Lesson No.

Flow of Incompressible Fluid in

Pressure Conduits
A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit through which liquids or gases flow. In hydraulics,
pipes are commonly considered to be conduits of circular cross section which flow full. Conduits
flowing partially full are considered to be an open channels.
Fluid flow in pipes may be steady or unsteady. There are two types of a steady flow of
real fluids exist, they are called laminar flow and turbulent flow.

Laminar Flow

Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or
intersect. With this type of flow in conduits having parallel sides the path lines are parallel. Any
fluid will flow with laminar motion under certain limiting conditions. Conditions which tend to
produce laminar flow are low velocity, small cross-section, and high viscosity of fluid. The
viscosity of fluid is dominant and thus suppresses any tendency to turbulent conditions.

Turbulent Flow

Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross
each other and form a complicated network. The particles of a stream flowing with turbulent
motion occupy successively various transverse positions without any regularity, and their paths
are neither parallel nor fixed.

The limiting conditions which determine whether flow will occur with laminar or turbulent
motion were first investigated experimentally by Reynolds . In a large tank, he injected a fine
stream of colored water, with the water in the tank very quiet, and when the velocity was low
enough, the colored water appeared as a straight line extending through the tube, showing the
flow to be laminar. As the rate of flow was gradually increased, a velocity was finally obtained
at which the thread of color suddenly broke up and mixed with the surrounding water, showing
the flow to be turbulent.
The velocity at which the change from laminar to turbulent flow occurred was found to be
higher than that which caused the change from turbulent to laminar flow. Reynolds called these
velocities respectively the higher and the lower critical velocities.
As a result , Reynolds established a criterion applicable to all fluids for determining the type
of flow occurring under stated conditions. The numerical value of the expression

𝐷𝑉 𝐷𝑉𝜌
𝑁𝑅 = or 𝑁𝑅 =
𝑣 𝜇

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Where :
D = diameter of pipe 𝜇 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
V = velocity of the fluid 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑣 = kinematic viscosity

Velocity Head in a Pipe

2
The velocity head at any cross section of a stream of fluid is 𝛼𝑉 ⁄2𝑔, where V is the
average velocity at the cross section and 𝛼 is a coefficient greater than unity which corrects for
unequal distribution of velocities. In problems involving flow in pipes it is common to assume
that the velocities at all points of a cross section are equal, or that 𝛼 equals unity and that, the
kinetic energy contained in a fluid is equal to V2/2g .

Head Losses in Pipe Flow

Loss of head means loss of energy expressed in foot or meter, occurs in any flow of fluid
through a pipe. The loss is caused by: (1) pipe friction along the straight sections of pipe of
uniform diameter and uniform roughness; and (2) changes in velocity or direction of flow. Losses
of these two types are ordinarily referred to as major losses and minor losses.

1. Major Losses. This is continuous loss of head, hf , assumed to occur at a uniform rate along
the pipe as long as the size and quality of pipe remain constant, and is commonly referred to
as the loss of head due to pipe friction.

a. Darcy-Weisbach Formula

𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷 2𝑔
Where:
𝑓 = friction factor
𝐿 = length of pipe
𝐷 = pipe diameter
𝑉 = mean velocity of flow

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R

Where :

R = hydraulic radius

𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒,𝐴

R=
𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟,𝑃

b. Manning’s Formula
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 2.87 𝑛2 English System
𝐷 4/3

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 6.35 𝑛2 SI System
𝐷 4/3
Where:

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 𝑛 = roughness coefficient

Value of 𝑓:

For Laminar Flow:

64
𝑓=
𝑁𝑅

For Turbulent Flow:

1 𝑁𝑅 √𝑓
• For smooth pipes: = 2 log ( ) English unit
√𝑓 2.51
1 𝐷
• For pipes in which turbulence is fully developed: = 2 log ( 3.7 )
√𝑓 𝐾
1 𝑘 2.51
• For commercial pipes: = −2 log ( + )
√𝑓 3.7𝐷 𝑁𝑅 √𝑓

Where k = protuberances on the pipe surface

2. Minor Losses:

Minor losses are caused by the changes in direction or velocity of flow. These consists of:

a. A loss of head, ℎ𝑐 , due to contraction of cross section. This loss is caused by a reduction
in the cross-sectional area of the stream and the resulting increase in velocity. The
contraction may be sudden or it may be tapered. The loss of head at the entrance to a
pipe from a reservoir is a special case of loss due to contraction. The head loss is given
by the formula

𝑉2
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑘𝑐
2𝑔

Where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe.

𝑘𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

b. A loss of head, ℎ𝑒 , due to enlargement of cross section. This loss is caused by an increase
in the cross-sectional area of the stream with resulting decrease in velocity. The
enlargement may be either sudden or gradual. The loss of head at the outlet end of a
pipe where it discharges into a reservoir is a special case of loss of head due to
enlargement.. The head loss is given by the formula

𝑉2
ℎ𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒
2𝑔

Where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe.

𝑘𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

c. A loss of head, ℎ𝑜 , caused by obstructions such as gates or valves which produce a

change in cross-sectional area in the pipe or in the direction of flow. The result is

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 usually a sudden increase or decrease in velocity followed by a more gradual return to
the original velocity. The head loss is given by the formula

𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = 𝑘𝑜
2𝑔

Values of 𝑘𝑜 depends on the ratio of the opening of the gate valves with the nominal diameter of the
pipe ( d/D), where d is the height of opening and D is the diameter of the pipe. Velocity V is the mean
velocity in the pipe.

d. A loss of head, ℎ𝑏 , caused by bends or curves in pipes, in addition to the loss which
occurs in an equal length of straight pipe. Such bends may be of any total deflection
angle as well as any radius of curvature. Occasionally, as in a reducing elbow, the loss
due to the bend is superimposed on a loss due to change in velocity. The head loss is
given by the formula

𝑉2
ℎ𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏
2𝑔

The coefficient 𝑘𝑏 varies with the ratio of radius of curvature of pipe axis 𝑟, to pipe diameter D.

Total Head Loss ( 𝐻𝐿 )

𝐻𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑜 + ℎ𝑏

Energy and Hydraulic Grade lines

• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

Also known as pressure gradient . It is the graphical representation of the total potential
energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive piezometer
𝑝
tubes placed at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is + 𝑍.
𝛾

Characteristics of HGL

a. HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure.
b. For a uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL.
c. For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads between any two
points is also equal to the head lost between these points.

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 • Energy Grade Line (EGL)

A graphical representation of the total energy of flow ( the sum of kinetic and potential
𝑉2 𝑝
energies ). Its distance from the datum plane is + +𝑍.
2𝑔 𝛾

Characteristics of EGL

a. EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the
presence of pump.
b. The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between the points.
c. EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head, V2/2g .
d. Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.

Pipes of Different Diameters Connected in Series

ℎ𝑓1
𝑉2
EGL ℎ𝑐 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔
ℎ𝑓2
𝑝
⁄𝛾 ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑓3

𝑝 𝑝
⁄𝛾 ⁄𝛾

Pipe 1 pipe 2 pipe 3

For pipes of different diameters connected in series as shown in the figure above, the discharge
in all pipes are all equal and the total head lost is equal to the sum of the individual head
losses.
𝑄 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
And
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑓3

Neglecting minor losses

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3

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Pipes System with Branches in Parallel

The reservoirs A and B are connected by a system of pipes, as shown. Pipe 1 draws water from
reservoir A and leads to junction C which divides the flow to pipes 2 and 3, which join again in
junction D and flows through pipe 4. The sum of the flow in pipes 2 and 3 equals the flow in
pipes 1 and 4. Since the drop in the energy grade line between C and D is equal to the
difference in the levels of piezometers a and b, then the head lost in pipe 2 is therefore equal
to the head lost in pipe 3.

The necessary equations for the system are:

1. 𝑄1 = 𝑄4
2. 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
3. ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3
4. 𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓4

Sample Problem

Prob. 1. Water having kinematic viscosity v = 1.3 x 10-6 m2/sec flows in a 100 mm diameter pipe
at a velocity of 4.5 m/sec. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
Solution:
𝑉𝐷 4.5 𝑚/ sec 𝑥 0.1 𝑚
𝑁𝑅 = =
𝑣 1.3 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑁𝑅 = 346,154 > 4000 (turbulent flow)

Prob. 2. For laminar flow conditions, what size of pipe will deliver 6 liters per second of oil
having kinematic viscosity of 6.1 x 10-6 m2/sec ?
Solution:
For laminar flow, 𝑁𝑅 = 2100.
𝑉𝐷 𝑄
𝑁𝑅 = , 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 → 𝑉=
𝑣 𝐴

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 𝑄
(𝐴 )𝐷
𝑁𝑅 =
𝑣

0.006
𝜋 𝐷
( )𝐷2
4
2100 =
6.1 𝑥 10−6

𝐷 = 0.596 𝑚 = 596 𝑚𝑚

Prob. 3. A fluid having 𝑣 = 4 × 10−5 𝑚2 /sec flows in a 750 m long pipe having a diameter of
20mm. Determine the head lost required to maintain a velocity of 3m/sec.

Solution:

𝑉𝐷 3(0.02)
𝑁𝑅 = = = 1500 < 2100 (laminar flow)
𝑣 4×10−5

Then,
64 64
𝑓= = = 0.042667
𝑁𝑅 1500

𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 0.042667(750) 32
ℎ𝑓 = =
𝐷 2𝑔 0.02 2(9.81)

ℎ𝑓 = 733.945 𝑚

Prob. 4. Two pipes each 300 m long, are connected in series. The flow of water through the
pipes is 150 liters/sec with a total frictional loss of 15 m for both pipes. If one pipe has a
diameter of 300 mm, what is the diameter of the other pipe? Neglect minor losses and assume
𝑓 = 0.02 for both pipes.

Solution:

For pipes connected in series;

1. their flow rates are equal : 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 0.15 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

2. the total head loss is the sum of their individual head losses: 𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 = 15𝑚

𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 0.0826 𝑓 𝐿𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷5

0.0826 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑄1 0.0826(0.02)(300)(0.15)2
ℎ𝑓1 = = = 4.59 𝑚
𝐷15 (0.3)5

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 = 4.59 + ℎ𝑓2 = 15

ℎ𝑓2 = 10.41 m

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 0.0826 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑄22 0.0826(0.02)(300)(0,15)2
ℎ𝑓2 = = = 10.41 𝑚
𝐷25 𝐷25

𝐷2 = 0.225 𝑚 = 225 𝑚𝑚

Prob. 4. A pipe system, connecting two reservoirs whose difference in water surface elevation is
13 m, consists of 320 m of 600 mm diameter pipe (pipe 1), branching into 640 m of 300 mm
diameter pipe (pipe 2) and 640 m of 450 mm diameter pipe (pipe 3) in parallel, which join again
to a single 600 mm diameter line 1300 m long (pipe 3). Assuming 𝑓 = 0.032 for all pipes,
determine the flow rate in each pipe.

In Eq. (3) :

696.15 𝑄22 = 91.67𝑄32

𝑄3 = 2.756 𝑄2

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In Eq. (2);

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 2.756𝑄2

𝑄1 = 3.756 𝑄2 → 𝑄2 = 0.266 𝑄1

In Eq. (4);

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ4 = 13

13 = 10.877 𝑄12 + 696.15 (0.266𝑄1 )2 + 44.19(𝑄1 )2 , 𝑄1 = 𝑄4

104.32 𝑄12 = 13

𝑄1 = 0.353 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄2 = 0.266(0.353) = 0.094 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄3 = 2.756(0.094) = 0.259 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄4 = 𝑄1 = 0.353 𝑚3/sec

Branching Pipe Connecting Reservoirs at Different Elevations.

The Three Reservoir Problem.

In the figure shown below, the three reservoirs A, B, & C are connected by pipes 1, 2, and 3, with all
pipes connected at a common junction P.

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 If a piezometer is assumed to be at the junction P, the water surface in the tube will be a certain
distance ℎ𝑓1 below the surface in reservoir A. The surface of reservoir B is a distance 𝐻𝐵 = ℎ𝑓1 +ℎ𝑓2
below that of reservoir A and the surface of reservoir C is 𝐻𝑐 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3 below that of reservoir A. If
ℎ𝑓1 < 𝐻𝐵 , reservoir A will supply reservoirs B and C. If ℎ𝑓1 > 𝐻𝐵 , reservoirs A and B will supply
reservoir C.

Case 1. When ℎ𝑓1 < 𝐻𝐵 , reservoir A will supply reservoirs B and C.

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 , 𝐻𝐵 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 , 𝐻𝑐 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3

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Case 2. When ℎ𝑓1 > 𝐻𝐵 , reservoirs A and B will supply reservoir C.

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 , 𝐻𝐵 = ℎ𝑓1 − ℎ𝑓2 , 𝐻𝑐 = ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3

Sample Problem

Determine the flow in each in each pipe in the three reservoirs shown.

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Solution

0.0826 𝑓 𝐿 𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5

0.0826 (0.02)(1800)𝑄12
ℎ𝑓1 = = 290.4 𝑄12
(0.4)5

0.0826 (0.025)(2000)𝑄22
ℎ𝑓2 = = 132.2 𝑄22
(0.5)5

0.0826 (0.03)(4000)𝑄32
ℎ𝑓3 = = 30.25 𝑄32
(0.8)5

Direction of flow:

The flow in eac pipe is due to gravity. The flow in pipe 1 is away from reservoir A and the flow in
pipe 3 is towards reservoir C but the flow in pipe 2 is away or towards reservoir B. To determine the
direction of flow, assume that water surface in the piezometer be at the level of the water surface in B,
so that 𝑄2 = 0, then;

When 𝑄2 = 0 , ℎ𝑓1 = 30 𝑚 , as shown in the diagram; 30 = 290.4 𝑄12 ; 𝑄1 = 0.321 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

ℎ𝑓3 = 40 𝑚 ; 40= 30.25 𝑄32 ; 𝑄3 = 1.15 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Since 𝑄3 > 𝑄1 , means that the supply from reservoir A is not enough to supply reservoir C.
Reservoirs A and B will supply reservoir C.

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3

𝐻𝐵 = ℎ𝑓1 − ℎ𝑓2 = 80 − 50 = 30 m ; 30= 290.4𝑄12 − 132.2𝑄22

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 𝐻𝐶 = ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3 = 50 − 10 = 40 𝑚 ; 40 = 132.2 𝑄22 + 30.25 𝑄32

Solving the three unknowns, we obtain

𝑄1 = 0.416 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄2 = 0.392 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄3 = 0.808 𝑚3 /sec

Check ;

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3

0.416 + 0.392 = 0.808 (ok)

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