Learning Module No.

Fluid Flow Measurement

There are numerous number of devices used to measure the flow of fluids. In order to apply the
hydraulic devices intelligently, use of the Bernoulli’s Energy theorem and additional knowledge of
the characteristics and coefficients of each device is important. In the absence of reliable values
of coefficients, a device should be calibrated for the expected operating conditions.

COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY

The coefficient of velocity (𝐶𝑣 ) is the ratio of the actual mean velocity in the cross section of
a stream (jet) to the theoretical mean velocity that would occur without friction (losses).

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉

𝐶𝑣 = =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑡

COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION

The coefficient of contraction (𝐶𝑐 ) is the ratio of the contracted section of a stream (jet) to
the area of the opening through which the fluid flows.

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑗𝑒𝑡) 𝑎

𝐶𝑐 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE

The coefficient of discharge (C ) is the ratio of the actual discharge through the device to the
theoretical discharge. This coefficient can be expressed as:

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑄𝑎
𝐶= =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑄𝑡

Relationship of the Three Coefficients

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡

𝑄𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑉

𝑄𝑎 = (𝐶𝑐 𝑥 𝐴𝑜 )𝑥 (𝐶𝑣 𝑥 𝑉𝑡 ) but 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑥𝑉𝑡

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝑄𝑡

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑥 𝐶𝑣

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INSTRUMENTS USED FOR FLOW MEASUREMENT:

1. Venturi Meter

An instrument used in measuring the discharge through pipes. It consists of a short converging
tube 𝐵𝐶, connected to the approach pipe at the inlet end B, and ending in a cylindrical section
CD, called the throat. Usually built as an integral part of a Venturi meter is the diverging section
DE, connected to the pipe at the outlet end E. The angle of divergence is kept small to reduce
the loss of head caused by turbulence as the velocity is reduced.

Writing the energy equation between points 1 and 2, neglecting friction, and assuming uniform
distribution of velocity in each cross section,

𝑉1 2 𝑝1 𝑉22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Combining the kinetic and potential energies:

𝑉22 𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑝2
− =( + 𝑍1 ) − ( + 𝑍2 )
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

This equation shows that the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in potential
energy, a statement which has been called the Venturi principle. The difference in pressure
between the inlet and the throat is commonly measured by means of a differential manometer
connecting the inlet and throat.
The velocity heads are related by the equation of continuity, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉. With circular cross
sections, A varies directly as the square of the diameter D.

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝑉22 𝐷 𝑉12
Or = ( 1 )4 𝑥
2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔

The theoretical discharge "𝑄𝑡 " can be computed once 𝑉1 𝑜𝑟 𝑉2 is known. The actual discharge “𝑄"
can be computed by multiplying the theoretical value by the coefficient of discharge or meter
coefficient “C”.

𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑥 𝑄𝑡

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Note: If we neglect the head lost in our energy equation, the values that we can get are known
as theoretical values. Considering head lost, we can get the actual values.

Sample Problem.

A Venturi meter having a throat 4 inches in diameter is installed in a horizontal 12 inches pipe
line carrying a light oil (sp gr=0.82). A mercury U-tube connected as shown below shows a difference
in height of mercury columns of 9 inches, the remainder of the tube being filled with oil. Find the
rate of discharge, Q, in cubic feet per second, if C = 0.975.

Solution:

Writing the energy equation between points 1 and 2, neglecting lost head,

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 , 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉22 𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑝2
− = −
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

From the differential manometer reading,

𝑝1 𝑝2 9 13.6 9
− = × − = 11.7 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝛾 𝛾 12 0.82 12

From the diameter ratio at points 1 and 2 and the equation of continuity,

𝑉22 𝐷 𝑉12 12 𝑉12 𝑉12 𝑉12

= ( 1 )4 𝑥 = ( )4 𝑥 = 34 = 81
2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 4 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22 𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑉12 𝑉12

Substituting − = − → 81 − = 11.7 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉12 𝑉12
80 = 11.7 → = 0.146 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝜋 12
𝑉1 = 3.06 𝑓𝑡/ sec 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = ( )2 𝑥 3.06 = 2.4 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
4 12

Thus 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑥 𝑄𝑡 = 0.975 𝑥 2.4

Actual discharge 𝑄 = 2.34 𝑓𝑡 3 / sec ( 𝑐𝑓𝑠)

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 2. Nozzle

A nozzle is a converging tube attached to the end of a pipe or hose which serves to
increase the velocity of the issuing jet.

The energy equation for a horizontal nozzle written between points 1 and 2 is:

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22
+ = + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

Where:
𝑝1 = gage pressure at the base of the nozzle
𝑉1 = mean velocity at the base
𝑉2 = mean velocity in the jet
The head lost can be expressed as a percentage of the velocity head in the jet.

Sample Problem:

1
A 2 -inches fire hose discharges water through a nozzle having a jet diameter of 1 inch. The
2
lost head in the nozzle is 4% of the velocity head in the jet. If the gage pressure at base of
nozzle is 60 lb per square inch, compute the discharge in gallons per minute.

Solution:

Refer to the figure of the nozzle above.

Given : 𝐷1 = 2.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑝1 = 60 psi
𝑉22
𝐷2 = 1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝐻𝐿 = 4%
2𝑔
Required : Discharge in gal/min.
Continuity equation: 𝑄 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 → 𝐷12 𝑉1 = 𝐷22 𝑉2

2.5
𝑉2 = ( )2 𝑉1 𝑉2 = 6.25 𝑉1
1
Energy equation between 1 and 2:

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22 𝑉12 60 𝑥 144 (6.25 𝑉1 )2 0.04(6.25𝑉1 )2

+ = + 𝐻𝑙 → + = +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 62.4 2𝑔 2𝑔

For g = 32.2 ft/sec2 , and solving for 𝑉1 , we obtain

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 𝑉1 = 15 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 substitute to 𝑉2 = 6.25 𝑉1 we get 𝑉2 = 93.75 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 2.5 2 𝑓𝑡 3 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Then the discharge 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = ( ) (15) = 0.511 x 𝑥
4 12 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 = 229.5 𝑔𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛

3. Pitot Tube

A bent L-shaped tube with both ends open as shown below which is used to measure
the velocity of fluid flow.

When the tube is placed in a moving stream in the position shown above, the liquid enters
the opening at point 2 until the surface in the tube rises a distance h above the surface of the
stream. A condition of equilibrium is then established, and the quantity of liquid in the tube
remains unchanged as long as the flow remains steady. Point 2 at the face of the tube facing the
tube is called a point of stagnation.
As a particle flows from point 1 to point 2 its velocity is gradually retarded from V to practically
zero at point 2. The velocity head at point 2 may therefore be called zero. Writing the energy
equation between 1 and 2, the elevation heads being equal and friction neglected,

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑝1 𝑝2
Where 𝑉1 = 𝑉 ; = ℎ1 ; = ℎ2 ; 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 ; 𝑉2 = 0
𝛾 𝛾

𝑉2 𝑉2
+ ℎ1 = ℎ2 → = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

Sample Problem:

A glass tube with a 90° bend is open at both ends. It is inserted into a flowing stream of oil
(sp. Gr. = 0.90) so that one opening is directed upstream and the other is directed upward If the
oil inside the tube is 50 mm higher than the surface outside, determine the velocity measured by
the tube.
Solution :

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 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ (theoretical velocity)
𝑚
𝑉 = √2 (9.81 ) (0.05 𝑚)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑉 = 0.99 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

4. Orifice

An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which a fluid flows. The usual
purpose of an orifice is the measurement or control of flow.
The upstream edge of an orifice may be rounded or sharp. An orifice with prolonged
sides, such as a piece of pipe two or three diameters in length, is called a tube. Longer
tubes such as culverts under embankments are frequently treated as orifices although they
may also be treated as short pipes.

Orifice used for measuring flow are usually circular, square, or rectangular in cross
section. Because of simplicity of design and construction, sharp-edged circular orifices are
most common for fluid measurement and have been most thoroughly investigated by
experiment, although much remains to be learned about the laws governing their discharge,
particularly for fluids other than water.

Velocity of Discharge

The figure above represents the general case of a liquid discharging through a vertical
rounded orifice. There are two chambers, A and B, the gas pressures in these chambers
being respectively 𝑝𝐴 and 𝑝𝐵 , and the relative amounts of the pressures being such that
flow is from A to B, 𝑉𝐴 be the velocity of the stream normal to the plane of the orifice
(velocity of approach). Consider two points 1 and 2 such that 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉2 = 𝑉 and
writing the energy equation between these two points neglecting losses:

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍1
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑝1 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾ℎ ; 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝐵

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 𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾ℎ 𝑉2 𝑝𝐵
+ +0= + +0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 𝑉2 𝑝𝐵
+ +ℎ = +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉2 𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵 𝑉𝐴2
=ℎ + − +
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵
𝑉 = √2𝑔 [ℎ + +( − )]
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵
Let 𝐻 = ℎ + ( − ) , then 𝑉𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻 (theoretical velocity)
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 (actual velocity)

The condition most encountered is that in which the surface of the liquid in chamber A
and the jet in chamber B are each exposed to the atmosphere. Then 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 , and

𝑉𝐴2
𝑉𝑡 = √2𝑔 [ℎ + ]
2𝑔

If the cross-sectional area of the reservoir or channel leading to the orifice is large in
comparison with the area of the orifice the velocity of approach becomes negligible, and

𝑉𝑡 = √2𝑔ℎ

Coefficient of Velocity

The actual velocity in the jet is less than the theoretical velocity because of the
frictional resistance that occurs as the fluid enters and passes through the orifice.
𝑉
𝐶𝑣 = , and 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 ( actual velocity )
𝑉𝑡

Coefficient of Contraction

The figure shown below represents a cross section of a vertical sharp-edged orifice
discharging a liquid from a reservoir into the atmosphere. The particles of the liquid
approach the orifice in converging paths from all directions. Because of the inertia of those
particles with velocity components parallel to the plane of the orifice, they cannot make
abrupt changes in their directions the moment they reach the orifice, and they therefore
follow curvilinear paths, thus causing the jet to contract for a short distance beyond the
orifice. This phenomenon is referred to as the contraction of the jet. The section on the
jet where the contraction of the jet ceases is called the vena contracta which is located
at one half of the orifice diameter (D/2) from the plane of the orifice.

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Coefficient of Discharge.

It is usual to replace the product 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 with a single coefficient 𝐶, called the coefficient
of discharge. The equation for the discharge of a fluid through an orifice thus becomes

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴 √2𝑔𝐻

Head Lost in an Orifice.

Orifice flow is no exception to the general rule that fluid in motion is always
accompanied by an expenditures of energy. For use in hydraulic engineering problems, the
loss of head due to flow through an orifice is conveniently expressed in two ways:

1. As a function of the velocity head in the jet;

Consider a fluid to be discharging from an orifice under a total head H. The velocity
of discharge is 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻, from which the original head

1 𝑉2
𝐻= ∙
𝐶𝑣2 2𝑔

𝑉2
The head remaining in the jet is velocity head, . The lost head, 𝐻𝑜 = original head
2𝑔
minus remaining head in the jet, or

1 𝑉2 𝑉2 1 𝑉2
𝐻𝑜 = ∙ − = ( − 1)
𝐶𝑣2 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐶𝑣2 2𝑔

2. As a function of the original head;

𝑉2
= 𝐶𝑣2 𝐻
2𝑔
Hence the lost head

𝐻𝑜 = 𝐻 − 𝐶𝑣2 𝐻 = (1 − 𝐶𝑣2 )𝐻

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 Discharge Under Falling Head

The flow through orifice is said to be steady only if the total head producing flow, H, is constant.
The amount of fluid being discharged for a time t can therefore be computed using the formula

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑄𝑡

Where Q is the discharge, which is constant or steady. In some conditions, the head over an
orifice may vary as the fluid flows out and causing the flow to be unsteady.
Referring to the figure above, at an instant when the head is h, the discharge is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ.
In an infinitesimal time dt, the corresponding volume which flows out is

𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑄 = → 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑄 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

In the same infinitesimal time the head will drop and the volume discharged will be 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ,
where 𝐴𝑠 is the area of liquid surface as shown above. Equating the values of 𝑑𝑉 :

𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝑡

𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ √ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = = = ∙
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 √ℎ 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 √ℎ √ℎ

ℎ
𝐴𝑠 ℎ 2 𝐴𝑠 ℎ1/2 1
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √
∫ ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ =
2𝑔 ℎ
[ ]
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 1/2 ℎ
1
2

2𝐴𝑠
𝑡= (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔
Where 𝐴𝑜 = area of orifice.

Sample Problems:

Prob. 1. A 1.5 m diameter vertical cylindrical tank, 3 m high contains 2.5 m of water. A 100 mm
diameter circular sharp-edged orifice is located at its bottom. Assume C = 0.6.
a. How long will it take to lower the level to 1 m.

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 b. How long will it take to empty the tank after opening the orifice?

Solution:
𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = (1.5)2 = 1.767 𝑚3
4

𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = (0.1)2 = 0.00785 𝑚2
4

2𝐴𝑠 2(1.767)
a. 𝑡= (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 ) = (√2.5 − √1)
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 0.6(0.00785)√2(9.81)

𝑡 = 98.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

2(1.767)
b. 𝑡= (√2.5 − √0 )
0.6(0.00785)√2(9.81)

t = 267.72 sec.

Prob. 2.

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