America

with 4.2 million vehicles. In the Latin American region almost 90% of NGVs have bi-fuel

engines, allowing these vehicles to run on either gasoline or CNG. In Pakistan, almost every

vehicle converted to (or manufactured for) alternative fuel use typically retains the capability to

run on ordinary gasoline.

As of 2009, the U.S. had a fleet of 114,270 compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, mostly

buses; 147,030 vehicles running on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); and 3,176 vehicles liquefied

natural gas (LNG). Other countries where natural gas-powered buses are popular include India,

Australia, Argentina, and Germany. In OECD countries there are around 500,000 CNG vehicles.

Pakistan's market share of NGVs was 61.1% in 2010, follow by Armenia with 32%, and Bolivia

with 20%.The number of NGV refueling stations has also increased, to 18,202 worldwide as of

2010, up 10.2% from the previous year.

Existing gasoline-powered vehicles may be converted to run on CNG or LNG, and can be

dedicated (running only on natural gas) or bi-fuel (running on either gasoline or natural gas.

Diesel engines for heavy trucks and busses can also be converted and can be dedicated with the

addition of new heads containing spark ignition systems, or can be run on a blend of diesel and

natural gas, with the primary fuel being natural gas and a small amount of diesel fuel being used
as an ignition source.

An increasing number of vehicles worldwide are being manufactured to run on CNG. Until

recently, the Honda Civic GX was the only NGV commercially available in the US market.,

however now Ford, GM and Ram have bi-fuel offerings in their vehicle lineup. Fords approach

is to offer a bi-fuel prep kit as a factory option, and then have the customer choose an authorized

partner to install the natural gas equipment.

In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car

developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run on natural gas (CNG);

100% ethanol (E100); E20 to E25 gasoline blend, Brazil's mandatory gasoline; and pure

gasoline, though no longer available in Brazil it is used in neighboring countries.

NGV filling stations can be located anywhere that natural gas lines exist. Compressors (CNG) or

liquifaction plants (LNG) are usually built on large scale but with CNG small home refueling

stations are possible. A company called Fuel Maker pioneered such a system called Phill Home

Refueling Appliance (known as "Phill"), which they developed in partnership with Honda for

the American GX model. Phill is now manufactured and sold by BRC FuelMaker, a division of

Fuel Systems Solutions, Inc.

CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn't

increase the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere. Despite its advantages, the use of natural

gas vehicles faces several limitations, including fuel storage and infrastructure available for

delivery and distribution at fueling stations. CNG must be stored in high pressure cylinders

(3000psi to 3600psi operation pressure), and LNG must be stored in cryogenic cylinders (-260F

to -200F).

These cylinders take up more space than gasoline or diesel tanks that can be molded in intricate

shapes to store more fuel and use less on-vehicle space. CNG tanks are usually located in the

vehicle's trunk or pickup bed, reducing the space available for other cargo. This problem can be

solved by installing the tanks under the body of the vehicle, or on the roof (typical for busses),

leaving cargo areas free.

As with other alternative fuels, other barriers for widespread use of NGVs are natural gas

distribution to and at fueling stations as well as the low number of CNG and LNG stations.

CNG- powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles

5.2.Liquefied petroleum gas as a Fuel in Automobile;

Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply

propane or butane, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating

appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and

a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer.

When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as auto gas.

Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C 3H8),primarily

butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane andbutane. In winter, the

mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane. In the United States,

primarily two grades of LPG are sold: commercial propane and HD-5. These specifications are

published by the Gas Processors Association (GPA) and the American Society of Testing and

Materials (ASTM). Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications.

Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small

concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, and is

utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can

be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States,

tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants,[5] although

neither is currently being utilized.

LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from

fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted

from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in

1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently

provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very

few sulfur emissions.

As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution.

LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil

and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[6] However, its energy density per volume

unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower

(about 0.5 0.58, compared to 0.71 0.77 for gasoline).

As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal

temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are

typically filled to 80 85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained

liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies

depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1.

The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewise varies

depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals (32

psi) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2,200 kilopascals (320 psi) for pure

propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along

floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers from this.

The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits and

there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a

decrease in oxygen concentration.

Large amounts of LPG can be stored in bulk cylinders and can be buried underground.

Bio diesel as a Fuel in Automobile;

Biodiesel and conventional diesel vehicles are one in the same. Although light-, medium-, and

heavy-duty diesel vehicles are not technically "alternative fuel" vehicles, many are capable of

running on biodiesel. Biodiesel, which is most often used as a blend with regular diesel fuel, can

be used in many diesel vehicles without any engine modification. The most common biodiesel

blend is B20, which is 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel. B5 (5% biodiesel, 95%

diesel) is also commonly used in fleets.

Before using biodiesel, be sure to check your engine warranty to ensure that higher-level blends
(all OEMs accept the use of B5 and many accept the use of B20) of this alternative fuel don't

void or affect it. High-level biodiesel blends (blends over B20) can have a solvency effect in

engines and fuel systems that previously used petroleum diesel which may result in degraded

seals and clogged fuel filters.

Biodiesel improves fuel lubricity and raises the cetane number of the fuel. Diesel engines

depend on the lubricity of the fuel to keep moving parts from wearing prematurely. Federal

regulations have gradually reduced allowable fuel sulfur to only 15 parts per million, which has

often resulted in lowered aromatics content in diesel fuel. One advantage of biodiesel is that it

can impart adequate lubricity to diesel fuels at blend levels as low as 1%.

Hybrid electric vehicle ;

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehiclewhich combines

a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion

system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy

than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of HEV types, and the

degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the

hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses also exist.

Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking,

which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than

wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal

combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination

is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric

drive motors

Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when

needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its

ICE than a comparably sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller

than a comparably sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce

lower emissions) and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum
efficiency, further improving fuel economy.

In 1901 Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first gasoline-

electric hybrid automobile in the world. The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely

available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in

1999. While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide

increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s;

they are now perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future.

About 9 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide by October 2014, led by

Toyota Motor Company (TMC) with more than 7 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold as of

September 2014, followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than

1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014, Ford Motor Corporation with over 375 thousand hybrids

sold in the United States through September 2014, and the Hyundai Group with cumulative

global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia

Motors hybrid models.

Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by TMC reached 1 million units in May 2007; 2

million in August 2009; and passed the 5 million mark in March 2013. As of December 2013,

worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius lift back, with cumulative sales of 3.17

million units, and available in almost 80 countries and regions.

The Prius nameplate has sold 4.2 million hybrids and plug-in hybrids up to December 2013. The

United States is the world's largest hybrid market with over 3 million hybrid automobiles and

SUVs sold through October 2013, followed by Japan with more than 2.6 million hybrids sold

through September 2013. The Prius is the top selling hybrid car in the U.S. market, passing the 1

million milestones in April 2011. Cumulative sales of the Prius in Japan reached the 1 million

mark in August 2011.

Fuel Cell;

A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce

electricity, with water and heat as its by-product. Since conversion of the fuel to energy takes
place via an electrochemical process, not combustion. It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient

process- two to three times more efficient than fuel burning.

It operates similarly to a battery, but it does not run down nor does it require recharging As long

as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell will produce both energy and heat A Fuel Cell consists of two

catalyst coated electrodes surrounding an electrolyte. One electrode is an anode and the other is

a cathode The process begins when Hydrogen molecules enter the anode The catalyst coating

electrons from the positively charged protons The

electrolyte allows the protons to pass through to the cathode, but not the electrons.

Instead the electrons are directed through an external circuit which creates electrical current.

While the electrons pass through the external circuit, oxygen molecules pass through the

cathode. There the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons after they have passed

through the external circuit. When the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons it

produces water and heat. Individual fuel cells can then be placed in a series to form a fuel cell

stack. The stack can be used in a system to power a vehicle or to provide stationary power to a

building
 AE QUESTION BANK

UNIT-I

1. Explain how a four wheel drive mechanism offers better power transmission in a
Automobile.
2.
3.

4.

UNIT-II

1. What are catalytic convertors and explain how they help in containing emissions from a
automobile.

3.
4.

UNIT-III

6. Explain with a simple sketch, construction and working of epicyclic gear box in a
automobile.
UNIT-IV

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.
6.
7.

UNIT-V
1.