The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Introduction:-

The concept " Nationalism" Means The feeling of togetherness or common identity and
common Belongingness.

During nineteenth century the idea of Nationalism emerged as a force which brought
huge changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The French Revolution of 1789
paved the way for modern nation- state in French.

Frederic Sorrieu vision of world

Frederic sorrieu, a French artist, in 1848 prepared a series of four prints visualising his
dream of a World made-up of democratic and Social Republics.

1. The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train and
offering homage to the statue of liberty🗽 as they pass it.
The touch of Enlightenment was carried by a female figure in one hand and the charter
of the Rights of man in the other.

2. On the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions.

3. In sorrieu's utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations,
identified through their flags and national costume.

4. The procession was led by the United States and Switzerland, followed by France and
Germany.
Following the German people are the people of Austria, the kingdom of the two sicilies,
Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.

5. From the heavens above, Christ, saint and angels gaze upon the scene. They have
been used by artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations of the world.
The French Revolution and the idea of the Nation state

French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism.

To emphasise the nation as a United community the French Revolution introduced new
ideas like
La patrie ( the father land) and le citoyen ( the citizen) , and a new French flag
amongst the French people.

It introduced a centralised administrative system with uniform law for all citizens.

Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language in the
country.

New hymn composed and oaths taken.

Internal customs duties and dues were abolished.

Napoleon code

Napoleon destroyed democracy in France, but he incorporated revolutionary principles

by introducing Civil code of 1804, which came to be known as the Napoleon code.

*The code removed all privileges based on birth.

* Equality before law was established.
* Simplified administrative measures.
* Abolished feudal system.
* Freed pheasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
* Guild system was removed and transport and communication system improved.

Napoleon took away political freedom, increased taxes, imposed censorship and
forced people to join French army.

The making of Nationalism in Europe

Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and Cantons whose
rulers had their autonomous territories.

Some important factors led to the rise of nationalism in Europe are...

• The rise of new middle class.

• The spread of the ideology of liberalism.
• The new spirit of conservatism and the Treaty of Vienna.
• The rise of Revolutionaries.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle class

The Aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent politically and socially. They
owned estates and property both in countryside and town houses.

Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century.

New social groups came into existence. A working class population and middle classes
made up of industrialist, businessman, doctors, teachers and other professionals.

Liberal Nationalism

The term ' Liberalism' means Free. For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for
freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.

In France, the right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-
owning person.

Men without properties and women were excluded from this right. In the economic
sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed
restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

In 1834 , a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined
by most of the German states. The Union abolished tarriff barriers and reduced the
number of currencies from over thirty to two.

A new Conservatism after 1815

In 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. It means

holding the traditional views.
Conservatives believed in monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and that
the family should be preserved.

They thought that, a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy could
strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.

Treaty of Vienna (1815)

In 1815, representatives of the European powers - Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria
met in Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.

The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power and France lost the territories it had
annexed under Napoleon.
The Revolutions: 1830-1848

In July 1830 , Bourbon king were overthrown by the liberal revolutionaries who installed
a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. The July Revolution sparked an
uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands. In 1821 Greeks struggled for independence.

The Romantic Imagination and National feeling

* Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the Nation. Art and poetry,
stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.

*Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.

Hunger, Hardship and popular Revolt

Europe faced economic hardship in the 1830s.The first half of the nineteenth century
saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread Pauperism ( poverty)
in town and country.
In 1848 food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris
out on the roads.

The Revolution of Liberals

In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway. Men and women
of liberal middle class demanded creation of a nation- state on parliamentary principles -
a Constitution and freedom of association.

A large number of political associations came together in Frankfurt to vote for an all
German National Assembly. On 18 may 1848,831 elected representatives marched to
take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convinced in the Church of St Paul.

The Constitution drafted for German nation was headed by a monarchy, subject to a
parliament. The crown was offered to Friedrich wilhem IV, king of Prussia but he rejected
it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The Middle Class
dominated the Parliament and a large number of women Participated in liberal
movement.

Women formed their own Political associations, founded newspaper and took part in
political meeting and demonstrations, but they were still denied suffrage rights during
the election of the Assembly.

The making of Germany and Italy

Unification of Germany ~
- In Germany, nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class, who in 1848
tried to unite the different regions of the German Confederation into a Nation- state
governed by an elected Parliament.

- These effort were suppressed by the monarchy and military and the landowners in
Prussia.

- The national unification was taken under by the leadership of Prussia.

- Otto-von Bismark of Prussia played the role of a main leader in act of nation- building.

- 1871 Kaiser William I was declared as the new Emperor of a new Empire.

- The unification of Germany established Prussian dominance in Europe.

- Currency, banking, legal and judicial systems were introduced by the New German
Empire.

Unification of Italy

- During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven States. Out of which
only one state Sardinia Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Princely House. All other regions
were dominated by different Kings.

Contribution of famous personalities

1. Giuseppe Mazzini

Around 1930's Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society called Young Italy and also
Young Europe in Berne. Matternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our
social order'.

2. Count Camillo de Cavour

Count Cavour the chief minister of Sardinia Piedmont led the movement for the
unification of Italy. In 1859 , Sardinia Piedmont defeated Australian forces.

3. Giuseppe Garibaldi

He was a central figure in the unification of Italy. In 1833 he met Mazzini and joined the
young Italy movement. In 1860 he led the famous expedition of the thousand to South
Italy with his 'Red shirt' army.

Proclamation of Unification of Italy in 1860 marched into South Italy and the
kingdoms of the two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasant.

In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of United Italy.

The Growth of Great Britain

Prior to the eighteenth century there was no Britain nation. The nation became powerful
as it steadily grew in wealth, importance and power.

The Act of Union (1707)

Between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain. It means in effect that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.

In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom

A new British nation was formed. The symbol of new Britain were British flag( union
Jack), the National Anthem ( God save our Nobel King) and the English language.

Visualising the Nation

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries artists represented a country as a person

and nations as female figures. During the French Revolution, female figures portray ideas
such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic. Liberty is represented as a red cap, or the
broken chain.

Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalism no longer retained after the last quarter of the nineteenth century. After
1871,the most tensioned area was called the Balkans a region comprising modern day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia and Montenegro.

Ottoman Empire made the Balkans region explosive and all through the nineteenth
century they strengthened themselves through modernisation and internal reforms. Due
to various conflicts the Balkan became an area of intense conflict.

During this period, intense rivalry built among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might which led to a series of wars in the region
and finally the first world War.

In 1914 , Europe was disastered because of Nationalism, aligned with imperialism.

Anti-imperial movement were developed but they all struggled to form independent
nation- States. But the idea of 'nation- state' was accepted as natural and universal.

Textual Questions: Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Question 1. Write a note on:

a) Guiseppe Mazzini
b) Count Camillo de Cavour
c) The Greek war of independence
d) Frankfurt Parliament
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
Answer: a.
  Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in
1807. He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he
was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
 Mazzini believed that God has intended the nations to be the natural units of
mankind, So he did not want Italy to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.
 He founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young
Europe’ in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland,
France, Italy and the German States. Young Italy was a secret society formed to
promote Italian unification: “One, free, independent, Republican Nation.”
 Mazzini, an Italian nationalist was a fervent advocate of republicanism and
envisioned a united, free and independent Italy.
 Often viewed in Italy of the time as a god-like figure, the antifascist Mazzini
Society, founded in the United States in 1939 by Italian political refugees, took his
name; they, like him, served Italy from exile.
b.
 Count Camilo de Cavour: Cavour was chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state who
led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a
Democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he
spoke French much better than he did Italian. He engineered a careful diplomatic
alliance with France, which helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat the Austrian forces in
1859, and thereby free the northern part of Italy from the Austrian Habsburgs.
 Cavour’s diplomacy had by this time earned him the reputation of being one of the
most skilful of European statesmen.
 Cavour is remembered as probably the most significant figure in the Italian
Risorgimento or resurgence.
c.
 The Greek War of Independence mobilised nationalist feelings among educated
elite across Europe.
 This was a successful war of independence waged by Greek revolutionaries
between 1821 and 1829 against the Ottoman Empire.
 Following years of negotiation, three Great Powers—Russia, Britain and France—
decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece.
 The Greeks were supported by the West European countries, while poets and
artists hailed Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised the public
opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. Finally, the Treaty of
Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
 The Greek Revolution is celebrated by the modern Greek state as a national day on
25 March.
d.
 The Frankfurt Parliament: It was an all-German National Assembly formed by the
middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans belonging to the
different German regions.
 It was convened on 18 May 1848 in the Church of St. Paul, in the city of Frankfurt.
This assembly drafted a constitution for the German nation to be headed by a
monarchy subject to a parliament.
 After long and controversial debates, the assembly produced the so-called
Frankfurt Constitution which proclaimed a German Empire based on the principles
of parliamentary democracy.
  However, it faced opposition from the aristocracy and military. Also, as it was
dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and
artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end, it was forced to disband
on 31 May 1849.
e.
 The role of women in nationalist struggles: The issue of extending political rights to
women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large
numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
 Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken
part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied
suffrage during the election of the Assembly.
 When the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul, women were
admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
 Nations were portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to
personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life rather it
sought to give the abstract idea of a nation a concrete form.
 Thus women participated in nationalist movements but were not given equality in
political rights.

Question 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of
collective identity among the French people?
Answer: The French revolutionaries took many important steps to create a sense of
collective identity among the French people which were:
 Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasising the
notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
 A new French flag, a tricolour replaced the royal standard.
 The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and was elected by a
group of active citizens.
 New hymns, oaths and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.
 A central administrative system made uniform laws for the entire nation.
 Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights
and measures was adopted.
 Discouraging regional dialects and promoting French as a common language of the
nation.

Question 3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of
the way in which they were portrayed?
Answer: Marianne and Germania were respective female allegories for the French and
the German nation. They stood as personifications of ideals like ‘liberty’ and ‘the
republic’. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the
national symbol of unity to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were
marked on coins and stamps. The importance of the way in which they were portrayed
lay in the fact that the public could identify with their symbolic meaning, and this would
instil a sense of national unity in them. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves as the
German oak stands for heroism.

Question 4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer: In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the middle-class
Germans. They united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous German
States. But the monarchy and the military got together to repress them and they gained
support from the landowners of Prussia (the Junkers) too. Prussia soon became the leader
of German unification movement. Its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect
of the process with support from Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy. The unification
process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark and France over
seven years time. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising currency
banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. In January 1871, the Prussian king,
William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Question 5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative

system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
Answer: Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system
more efficient in the areas ruled by him:
 He established civil code in 1804 also known as the Napoleonic Code. It did away
with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before the law and
secured the right to property.
 He simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system, and freed peasants
from serfdom and manorial dues.
 In towns too, guild systems were removed. Transport and communication systems
were improved.
 Peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed the new found freedom.
 Each state possessed its own currency and weights and measures.

Discuss
Question 1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What
were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Answer: The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to the discontent and various national
movements pioneered by educated middle classes alongside the revolts of the poor,
unemployed and starving peasants and workers in Europe. While in countries like France,
food shortages and widespread unemployment during 1848 led to popular uprisings, in
other parts of Europe (such as Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire),
men and women of the liberal middle classes came together to voice their demands for
the creation of nation-states based on parliamentary principles. The political, social and
economic ideas supported by the liberals were:
 Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification, a nation-
state with a written constitution and parliamentary administration. They wanted to
establish individual freedom and equality before the law and equal political rights.
 Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based partialities and birthrights.
Serfdom and bonded labour had to be abolished.The Issue of political rights to
women also was a social issue. Liberal also stressed the inviolability of private
property.
  Economically they demanded freedom of markets and right to property. Abolition of
state imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.

Question 2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the

growth of nationalism in Europe.
Answer: Three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of
nationalism in Europe were:
 Romanticism was a European cultural movement aimed at developing national
unity by creating a sense of shared heritage and common history. The Romantic
artists’ emphasis on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings gave shape and
expression to nationalist sentiments. The strength of art in promoting nationalism
is well exemplified in the role played by European poets and artists in mobilising
public opinion to support the Greeks in their struggle to establish their national
identity.
 Folk songs, dances, and poetry contributed to popularising the spirit of nationalism
and patriotic fervour in Europe. Collecting and recording the different forms of folk
culture was important for building a national consciousness. Being a part of the
lives of the common people, folk culture enabled nationalists to carry the message
of nationalism to a large and diverse audience. The Polish composer Karol Kurpinski
celebrated and popularised the Polish nationalist struggle through his operas and
music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
 The language also played a distinctive role in developing nationalist feelings in
Europe. An example of this is how during the Russian occupation, the use of Polish
came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance. During this
period, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language
was imposed everywhere. Following the defeat of an armed rebellion against
Russian rule in 1831, many members of the clergy in Poland began using language
as a weapon of national resistance. They did so by refusing to preach in Russian,
and by using Polish for Church gatherings and religious instruction. A large number
of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities
as punishment for their refusal to preach Russia. The emphasis on the use of
vernacular language, the language of the masses, helped spread the message of
national unity.

Question 3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations

developed over the nineteenth century.
Answer: The development of the German and Italian nation-states in the nineteenth
century.
 Political fragmentation: Till the middle of the nineteenth century, the present-day
nations of Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms
ruled by different princely houses.
 Revolutionary uprisings: Nineteenth-century Europe was characterised by both
popular uprisings of the masses and revolutions led by the educated, liberal middle
classes. The middle classes belonging to the different German regions came
together to form an all-German National Assembly in 1848. However, on facing
opposition from the aristocracy and military, and on losing its mass support base, it
 was forced to disband. From then on Prussia took on the leadership of the
movement for national unification.
 In the Italian region, during the 1830s, revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini sought
to establish the unitary Italian Republic. However, the revolutionary uprisings of
1831 and 1848 failed to unite Italy.
 Unification with the help of the army: After the failure of the revolutions, the
process of German and Italian unification was continued by the aristocracy and the
army. Germany was united by the Prussian chief minister Otto von Bismarck with
the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. The German Empire was
proclaimed in 1871.
 The Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont played a role similar to that played by
Prussia. Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief Minister) led the movement to unite
the separate states of nineteenth-century Italy with the help of the army and an
alliance with France. The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts
joined with the northern regions to form a united Italy. The Italian nation was
proclaimed in 1861 and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. The
papal states joined in 1870.

Question 4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of
Europe?
Answer: The history of nationalism in Britain was unlike the rest of Europe because:
In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution.
 The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic
ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
 The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the
end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation state, with
England at its centre, came to be forged.
 The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of
the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant that England was able to impose its
influence on Scotland. Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were
systematically suppressed.
 The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear
their national dress and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
 The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a
largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were
suppressed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
 The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag, the national anthem, the English
language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as
subordinate partners in this union.

Question 5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer:
 Balkans were comprised of various geographic and ethnic nations like modern
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and many. A large part of the Balkans was under the
control of the Ottoman empire.
 Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because of the spread of ideas of
romantic nationalism as also the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire that had
previously ruled over this area. The different Slavic communities in the Balkans
began to strive for independent rule. One by one European subject nationalities
broke away from its control and declared independence.
 They were jealous of each other and every state wanted more territory, even at the
expense of others. Also, the hold of imperial power over the Balkans made the
situation worse. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary all wanted more
control over this area. These conflicts ultimately led to the First World War in 1914.