Data Collection and Processing

Syllabus
Data Collection And Processing 2.1 Types Of Data And Sources: Primary And Secondary Data Sources.
2.2 Collection Of Primary Data, Collection Of Data Through Questionnaire And Schedules, Other
Observation Interview Methods, Collection Of Secondary Data, Selection Of Appropriate Method For
Data Collection, Case Study, Focus Group Discussion, Techniques Of Developing Research Tools, Viz.
Questionnaire And Rating Scales Etc. Reliability And Validity Of Research Tools. 2.3 Methods Of
Collection Of Primary DataObservation: Structured And Unstructured, Disguised And Undisguised,

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Mechanical Observations( Use Of Gadgets) Experimental : Field, Laboratory. Interview : Personal

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Interview, Focused Group, In-Depth Interview Methods. Survey : Telephonic Survey, Mail, E-Mail,
Internet Survey, Social Media And Media Listening. Survey Instrument: Questionnaire Designing-
Types Of Questions: Structured/Close Ended And Unstructured/Open Ended, Dichotomous, Multiple
Choice Questions: Scaling Techniques: Likert Scale, Semantic Differential Scale

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1. Explain in brief the methods of data collection.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:

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The methods of data collection can be broadly divided into two groups, namely,

● Primary Data Collection Methods

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● Sources/Methods of Secondary Data

A. Primary Data Collection Methods
1. Observation Method
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a. Structured Observation
b. Un-structured Observation
c. Disguised Observation
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d. Undisguised Observation
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The observation method is the most common method to study

behavioural sciences. Observation is not the scientific method but it
becomes a scientific tool when it is used for formulating the purpose
of research. In this method the information collected by the
researcher is totally based on his observation.
▪ For example, if the researcher is studying about different brands
of shoes, he will not ask the person wearing the shoes of
particular brand, rather he will try some of the brands and come
to some conclusion.
 ▪ The main advantages of this method is that there are no
chances of partiality, if the observation is done accurately.
Secondly, the information or the data collected through the
observation, is related to what is currently happening, it is not
affected by the past behaviour or future intentions. Thirdly, this
method is dependent of a person’s willingness to respond and
does not require much cooperation on that part of the person, as
it happens to be the case in interview or questionnaire method.
Observation method is suitable in those situations where the
respondent is not capable of expressing the feelings verbally.
▪ Types of Observation Methods

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▪ Observation method can be categorised into different types

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depending on various factors such as style for recording the
observed information, data needed for observation and activity
of the observer. Following are different types of observation
methods.

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a. Structured Observation
▪ It is an observation method in which following points are
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to be considered :
● Careful definition of the matter that needs to be
considered.
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● Identification of the style that must be used to
record the observed information.
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● Standardisation of the condition of observation.

● Selection of the data required for observation.
▪ This method is most appropriate where a descriptive
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study of the matter under observation is required.

a. Unstructured Observation
▪ It is the observation method in which a careful definition
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of the matter to be observed, the style to be recorded,

standardised condition of observation and the selection of
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the required data of observation are not properly known.

This method is most appropriate where an explored study
of the matter under observation is required.
b. Disguised Observation
▪ It is the observation method in which the members of
group are unaware of the fact that they are being
observed.
▪ For example, A scene from the movie – Jodha Akbar –
King Akbar going to market as an disguised to check if
the people are happy in his kingdom.
 ▪ Respondent is given an ambiguous situation and asked
to describe it. The description given contains a projection
of the respondent’s personality and attitudes to the
situations described.
▪ Various projective techniques are used but the most
commonly used are word association, sentence
completion and story-telling.
c. Undisguised Observation
▪ Instead of approaching the respondent with a fixed list of
questions, the interviewer attempts to get the respondent
to talk freely about the subject of interest. By doing so the

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interviewer hopes to get the respondent at ease and then

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encourage him to express any ideas which he has on the
subject. If some idea of interest is passed over too
quickly, the interviewer may seek more information by

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“probing.” For example, he may comment “That is
interesting. Why do you feel that way?” This encourages
further discussion or the point. Various probes can be
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used to get the respondent to expand on any particular
ideas. Although no formal questionnaire is used in
interviewing of this type, the interviewer has an outline in
mind
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d. Observation Through Mechanical Devices
▪ The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to
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collect information by way of indirect means. Eye

cameras, Pupilometric cameras, Psycho galvanometer,
Motion Picture camera and Audiometer are the principal
devices so far developed and commonly used by modern
big business houses, mostly in the developed world for
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the purpose of collecting the required information.

▪ Eye cameras are designed to record the focus of eyes of
respondent on a specific portion of a sketch or diagram or
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written material. Such an information is useful in

designing advertising of a visual stimulus. The
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Pupilometric cameras record dilation of the pupil as result

of visual stimulus. The extent of dilation shows the
degree of interest aroused by the stimulus. Psycho
galvanometer is used for measuring the extent of body
excitement as a result of the visual stimulus. Motion
picture cameras can be used to record movement of body
of a buyer while deciding to buy a consumer good from a
shop or big store.
▪ Advantages
 ● There is no respondent bias. The respondents are
not interviewed. They are only observed, and they
may be aware that they are observed.
● First-hand information about people/customer
reactions.
● The information collected is reliable and accurate,
because the information is collected at the point of
action or reaction.
▪ Disadvantages
● Time consuming, as lot of time is required for

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observing the actions/reactions of the people

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under study.
● It is expensive method, as competent and trained
staff is required to record the observations of the

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subjects under study.
● In depth interviewing is not possible, and therefore,
the researcher may not get complete information.
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● There may be bias of the researcher, as he may
record certain observations as per his own
judgement or feelings.
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e. Experimental
▪ The experimentation method is mostly used in the case
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scientific research study. With the help of

experimentation, the researcher may like to study the
cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
▪ The experimentation method can also be used in
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development of a new product. For instance, a firm may

like to introduce fuel efficient bike or some other product.
Therefore R & D experiments may be required so as to
develop the fuel efficient product. The newly developed
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product may be subject to trials before it is launched in

the market.
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▪ Advantages
● It provides first-hand information.
● It provides reliable and relevant information.
● The researcher may be in a position to develop new
techniques.
● Disadvantages
● It may be very expensive as a lot of money may be
required for experimentation.
 ● At times, lot of time and effort is required on the part of
the researcher.
● The delay in results may generate frustration on the part
of the researcher.
a. Interviews
● Interview is the method of collecting data that involves a
presentation of oral and verbal stimuli and the reply in
terms of oral and verbal responses. This type involves
both personal as well as telephonic interview.
● Personal Interview

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● Personal interview as a method involves two people: the

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interviewer and the interviewee. The interviewer is the
person who questions interviewee. At times even
interviewee also questions back the interviewer. There is

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a face to face discussion between them. There can be
more than one interviewer while taking personal
interview. There are two types of interviews – direct
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personal interview and indirect oral interview.
● In case of direct personal investigation the interviewer
has to collect the information personally from the sources
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concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet
people from whom data have to be collected. This
method is particularly suitable for intensive investigation.
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But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile

to contact directly the persons concerned or on account
of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal
investigation techniques may not be used.
● In such cases, an indirect oral examination or
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investigation takes place where the interviewer

cross-examines the interviewee to check the knowledge
about the problem under investigation and the
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information, obtained is recorded. Most of the

commissions and committees appointed by government
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to carry on investigation make use of this method.

2. Discuss various types of data.

Depending upon the sources utilised, whether the data has come from actual
observations or from records that are kept for normal purposes, statistical data can
be classified into two categories: Primary and Secondary data.

● Primary Data
● Primary data is one which is collected by the investigator
himself/herself for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study. Such data
 is original in character and is generated by surveys conducted by
individuals or research institutions.
● There are various methods of collecting primary data.
● Survey Method
● Observation Method
● Experimental Method
● Advantages
0. Provides First Hand Information
● It is collected directly from the respondents. The information can

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be collected through various methods – S-O-E. But the
secondary data is second hand data collected from published or
readily available sources.
1. In-Depth Information

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● The researcher can collect in-depth information relating to the
research problem. The researcher can get detailed information
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with the help of projective techniques. The researcher can
cross-question the respondents and obtain in-depth information.
2. Reliable Information
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● The primary data is reliable. The researcher can check the
reliability of the data. It is collected first hand. Latest data is
collected from the respondents. But in the case of secondary
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data, it may not be reliable, as it can be outdated.

3. Accurate Data
● The data collected from primary sources is more accurate. The
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researcher can check the accuracy of the data at the time of

interviews. He/she can check the accuracy by cross-questioning
the respondents, wherever required.
4. Specific Data
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● The researcher can collect specific data relating to the problem.

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But in case of secondary data, the researcher may get general

data, and he may have to put extra efforts to get specific data
relating to the problem. Quite often, specific data may not be
available through the secondary sources.
5. Supplements Secondary Data
● The researcher may try to solve the problem with the help of
secondary data. However, if secondary data is not sufficient,
he/she will collect the required data from the primary sources.
Thus, primary data supplements the secondary data.
6. Enhances the Quality of Research Work
 ● The primary data enhances the quality of research work, as it is
more accurate, reliable, and specific to the research problem.
7. Helps in Formulation of Hypothesis
● The use of documentary sources helps in formulation of
research hypothesis. When an investigator has more than one
hypothesis in hand, primary data supports the selection of
correct hypothesis.
​Secondary Data
o When an investigator uses the data which has already been collected
by others, such data is called secondary data. This data is primary for

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the agency that collects it and becomes secondary data for someone

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else who uses this data for his/her own purposes. The secondary data
can be obtained from journals, reports, government publications,
publication of professional and research organisations and so on. For
example, if a researcher desires to analyse the weather conditions of

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different regions, he/she can get the required information or data from
the records of the meteorology department.

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Secondary sources are diverse in nature, consisting of various
materials, and have common characteristics. Secondary sources are
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documents which are written after an event has been researched.
These sources are said to be readymade or readily available. Some
specific information, which is available from secondary sources, can be
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used for purposes of reference.

Secondary sources contain details such as graphs, pictures, maps,
chapters, journal articles, speeches, reviews, reports, statistical
analysis, case studies, dissertation, autobiographies, account details,
textbooks, encyclopedias, e-books, etc. Secondary sources are data,
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which are already available, and can be made use for compilation such
as census reports, annual reports published by government
departments, financial statements of companies published in
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newspaper, publications of international organizations such as United

Nations Organization(UNO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World
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Bank, and International Labour Organization(ILO), etc.

Secondary sources can be classified as internal and external sources.
Internal sources consist of organization specific data implying historical
output and records maintained in the organization,which may be helpful
for the study. In case the researcher is a part of the organization, then
the records can be used directly. However, it may not be available to a
researcher, who is an outsider. Data that is independent of the
organization is available through published data,computerized
databases, etc. and is known as outside sources/external sources.
Internal Sources of Data:
 Internal sources are classified as:
1. Company record: It is an obligation for emerging and established
companies to maintain records such as history, vision, mission,
objectives, management structure, infrastructure, policies, minutes of
meeting, process of manufacturing, guidelines, and by-laws as part of
the documenting purpose. Access to some part of this data might be
available as external sources to the public. However, the researcher
can make use of these for the purpose of the study.
2. Employee records: As part of company details, maintenance of
employee records shows a vital for an organization as foremost

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concern. It is the management’s responsibility to maintain details of

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regular/part- time employees. This should include demographic details,
academic qualification, appraisal records, training/development,
performance appraisal, progress, transfer cases, sickness reports,

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medical reports, insurance reports,bio- data, residential and family
information, marital status, past address, leaves/vacation/ holidays,
turnover, salary revision, and allowances.
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These records help to supply crucial information to manage the
employees, maintenance and availability of these records would also
help researchers to carry out in depth study of employees as well as to
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establish good will of the firm in the market.
3. Sales data: This type of data is crucial and valuable for a market
research study. Thistype of data can be classified as:
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a. Cash receipt register: Most frequently used, the simplest and easily
available register of cash transaction is the cash receipt, is most
frequently recorded, on purchase of bill, sales at specific time and
period could be used for research purpose if any.
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b. Sales invoice: This includes the complete details of a customer who

has placed an order with the company including the order, location,
price, terms of sale, shipment details, date, and address of the
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customer.
c. Financial records and sales reports: Financial records are
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maintained in terms of sales expenses, sales revenue, and overhead

cost and profit. It also consists of projected sales data, total sales by
rupees and units, comparative sales and performances across
quarters, sales promotion activities, etc.

External Data Sources:

 Information collected and compiled by an outside source, external to
the organizationis referred to as external sources of data. These are
published sources and computer- based sources are:
1. Published data: It is the most easily available data compiled using
public or private sources. There are two kinds of sources such as
official and government sources and imply census data, policy
documents and region - wise data, historical archives, etc. The other
kind of data is prepared by individual or private agencies or
organizations. This could be in the form of books, periodicals, and
industry data such as guides and directories.

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2. Government sources: The Indian Government publishes a number of

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documents that are made available online or offline. These can be
utilized by special permission such as census data, bulletins, etc.
a. Census data: This type of data helps in analyzing, comparing, for

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future plan, and to bring out projects on the basis of reports. For
example, population data, child mortality, morbidity, health, education,
and employment/ unemployment details.
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b. Other government publications: Other source includes the budget,
legislative documents, and economic surveys and comprises state
level data as well. Today computers have made it is easy to accrue
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data through the internet.
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3. Other sources: There are other sources through which a researcher

can collect data as part of the secondary sources since it not only
consists of published records, but also unpublished data, such as
accounting and financial records, register of members, minutes of
meetings, inventory records, etc. The following gives a description of
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the methods of secondary data collection.

a) Books and periodicals: it is a description of phenomena which are
available in the market. Books are valuable source, and provide
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abundant information. Books and periodicals are the most easily

available of written documents and the most frequently used format.
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b) Reports of survey conducted by government organizations and

non-governmental organizations: The United Nations Organization
publishes reports periodically valuable information is believable.
c) Autobiography: The life history of important persons can be used.
d) Accounts of travel: Travel reports are always useful.
e) Unpublished data: this type of data which are already available in
offices which have been buried. This data can also be used as a
secondary source for research.
 4. Computer stored data: Information in written or printed format is now
available in electronic form and is extremely user friendly. Computer
stored data based on content of information. They are:
- Reference databases: This refers to articles, research papers,
abstract, and other printed news contained in other sources.

Features
0. Recorded Data

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● Secondary data is collected from recorded and

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published/unpublished paper sources. The data has already
been collected by somebody for some purpose other than the
project on hand.

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1. Easy to Collect
● The data is readily available and hence easy to collect in the
most economical way.
2. Quantitative Data
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● Secondary data is called quantitative data. It can be used for
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substantiating the primary data.
3. Comprehensive
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● Secondary data is available on every subject and even in those

subjects where collection of primary data is difficult. It can supply
near accurate data.
4. Sources
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● Secondary data may be collected from primary sources or

secondary sources. For example, the government conducts a
census survey and its report is called the census report.
Newspapers and magazines may publish a part of this report
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which is called a secondary source. The researcher may go

through the census report which is the primary source.
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5. Relevancy
● Secondary data is ready-made information which is meant for
general purpose. The researcher must evaluate the secondary
data with reference to its accuracy, relevance and reliability.
6. Availability
● Secondary data is available internally (from the company’s own
records, accounts etc.) or externally (books, magazines,
published reports etc.)
 o Advantages of Secondary Data
0. Less Expensive
● The cost of collecting secondary data is much lower than that of
primary data. There is no need to prepare and print
questionnaires, and there is no need for field staff.
1. Less Time Consuming
● The secondary data can be collected at a faster rate as
compared to primary data. This is because, there is no need to
conduct interviews/surveys.
2. Less Processing of Data

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● The secondary data may require less processing of data; as a
good amount of data is available in processed form.
3. Quick Decisions:

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● Secondary data may permit quick decision making as the data is
readily available and that too in processed form.
4. Supplements Primary Data R
● The secondary data may supplement primary data. If need be,
the researcher may use secondary data along with primary data
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to arrive at decisions.
5. Less Paper Work
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● Secondary data involves relatively less paper work, as the data

are readily available from published sources.

3. Explain different ways in which personal interviews could be conducted.

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Interview is the method of collecting data that involves a presentation of oral and
verbal stimuli and the reply in terms of oral and verbal responses. This type involves
both personal as well as telephonic interview.
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Personal Interview
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Personal interview as a method involves two people: the interviewer and the
interviewee. The interviewer is the person who questions interviewee. At times even
interviewee also questions back the interviewer. There is a face to face discussion
between them. There can be more than one interviewer while taking personal
interview. There are two types of interviews – direct personal interview and indirect
oral interview.

In case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information
personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet
people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for
intensive investigation. But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to
contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of
enquiry, the direct personal investigation techniques may not be used.

In such cases, an indirect oral examination or investigation takes place where the
interviewer cross-examines the interviewee to check the knowledge about the
problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the
commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on investigation
make use of this method.

Personal interview can be of the following types:

1. Structured Interviews

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o If the personal interview takes place in a structured way, a

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predetermined way, such an interview is called a structured interview.
In this type of personal interview, the set of questions to be asked are
predefined and the techniques used to record the information are
highly standardised. Structured interviews are economical, as they do

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not require much information from the interviewee. Structured
interviews are used as the main technique to collect information in
descriptive research studies.
2. Unstructured Interviews
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o Here the personal interview takes place in an unstructured way, it
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means the questions to be asked in the interview are decided at the
time of interview. In this type of interview the questions to be asked are
not pre-determined and there are no standardised techniques used. A
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list of additional questions are given to the interviewer and it depends

upon him to ask these questions or not. This method demands greater
knowledge and greater skills of the interviewer. Unstructured interview
can be used as a main technique to collect information in the
explorative and formulative research studies.
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3. Focused Interview
o It is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondents and its effects. Under this the interview has the freedom to
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decide the manner and the sequence in which the questions would be
asked and also has the freedom to explore the reasons and motives.
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The main task of the interviewer in case of focused interview is to

confine the respondent to the discussion of the issue with which he
seeks conversance. Such interviews are used generally in the
development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured
interview.
4. In-depth Interview
o Instead of approaching the respondent with a fixed list of questions, the
interviewer attempts to get the respondent to talk freely about the
subject of interest. By doing so the interviewer hopes to get the
 respondent at ease and then encourage him to express any ideas
which he has on the subject. If some idea of interest is passed over too
quickly, the interviewer may seek more information by “probing”. For
example, he may comment “That is interesting. Why do you feel that
way?” This encourages further discussion or the point. Various probes
can be used to get the respondent to expand on any particular ideas.
Although no formal questionnaire is used in interviewing of this type,
the interviewer has an outline in mind. If the respondent does not get
into areas of special interest, the interviewer will insert questions
opening up these topics. The objective of these interviews is to get
below the respondent’s surface reasons for particular marketing
decisions, and to find the underlying or basic motives.

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o Interviewer should have a background of social psychology and field

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experience of 500 or more interviews.
o Sometimes, a group of 6 to 8 people are called for a discussion with
the interviewer acting as a moderator.

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4. Comment on benefits of survey and interview method.

1. Reliability R
o The primary data collected through survey / interview method provides
first-hand information to the researcher. Therefore, this type of data is
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more accurate and reliable. However, the accuracy and reliability of
primary data largely depends on the quality of survey/interview method.
To get accurate and reliable data, the field interviewers must be
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properly trained.
2. Detailed Information
o Survey/interview method can provide detailed information. The
researcher can obtain in-depth information by asking relevant
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questions. The interviewer may ask additional questions depending

upon the responses and information required.
3. Helps in Hypothesis Formulation
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o The use of documentary sources helps in formulation of research

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hypothesis. When an investigator has more than one hypothesis in

hand, primary data supports the selection of correct hypothesis.
4. Flexibility
o The Survey/Interview method permits flexibility in collecting the data.
The interviewer can restructure or modify the questions depending
upon the situation. The interviewer may delete or add certain questions
in a certain language with which the respondent is more familiar with.
5. Personal Touch
 o Personal interview provides personal touch in collecting the data. The
interviewer can develop a good rapport with the respondent. The
personal touch can enable the interviewer to obtain frank responses.
6. Helps to overcome Resistance
o Survey/Interview method helps to overcome resistance from the
respondents to respond favourably. The interviewer can assure the
respondent that his/her identity may not be revealed, if so desired. The
interviewer can use persuasion skills to collect relevant information.

5. How can one classify questionnaire.(TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE)

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● A questionnaire is an indirect and impersonal method of conducting a survey.

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It is a set of questions arranged in an orderly form and sent to the
respondents for obtaining information on a particular matter. Questionnaires
are used as a direct method in conducting interviews for data collection. In
case the respondent is at a distance, the questionnaires can be mailed to

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him/her. Questionnaires are classified into :
1. Structured Questionnaire:
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o It is the type of questionnaire which is segmented and designed to elicit
detailed and accurate information under the given titles and subtitles. It
helps to obtain accurate response and apt information required by the
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researcher. It helps in processing the data as the questions are well
structured.
o The structured questionnaire is again classified into :
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a. Closed Form Questionnaire : It is the one in which questions are set

in a manner that leaves only a few alternative answers. For example,
“Yes or No”. The respondent has to choose from the given options.
a. Open Ended Questionnaire : Here the respondent has full liberty to
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choose his own style, diction of language expression, length and

perception. The respondent is not restricted in his replies.
​Unstructured Questionnaire
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o It is a simple questionnaire without any segmentation or subdivision. It

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is useful for simple types of studies, in which simple questions are

arranged in a sequence. It contains a set of questions which are not
structured in advance and hence gives sufficient scope for a variety of
answers. It is used mainly for conducting interviews. Since it is more
flexible, more information may be collected from respondents.
​Dichotomous Questions
o Dichotomous questions are the questions which offer two answers Yes
and No. The examples of this type of questions are :
● Are you working with manual systems? Yes or No.
 ● If yes, do you need to switch over to the automated systems? Yes or
No.
● If no, are you satisfied with the performance of manual systems? Yes
orNo.
​Multiple Choice Questions
● These types of questions allow you to select an option from a list of
options. The examples of this type of question are :
● What is the number of automated systems used in your organisation?
a. 0-9

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a. 10-19

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b. 20-29
c. More than 29.

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● What is the type of organisation you are working with?
a. Bank
a. Manufacturing Company
b. Computer/IT sector
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c. Others
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6. Explain the essentials of a good questionnaire.
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i. Small Number of Questions : The number of questions should be kept to

the minimum. The precise number of questions to be included would naturally
depend on the object and scope of the investigation. Fifteen to twenty-five
may be regarded as a fair number. If a lengthy questionnaire is unavoidable, it
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should preferably be divided into two or more parts.

ii. It should be noted that there is an inverse relationship between the length of a
questionnaire and rate of response to the survey. That is, the longer the
questionnaire, the lower will be the rate of response; the shorter the
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questionnaire, the higher will be the rate of response.

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iii. Logically arranged : The questions must be arranged in a logical order so

that a natural and spontaneous reply to each is induced. They should not skip
back and forth from one topic to another. Thus, it is undesirable to ask a man
how many children he has before asking whether he is married or not.
Similarly, it would be illogical to ask a man his income before asking him
whether he is employed or not.
iv. Short and simple : The questions should be short and simple to understand.
Unless the person being interviewed is technically trained, technical terms
should be avoided. Words such as “capital” or “income” that have different
meanings for different persons should not be used unless a clarification is
included in the question.
 v. No Ambiguous Questions : Ambiguous questions' means different things to
different people. It will not be possible to obtain comparable replies from
respondents who take a question to mean different things. For example,
o Consider the following question :
o Do you smoke?
Yes □
No □
o There are several ambiguities in this question. It is not clear whether
the desired response pertains to cigars, cigarettes, pipes or
combinations thereof. Also it is not clear whether occasional smoking
or habitual smoking was the primary concern of the question. If we are

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interested only in current cigarette consumption, it would be better to
ask :
a. How many cigarettes do you currently smoke each day?

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Less than 5 □
5 to 9 □
10 to 14 □
15 to 19
20
above.
and
□
□
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​No Personal Questions : As far as possible, questions of a personal and pecuniary
nature should not be asked. For example, questions about income, sales-tax paid,
etc., may not be willingly answered in writing. Where such information is essential, it
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should be obtained by personal interviews. Even then, such questions should be

asked only at the end of the interview, when the informants feel more at ease with
the interviewer.
I​nstructions to the Informants : The questionnaire should provide necessary
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instructions to the informants. For example, the questionnaire should specify the time
within which it should be sent back and the address at which it should be sent.
Instructions about unit of measurement, etc., should also be given. For instance, if
there is a question on weight, it should be specified as to whether weight is to be
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expressed in pounds or kilograms or some other unit.

​ bjective type Questions (MCQ) : Avoid questions of opinion and keep to
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questions of fact. In factual studies, it is highly desirable that questions are so

designed that objective answer may be forthcoming. For example, instead of asking
the condition of a building and allowing the informant or enumerator to state the
condition in his words, it is desirable to ask if a structure was in good condition,
needed minor repairs, needed structural repairs or was unfit for use. Similarly, while
asking students how do they normally travel to college, frame a question of the type :
o How do you normally travel to college?
i) By bus □
ii) By your own car □
 iii) By your own scooter □
iv) By taxi □
v) By walk □
vi) Any other mode? □
o The respondent will tick (√) mark the particular alternative applicable to
him. This type of question is known as multiple-choice question.
"​ Yes" or "No" Questions : As far as possible the questions should be of such a
nature that they can be answered easily in `Yes' or "No". Such questions pose a
simple alternative to the respondent. This is an excellent technique if applied to
situations where a clear-cut alternative exists. The questions : "Do you own a car?",
"Are you married?", "Did you vote in the last election?" can easily be answered with

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a "yes" or "no". However, when the alternative is not clear-cut, the "yes" or "no" type

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question should be avoided
​ pecific Information Questions and Open-end Questions : Specific information
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questions call for a specific item of information. For example, “What is your age?",
"How many children do you have?", etc. These questions are simple and direct and

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are well adapted to securing information of this type. Care should be taken to use
this type of questions only where the respondent can answer correctly.
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o The open question does not pose alternatives or request specific
information. It leaves the respondent free to make whatever reply he
chooses. For example, the question, "What should be done to enhance
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the practical utility of B.Com. course?" "Why do you use Colgate
toothpaste or 'Lux' soap" are open-end questions. In many ways open
question is superior to other types-there is no danger of being unduly
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restrictive suggesting answers, posing false alternatives, and

introducing some bias.
. Hence every effort must be made to minimize open questions in the
questionnaire.
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​ ttractive Look : A questionnaire should be made to look as attractive as possible.

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The printing and the paper used, etc., should be of the best quality and plenty of
space should be left for answers depending upon the type of questions. Sufficient
margins on all four sides of the page should be provided.
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8. Discuss the steps in questionnaire designing.

The success of the questionnaire method of collecting information depends largely

on the proper drafting of the questionnaire. Drafting questionnaire is a highly
specialised job and requires a great deal of skill and experience. It is difficult to lay
down any hard and fast rules to be followed in this connection.

Following are the steps of framing a questionnaire :

 a. Covering letter : The research student conducting the survey must introduce
himself and state the objective of the survey. It is desirable that :
i. A short letter should be enclosed. The letter should state in as few a
words as possible the purpose of the survey and how the informant
would tend to benefit from it.
ii. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope for the respondent's
convenience in returning the questionnaire.
b. Pre-testing the Questionnaire : The questionnaire should be pre-tested with
a group before mailing it out. The advantage of pre-testing is that the
shortcomings of the questionnaire can be discovered and it can be revised in
the light of the tryout. Before final form of the questionnaire is adopted it is

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desirable to carry out a preliminary experiment on a sample basis. When

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questionnaires are to be distributed on a large scale, it is absolutely essential
to pre-test them
c. Cross-checks : If possible, one or more cross-checks should be incorporated

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into the questionnaire to determine whether the respondent is answering at
least the important questions correctly.
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​ ethod of Tabulation : The method to be used for tabulating the results should be
determined before the final draft of the questionnaire is made. If the results of the
questionnaire are to be computerized, it is desirable to consult the computer experts
before making a final draft.
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​Choice of Physical Appearance of Questionnaire
. Size : The size of questionnaire and schedule depends upon the scope
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and items to be included. Large size in suitable for mail survey

questionnaire where as small size is recommend for schedule.
Therefore size should not be cumbersome for respondent.
i. Proper quality and colour : The durability is one of the requirements
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of preserving records. Light colour and smooth surface is desirable for

paper to be used for questionnaire or schedule.
ii. Items arrangement in questionnaire : Questions should be properly
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arranged. If the question is depended on answer of an earlier one then

it should be given a proper place.
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​Choice of Questions
. The questions having direct bearing on the problem of research study
should be included in the set of questions..
i. The questions related to personal information should be avoided..
ii. Questions with inaccurate responses should be avoided.
​ ording of questions : Due care should be taken for formulating questions.
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Response to the questionnaire is based on this fact only. Greater care should be
taken while wording of question. In which opinion is to be expressed or actual
information is to be provided.
 o If question is beyond the understanding of respondent than suggestive
answer will help than for response.
​ hoice of Sequence of Questions : The sequence of question means the order in
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which questions are to be asked. Refusal to questions can be avoided by proper
arrangement of questions.
o Questions should be logically arranged. The opening question should
always be of interest to respondent and easy to answer..
o The sensitive questions should be asked at the extreme end of the
questionnaire. In case of mail respondent interesting questions should
be asked in the beginning.

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​ hoice of Questionnaire Design : The basic rule is to design the questionnaire to
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fit the medium. Phone interviews cannot show pictures. People responding to mail or
Web surveys cannot easily ask and text open end. Examples of each kind follow :
o Multiple Choice :

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A. Where do you stay?
Nort
a) □
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b Sout
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□
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c) East □
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West □
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▪ Numeric Open End

A. How much did you spend on groceries this week? ...
▪ Text Open End
B. How can our company improve is working conditions?
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15. Explain the essentials of a good questionnaire.

i. Small Number of Questions : The number of questions should be kept to

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the minimum. The precise number of questions to be included would naturally

depend on the object and scope of the investigation. Fifteen to twenty-five
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may be regarded as a fair number. If a lengthy questionnaire is unavoidable, it

should preferably be divided into two or more parts.
o It should be noted that there is an inverse relationship between the
length of a questionnaire and rate of response to the survey. That is,
the longer the questionnaire, the lower will be the rate of response; the
shorter the questionnaire, the higher will be the rate of response.
Therefore, each question must be clearly presented in as few a words
as possible and each question should be deemed essential to the
survey.
 ii. Logically arranged : The questions must be arranged in a logical order so
that a natural and spontaneous reply to each is induced. They should not skip
back and forth from one topic to another. Thus, it is undesirable to ask a man
how many children he has before asking whether he is married or not.
Similarly, it would be illogical to ask a man his income before asking him
whether he is employed or not. Thus the sequence of the questions should be
considered carefully in terms of the purpose of the study and the persons who
will supply the information. Questions applying identification and description of
the respondent should come first followed by major information questions. If
opinions are requested, such questions should usually be placed at the end of
the list. Two different questions worded differently be included on the same
subject to provide cross-check on important points.

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iii. Short and simple : The questions should be short and simple to understand.

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Unless the person being interviewed is technically trained, technical terms
should be avoided. Words such as “capital” or “income” that have different
meanings for different persons should not be used unless a clarification is
included in the question.

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iv. No Ambiguous Questions : Ambiguous questions' means different things to
different people. It will not be possible to obtain comparable replies from

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respondents who take a question to mean different things. For example,
Consider the following question :
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o Do you smoke?
Yes □
No □
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o There are several ambiguities in this question. It is not clear whether

the desired response pertains to cigars, cigarettes, pipes or
combinations thereof. Also it is not clear whether occasional smoking
or habitual smoking was the primary concern of the question. If we are
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interested only in current cigarette consumption, it would be better to

ask :
a. How many cigarettes do you currently smoke each day?
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Less than 5 □
5 to 9 □
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10 to 14 □
15 to 19 □
20 and
□
above.
​No Personal Questions : As far as possible, questions of a personal and pecuniary
nature should not be asked. For example, questions about income, sales-tax paid,
etc., may not be willingly answered in writing. Where such information is essential, it
should be obtained by personal interviews. Even then, such questions should be
asked only at the end of the interview, when the informants feel more at ease with
the interviewer.
I​nstructions to the Informants : The questionnaire should provide necessary
instructions to the informants. For example, the questionnaire should specify the time
within which it should be sent back and the address at which it should be sent.
Instructions about unit of measurement, etc., should also be given. For instance, if
there is a question on weight, it should be specified as to whether weight is to be
expressed in pounds or kilograms or some other unit.
​ bjective type Questions (MCQ) : Avoid questions of opinion and keep to
O
questions of fact. In factual studies, it is highly desirable that questions are so
designed that objective answer may be forthcoming. For example, instead of asking
the condition of a building and allowing the informant or enumerator to state the
condition in his words, it is desirable to ask if a structure was in good condition,
needed minor repairs, needed structural repairs or was unfit for use. No doubt,

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answer to such questions may not be completely objective but they can be readily

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tabulated. Similarly, while asking students how do they normally travel to college,
frame a question of the type :
o How do you normally travel to college?

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i) By bus □
ii) By your own car □
iii) By your own scooter □
iv) By taxi
v) By walk
□
□
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vi) Any other mode? □
o The respondent will tick (√) mark the particular alternative applicable to
him. This type of question is known as multiple-choice question. It
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suggests several answers among which the respondent may choose. If

a multiple choice question is used, all alternatives should be stated and
a ‘don't know’ category be left in the questionnaire. Such questions not
only facilitate tabulation but will take very little time of the respondent to
fill the questionnaire. However, this type of question is excellent if most
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of the possible answers are both known and few in number. When the
possible answers are numerous, a limited list-even if accompanied by
an "other" category-elicit a response different from that which otherwise
would be forthcoming.
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o Multiple choice questions tend to bias result by the order in which

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alternative answers are given. When ideas are involved, the first item in
the list of alternatives has a favourable bias. The use of multiple-choice
question is indicated only when the investigator is confident of the
existence of a limited group of important alternatives and it should be
avoided when there are many possible responses of relatively equal
significance."Yes" or "No" Questions : As far as possible the
questions should be of such a nature that they can be answered easily
in `Yes' or "No". Such questions pose a simple alternative to the
respondent. This is an excellent technique if applied to situations where
a clear-cut alternative exists. The questions : "Do you own a car?", "Are
you married?", "Did you vote in the last election?" can easily be
 answered with a "yes" or "no". However, when the alternative is not
clear-cut, the "yes" or "no" type question should be avoided. A question
such as "Do you favour the Government policies?" usually cannot be
answered with a simple reply. The Government has so many policies
and only the most radical or partisan would favour or oppose them all.
A typical citizen may endorse many, have no opinion on some, and
reject others. The "yes" or "no" question in this case compels him to
compress a variety of opinions into a simple alternative, which may, in
reality, not exist.
o Sometimes a respondent cannot give a simple “yes” or “no” answer
either because he has not yet made up his mind or because he lacks
information on the topic. For example, the answer to the question “Are

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you in favour of public schools?” may not always be in ‘yes’ or ‘no’

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because the respondent has not thought over it. In such cases
additional alternative such as ‘do not know’, ‘undecided’, ‘no opinion’,
should be included.

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Specific Information Questions and Open-end Questions : Specific information
questions call for a specific item of information. For example, “What is your age?",
"How many children do you have?", etc. These questions are simple and direct and
R
are well adapted to securing information of this type. Care should be taken to use
this type of questions only where the respondent can answer correctly.
o The open question does not pose alternatives or request specific
ta
information. It leaves the respondent free to make whatever reply he
chooses. For example, the question, "What should be done to enhance
the practical utility of B.Com. course?" "Why do you use Colgate
am

toothpaste or 'Lux' soap" are open-end questions. In many ways open

question is superior to other types-there is no danger of being unduly
restrictive suggesting answers, posing false alternatives, and
introducing some bias.
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o It may also serve to interest the respondent in the interview itself,

especially if he is asked his opinion at the outset. However, open
questions are difficult to tabulate. Since no restriction is placed upon
the variety of answers, many will often be forthcoming. This not only
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increases the labour involved but frequently leads to improper

tabulation. Hence every effort must be made to minimize open
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questions in the questionnaire.

Attractive Look : A questionnaire should be made to look as attractive as possible.
The printing and the paper used, etc., should be of the best quality and plenty of
space should be left for answers depending upon the type of questions. Sufficient
margins on all four sides of the page should be provided.
No Questions Requiring Calculations : Questions should not require calculations
to be made. For example, informants should not be asked yearly income, for in most
cases they are paid monthly. Similarly, questions necessitating calculation of ratios
and percentages, etc., should not be asked as it may take much time and the
informant may not send back the questionnaire.
 o If these essentials while drafting a questionnaire are followed the
chances of positive responses from the respondents will be high

Scaling Techniques: Likert Scale, Semantic Differential Scale

Likert’s 5-point Attitude Measurement Scale

The Likert scale was developed by Rensis Likert in 1932. Likert scale is used to
collect the respondents’ attitude or opinion towards, some object, product, place, etc.
It is the most frequently used variation of the summated rating scale. Summated

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rating scales refer to the statements which are used to express either a favourable

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attitude or an unfavourable attitude toward some object. The respondent is
requested to agree or disagree with each statement. The responses that are
collected from the respondent are given a numerical score to express its degree of
favourableness and the scores which are given can be used to measure the

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respondents overall attitude towards the object.
Let us take an example, if an organisation would like to collect the feedback from
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their employees regarding job satisfaction, then they can frame a statement like, ‘I
am satisfied with my job’ with the five options as ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘neither
agree nor disagree’, ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’. With these options, the
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respondent can select any one option to express their level of job satisfaction. The
scale is shown in the figure.
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Semantic Differential Scales

The Semantic Differential scale is a seven-point rating scale. It is used to determine
the respondent’s attitude towards the object or event or a concept. The respondent is
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requested to select an appropriate position on a scale between two bipolar

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adjectives. The Semantic Differential scale is used to rate a product, company, brand
or image of an entity.
For example, we can request the respondents to rate the attitude towards their job
with the scale as shown in the figure.
The employee’s opinion about their job can be rated using seven levels stating from
‘boring’ to ‘interesting’. Similarly, from ‘like’ to ‘dislike’ and from ‘happy’ to ‘unhappy’
about their job. In this scale, we can easily identify the respondent’s attitude towards

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the object or an event.

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