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THE BEAUTY OF
MATHEMATICS IN COMPUTER
SCIENCE
Jun Wu
Jun Wu
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
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been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.
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transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or here-
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
4 Word segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1 Evolution of Chinese word segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Extended reading: Evaluating results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2.1 Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2.2 Granularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
v
vi Contents
6 Quantifying information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.1 Information entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2 Role of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3 Mutual information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4 Extended reading: Relative entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Foreword
A few years ago, I wrote the forewords for Dr. Jun Wu’s Chinese editions
of On Top of Tides and The Beauty of Mathematics. Since, I’m happy to learn
that The Beauty of Mathematics was awarded the prestigious Wenjin Prize.
The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science, with its new name in
the English edition, originates from a series of Google China blog articles
by Google’s senior staff research scientist, Jun Wu. Initially, the blog’s editors
were afraid that the subject matter would bore readers—that it was too
abstract and esoteric. That fear was quickly dispelled. Through vivid and
compelling language, The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science con-
nects the history of mathematics to the emergence of its practical applica-
tions. Wu systematically introduces the reader to important mathematical
bases from which modern science and technology arise. Complex ideas are
made accessible to a wide audience, especially those interested in science
and technology.
As I wrote in the preface to On Top of Tides, Wu is one of a rare kind, with
both strong narrative abilities and deep insight into the development of mod-
ern technology. Among the researchers and engineers I know, Wu stands in a
unique position to share effectively his knowledge with the general public.
In The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science, Wu proves this point
once again. From years of accumulated knowledge, Wu excels in his grasp
of mathematics and information processing, introduced here as professional
disciplines ranging from speech recognition and natural language processing
to information search. From the origins of digital computing, to the mathe-
matics behind search engines, and clever mathematical applications to search,
Wu brings the essence of mathematics to life. In his writing, mathematics is
not a bag of boring, abstruse symbols; rather, it drives fascinating technolo-
gies in our everyday lives. Indeed, through Wu’s tale, the reader will inevita-
bly discover the hidden beauty of mathematics.
Galileo once said that “mathematics is the language with which God has
written the universe.” Along the same line of thought, Einstein wrote, in an obit-
uary to Amalie Emmy Noether:
xi
xii Foreword
Kai-Fu Lee
Preface
The word “mathematics” stems from the Greek word, μάθημα, which means
“wisdom gained from learning.” In that sense, early mathematics encompassed
a wider field of study and related more closely to people’s everyday lives.
Early mathematics was less mysterious and more practical. Like any
field, mathematics undergoes constant change, becoming deeper and more
theoretical in the process. In fact, the evolution of mathematics corresponds
to the constant abstraction of concrete experiences and their effects on our
lives. Today, several millennia have stripped mathematics down to numbers,
symbols, equations, and theorems—quite detached from our everyday lives.
People might use arithmetic to calculate the amount to tip at a restaurant,
but beyond those basics, many see little value in mathematics, especially pure
mathematics. After graduation, most college students will never encounter
advanced mathematics again, so after a few years, they forget most of what
they have learned. As such, many question the point of learning mathematics
in the first place.
Even worse, many mathematicians have difficulty making a living from
pure mathematics, both in the United States and China. A common stereotype
portrays all mathematicians as hopeless “nerds,” with thick-rimmed glasses
and poor social skills. To the layperson, why doom yourself to the socially unat-
tractive label of “mathematician”? Thus, neither the abstruse numbers and
symbols, nor the peculiar folk who study them, evoke common signs of beauty.
On the contrary, mathematics is far more prevalent in our lives than we may
think. Initially, we might consider only scientists as direct consumers of math-
ematics—that is, of course studying atomic energies or aerodynamics would
require mathematical knowledge! If we look deeper, though, technologies
we use every day are all constructed from mathematical building blocks.
When you ask Siri for today’s weather, mathematical gears whir into action.
As a researcher for over twenty years, I have often marveled at the ways math-
ematics can be applied to practical problems, which are solved in a way I can
only describe as magic. Therefore, I hope to share some of this magic with you.
In ancient times, the most important skill people developed, besides knowl-
edge of the natural world, was to exchange ideas, or broadly, to communicate.
Accordingly, I have selected communication as the starting point of this
book. Communication is an excellent field to illustrate the beauty of mathemat-
ics, for not only does it abundantly adopt mathematics as a tool, but it also ties
closely to our everyday lives.
xiii
xiv Preface
Jun Wu
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my wife, Yan Zhang, for her longtime support and
generous help in my career, and my father Jiaqing and my mother Xiuzhen
Zhu, who brought me to the world of mathematics when I was very young.
I would like to thank many of advisors, colleagues, and friends, who gave
me their generous and wise advice and suggestions during my career, especially
to Prof. Zuoying Wang of Tsinghua University, Prof. Sanjeev Khudanpur, Prof.
Fred Jelinek, and Prof. David Yarowsky of Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Eric
Brill of eBay, Prof. Michael Collins of Columbia University, Dr. Amit Singhal,
ex-senior VP of Google, Mr. Matt Cutts, Dr. Peter Norvig, Dr. Kai-Fu Lee,
Dr. Franz Och, Ms. Dandan Wu, Ms. Jin Cui, and Dr. Pei Cao of Google.
I am also grateful to Prof. Wing H. Wong of Stanford University and
Mr. John Kimmel of Chapman & Hall, who helped me to publish this book.
Special thanks to Rachel Wu and Yuxi Wang for translating the book from
Chinese, and Ms. Teena Lawrence and Ms. Michele Dimont, the project manag-
ers of the book.
xv
Chapter 1
Words and languages, numbers
and information
Words and numbers are close kin; both building blocks of information, they are
as intricately linked as elements of nature. Language and mathematics
are thereby connected by their shared purpose of recording and transmitting
information. However, people only realized this commonality after Claude
E. Shannon proposed the field of information theory, seven decades ago.
Since ancient times, the development of mathematics has been closely tied to
the ever-growing human understanding of the world. Many fields—including
astronomy, engineering, economics, physics, and even biology—depended on
mathematics, and in turn, provided new grounds for mathematics to advance.
In the past, however, it was quite unheard of for linguistics to draw from math-
ematics, or vice versa. Many famous mathematicians were also physicists or
astronomers, but very few were also linguists. Until recently, the two fields
appeared incompatible.
Most of this book tells the story of the past half century or so, but in this
chapter, we will venture back to ancient history, when writing and numbers
were first invented.
1.1 Information
Before our Homo sapiens ancestors developed technologies or started look-
ing like modern humans, they could convey information to each other. Just as
zoo animals make unintelligible animal noises, early humans made unintelligible
“human” sounds. Initially, maybe the sounds had little meaning beyond exercis-
ing available muscles, but gradually, they began to carry messages. For exam-
ple, some series of grunts may signify, “there’s a bear!”. To which a companion
may grunt “yuh” in acknowledgment, or another series of sounds that signify,
“let’s go pelt it with rocks.” See Figures 1.1 and 1.2.
In principle, there is little difference between these primordial grunts and the
latest methods of information transmission, reception, and response. We will fill
in the details of communication models in later chapters, but note here that sim-
ple models capture both ancient and modern communication.
Early humans did not understand enough about the world to communicate
much, so they had no need for language or numbers. However, as humankind
1
2 The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science
“yuh” confirm
information information information
encoding decoding
speaker (source) channel receiver
progressed and civilization developed, there was a growing need to express more
and more information. A few simple noises could no longer fulfill humans’ com-
munication needs, and thus language was invented. Stories of daily life, which
can be considered a specific type of data, were actually the most valuable arti-
facts from that time. Transmitted through oral tradition, these stories were
passed down the generations, through each cycle of offspring. When humans
began to accumulate material goods or food surpluses, the concepts of “more”
and “less” emerged. In these days, counting had not yet been invented, since
there was no need to count.
served only for record keeping. In the fourth century AD, emperor Diocletian
eradicated all non-Christianity religions in Egypt, where the knowledge of hiero-
glyphics ceased to be taught.
Not until 1400 years later, in 1798, did the meaning of hieroglyphics come
into light once more. When Napoleon led his expedition to Egypt, he brought
along hundreds of scholars. On a lucky day, lieutenant Pierre-Francois
Bouchard discovered an ancient Egyptian relic in a placed called Rosetta
(Figure 1.3). Atop were inscribed the same message in three languages: ancient
Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic script (ancient phonetic Egyptian), and
ancient Greek. Bouchard immediately realized the importance of his discovery
to cracking the hieroglyphic code, so he handed the Rosetta Stone to accompa-
nying scientist Jean-Joseph Marcel. Marcel copied the writings and brought
them back to France for further study. In 1801, France was defeated in Egypt,
and the physical tablet transferred to British hands, but Marcel’s prints were
circulated through Europe. Twenty-one years later in 1822, French linguist
Jean-Francois Champollion finally decoded the hieroglyphics on the Rosetta
Stone. Here, we see that the carrier of those writings, stone or paper, was unim-
portant. Instead, the writings themselves, the information, were the key.
Rosetta Stone deciphered, the entire history of ancient Egypt, dating back to
the 32nd century BC, was suddenly at the disposal of historians and linguists.
Thanks to this trove of information, modern day historians know much more
about the Egyptians of five thousand years ago than the Mayans of only one
thousand years ago. The Egyptians recorded the most important aspects of their
lives in writing, so the information lives on. As a natural language processing
researcher, I extract two guiding principles from the Rosetta Stone story.
First, redundancy vastly improves the chances that information can be com-
municated or stored without corruption. The Rosetta Stone repeated the same
content three times, so if at least one version remains readable, the stone is deci-
pherable. Fortunately, 2,000 years ago, someone had the foresight to copy
Ptolemy’s imperial edict in three languages. This concept of redundancy
extends to information encoding across noisy channels (for instance, wireless
networks). Consider naively that we send the same message twice. Then, it is
more likely our recipient will receive at least one of them.
Second, large amounts of bilingual or multilingual language data, known as a
corpus, are essential to translation. These data are the bases of machine trans-
lation. In this aspect, we do not require more knowledge than Champollion pos-
sessed, for the Rosetta Stone. We simply own more computers and apply
mathematical tools to speed up the process.
With Rosetta Stone’s importance in mind, we should not be surprised that so
many translation services and software are all named after Rosetta. These ser-
vices include Google’s own machine translation service, as well as the best-sell-
ing (or at least much advertised) software for foreign languages, Rosetta.
We have seen that the emergence of writing was induced by an ancient
“information revolution,” when people knew more than they could remember.
Similarly, the concept of numbers arose when people owned too many
6 The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science
They developed the “carry method” in base ten. This system was a great leap for-
ward for mankind: for the first time, man had developed a form of numeric
encoding, where different symbols represented different amounts.
Nearly all civilizations adopted the base ten system, but did there exist any
civilizations who counted in base twenty—that is, took full advantage of all ten
toes before switching to the carry system? The ancient Mayans did so. Their
equivalent to our “century” was the sun cycle, 400 years long each. In 2012,
the Mayans’ last sun cycle ended, and in 2013, the cycle began anew. This I
learned from a Mayan culture professor, when I visited Mexico. Somewhere
along the way, 2012’s “end of the sun cycle” became synonymous with “end of
the world.” In perspective, imagine if the turn of each century meant apocalypse
for us! Of course, we digress.
Compared to the decimal system, a base twenty system comes with nontriv-
ial inconveniences. Even a child, without sophisticated language or vocabulary,
can memorize a times tables, up to 9 times 9 equals 81. In base twenty, we would
have to memorize a 19 by 19 table, equivalent to a Go board you could say, with
19 times 19 equals 361 entries. Even in burgeoning human civilizations, around 1
AD, no one but scholars would have the mind to study such numbers. The base
twenty numeric system, coupled with a painfully difficult writing system, may
have significantly slowed the development of Mayan society. Within a single
tribe, very few were fully literate.
With respect to the different digits in base ten numbers, the Chinese and the
Romans developed distinct units of orders of magnitude. In the Chinese lan-
guage, there are words for ten, hundred, thousand, 104, 108, and 1012. In con-
trast, the Romans denote 1 as I, 5 as V, 10 as X, 50 as L, 100 as C, 500 as D,
and 1,000 as M, which is the maximum. These two representations unknowingly
captured elements of information encoding. First, different characters represent
different numerical concepts; and second, both imply an algorithm for decoding.
In ancient China, the rule of decoding was multiplication. Two million is written
as two hundred “ten-thousands,” or 2 × 100 × 10000. On the other hand, in
ancient Rome the rules were addition and subtraction. Smaller numbers to
the left meant subtraction, as IV signifies 5 − 1 = 4. The same numbers to the
right meant addition, as VI signifies 5 + 1 = 6. Unfortunately, the Roman
numeric system does not scale well to large numbers. If we wanted to express
one million, we would need to write MMMM. . . and cover up an entire wall
(Figure 1.5). Later the Romans invented M with a horizontal bar on top to rep-
resent “a thousand times a thousand,” but to express one billion, we would still
need to cover an entire wall. Therefore, from an efficiency standpoint, the Chi-
nese mathematicians were more clever.
However, the most efficient numeric system came from ancient India,
where today’s universal “Arabic numerals” actually originated. This system
included the concept of “zero,” and it was more abstract (hence flexible)
than that of both the Romans and the Chinese. As a result, “Arabic numerals”
were popularized throughout Europe, which learned of them through Arabic
scholars. This system’s success lay not only in its simplicity, but also in its
8 The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science
*If we treat each stroke of a Chinese character as a “letter,” we could consider Chinese as “alpha-
betic” as well, but only in two dimensions.
Words and languages, numbers and information 9
Around the time of the late Babylonians, two historical works were
produced: one Chinese, one Jewish. Chinese historian Sima Qian wrote a
530,000-word account of Chinese history in the classical style, and the ancient
Jews began documenting their history in the Middle East, under Babylonian
rule. This latter body of work consisted of Moses’ teachings, and we refer to
them collectively as the Torah. Its straightforward prose is similar to Sima
Qian’s writings, but unlike the Chinese manuscript, the Torah was taken into
the Bible, whose writing spanned many centuries. Later scribes worked from
manuscripts that were hundreds of years old themselves, so copying errors
were unavoidable. Scholars say that today, only Oxford University owns an
errorless copy of the ancient Bible.
Ancient Jewish scholars copied the Bible with utmost devotion and propri-
ety, washing their hands to pray before writing the words “God” or “Lord.” How-
ever, copy errors would undeniably emerge, so the scholars devised an error
detection method, similar to that used in computers today. They assigned
each Hebrew letter to a number, so that every row and column summed to a
known value. After coping each page, a scholar would verify that the sums on
the new page were the same as those on the old or conclude that he erred in
the transcription. Each incorrect sum for a row (or column) signified at least
one error on that row, so errors could be easily found and eliminated (see Figure
1.6). Like the ancient Hebrews, modern computers also use the idea of check-
sums to determine whether data is valid or corrupted.
FIGURE 1.6: Ancient Jewish scholars check every row and sum to verify that
they copied the Bible correctly.
Words and languages, numbers and information 11
From ancient times to now, language has become more accurate and rich,
largely due to advances in grammar. I am not a historian of languages, but I
would guess that with high probability, grammar started taking shape in
ancient Greek. If we consider morphology (constructing words from letters) as
the encoding rules for words, then grammar captures the encoding and decoding
for languages. However, while we can enumerate all words in a finite collection,
the set of possible sentences is infinite. That is, a few tomes worth of dictionary
can list all the words in the English language, but no one can compile all English
writings ever to exist. Mathematically speaking, while the former can be
completely described by a finite set of rules (trivially, we can enumerate all
words), the latter cannot.
Every language has its niche usages that grammar rules do not cover, but
these exceptions (or “inaccuracies”) give language its color. Occasional dog-
matic linguists treat these exceptions as “sick sentences.” They spend their
lives trying to eliminate the linguistic disease and purify the language through
new grammar rules, but their work is futile. Take Shakespeare, for instance.
Classics now and popular in his time, Shakespeare’s works often contained
famous, yet ungrammatical phrases. Many attempts were made to correct
(or rather, tamper with) his writings, but while these attempts have been
long forgotten, Shakespeare’s “incorrect” writings persisted. Shakespearean
brilliance, taught in schools around the world, originates from grammatical
“mistakes.”
Grammatical deviancy in literature leads to a controversy: do we consider
our existing bodies of text (corpus) as the true expression of language, or should
we designate a set of rules as correct usage? After three or four decades of debate,
natural language processing scientists converged on the former, that existing
data is truth. We will cover this period of history in Chapter 2.
1.4 Summary
In this chapter, we traced the history of words, numbers, and language
to pique the reader’s appetite for the mathematics intrinsic to our lives. Many
of the topics introduced here are the focus of later chapters, including the
following.
• Clustering
• Checksums (error detection and correction)
12 The Beauty of Mathematics in Computer Science
— En ole, Toini hyvä, minä samalla kannalla kuin sinä tämän asian
suhteen. Pidän rakkautta vakavana, mieluummin sanoisin pyhänä
asiana ja rehellisyyttä ihmisyyden ensimäisenä ehtona. Kuinka
voisikaan jatkuvasti pettää ihmistä, jonka kanssa syö samaa leipää!
— Hän ei tiedä minun täällä olostani mitään, enkä minä aio etsiä
häntä.
— Niin, jatkoi Toini, — sillä oli silloin muuan naikkonen, jota elätti
ja ylläpiti vakituisenaam. Mutta tuo veijaripa solmi salaiset suhteet
naisen kanssa, vietteli sen itseltään Valtoselta, joka ennen niin
monelta oli näiden omat ottanut. Ja voiko hullummin käydä kuin kävi
kerran! Valtosen astuessa huoneeseen, yllätti hän nämä kaikkein
sopimattomimmalla hetkellä! Silmänräpäys vain — ja poika löysi
itsensä liejuiselta kadulta. Tulinen on Sorjo Valtonen vihassaan,
miten kuuma lieneekään rakkaudessaan!
15.
Kuinka harmillista!
— Poissako kotoa?
Ilta pimeni.
— Aili ja Poju!
Kotiin… kotiin…
Ketään ei näkynyt.
Missä oli Sorjo? Aivan varmasti hän oli nähnyt hänet, kuullut
hänen äänensä ja hänen askeltensa kaiun autiolla kadulla… Kuinka
kummallista: hän oli täällä huoneessa ja kumminkin siellä ulkonakin.
17.
Ovelle koputettiin.
Mutta tulija olikin sairaanhoitajatar.
Niin oli kuin olisi hän itsekin lähellä täällä jossain näkymättömänä,
kuin voisi hän millä hetkellä tahansa astua piilostaan hymysuin ja
silmän pohjassa ilakoiva veitikka: tulinpas, tulinpas, kun lupasin;
suotta sinä Sanelma olet minua epäillyt!
18.
»Sanelma rouva!
Teidän
S.V.»
Sanelma luki sanat vielä kerran. Oliko hän tajuissaan? »Palatkaa
takaisin, palatkaa takaisin», kertasi hän itsekseen. Kortti putosi
hänen käsistään. Pää painui voimattomasti tyynyyn.
Rakas Greetta-täti!
20.
Rakas lapsi!
Herra kutsuu sinua, Sanelma. Oi, älä anna Hänen enää kauemmin
odottaa.
Riennä Golgatan ristin juureen, laske sinne taakkasi ja kumarru
Kaikkivaltiaan kasvojen eteen! Hän ottaa sinut vastaan sellaisena
kuin
olet, erheinesi, suruinesi. Hän on kirkastava Sinun järkesi näkemään
Hänen johdatustaan. Lapsi-kulta! Mustat pilvet peittävät päivän,
mutta
kun ne haihtuvat, olet näkevä Herran auringon entisessä
kirkkaudessaan.
Greetta-tätisi.
J.K. Olen kuullut, että Martti on kokonaan lopettanut
ryypiskelemisen. Hän on sulkeutunut kotiinsa, uurastaa vain
työssään ja karttaa ihmisten seuraa. Vapaahetkensä hän viettää
kosken rannalla yksin; luulen että hän suree.
Hän ehti valmiiksi hyvissä ajoin. Parisen tuntia oli vielä iltajunan
lähtöön. Sanelma heittäytyi sohvalle ottaakseen lyhyen unen yöllisen
valvonnan korvaukseksi.
Hiljainen koputus ovelle sai hänet havahtumaan, juuri kun hän oli
vaipumassa horteeseen. Sanelma kutsui tulijaa sisään, mutta
huomasi samassa äsken lukinneensa oven.
21.
— Sieltäkö Koskelta?
— Niin.
— Ja lapset…?
— Kotona.
— Viisi.
— Sinunko?
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