The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 1

Completion and Workover Fluid Basics Sea/Bay Waters

Introduction Sea/bay waters are readily available in coastal areas. Sodium chloride
Completion and Work over represent the final phase of well construction (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl) may be added to adjust weight and
before production and for maintenance of a well during its productive inhibit clay swelling. All fluids should be checked for:
life.
• Solids contamination
These operations can be grouped into three sections:
• Completion - Referred to as primary or initial completion of • Possible introduction of bacteria
the formation in a well bore. (Can also be referred to in • Dissolved mineral or solids which may precipitate as insoluble
sidetrack operations when completing the same or different substances
zone aside from the original well bore path)
• Re-Completion - Completing a new (usually higher zone) in Formation Water
the original well bore path (Can also refer to sidetrack Formation water is commonly used as a work over fluid because it is
operations) cost efficient and it minimizes clay swelling, dispersion, and migration.
• Work Over - Performing repair or restoration to the existing Formation water is often considered a clean and ready to use fluid;
producing zone
however, this is frequently not the case. Formation water often contains
Note: Re-Completion and work over are terms that are often used a number of impurities and checks must be made for:
interchangeably. • Solids contamination
• Paraffin’s and asphaltenes
Fluids • Treating chemicals
Purpose • Compatibility with the zone of interest
Completion and work over fluids are used to increase the productivity of
wells by reducing damage to the producing zone. Drilling and
Brine fluids
Completion fluids are both used during Completion and Work Over to
Brine salts used in completion and work over can be classified as having
prepare, repair, clean out and complete the well bore. The selection and
sequence of use are based on formation damage potential, operational either monovalent or divalent cations. As a general rule monovalent and
and economic needs. divalent salts are not mixed together. There are a few exceptions, e.g.,
KCl/CaCl2 & NaBr/ZnBr2.
Three Primary Operational Groups
• Drilling Fluids
• Dril-N Fluids Monovalent solutions Divalent solutions
• Completion Fluids Organic & Inorganic

Completion and work over base fluids can be categorized as: Ammonium chloride
Sodium chloride
• Water-Based Systems
Sodium bromide
• Brine-Based Systems Calcium chloride
Sodium formate
• Oil-Based Systems Calcium bromide
Potassium chloride
• Synthetic-Based Systems Zinc bromide
Potassium bromide
Potassium formate
Cesium formate
Water Based Systems
Water based systems are used for Drilling Fluids and certain Dril-N Monovalent and divalent solutions: Monovalent solutions contain
compositions. Drilling fluids are used in Completion/Workover when well sodium and potassium & cesium; divalent solutions contain calcium and
bore clean out and/or well bore extension/side track are necessary. In zinc. (Sea Water and Formation waters are mildly divalent)
Mono & Divalent Fluids
some wells where sand control is not an issue and no specialized zone
Monovalent salts and some two salt solutions (NaCl/KCl, NaCl/NaBr,
work is needed, WBM can be used through the completion process and KBr/KCl & NaBr/KBr) can be blended as single salt solutions to a
is sometimes specially treated and used as a packer fluid. maximum of 13 lb/gal. Cesium formate can be blended to higher
Water base systems can consist of: densities up to 19.7 lb/gal.
• Lignosulfonate Weight adjustment of monovalent salts is accomplished by addition of
sack salts or water. In some instances it may be practical to blend a
• High & Low Lime
solution of a monovalent salt to/or near saturation and use the resultant
• PHPA spike fluid as a weight adjustment medium.
• MMH Divalent salts can be blended as single or multiple salt solutions.
• Silicate Maximum density possible is 20.5 lb/gal. Density is adjusted by the
• Foam/Aerated addition of sack divalent salts or divalent salt solution. Water can be
used to adjust CaCl2, but should never be used with any fluid density
• K-Lig
higher than 11.6 lb/gal.
• Cationic Polymer
Note: Zinc fluids above 19.2 lb/gal are extremely acidic and require
Clear-fluid Systems special handling. Zinc fluids above 19.2 are used in special
Clear fluid systems include: circumstances only.
• Sea/bay waters
Addition of water to divalent salt solutions above 11.6 lb/gal is very cost
• Formation water
ineffective and can actually cost more than the use of a fluid solution.
• Brine fluids Insoluble precipitants can form in the fluid with the addition of water
especially in fluids containing zinc.
Note: Formation, sea and bay waters are mildly divalent solutions.
These fluids should never be used to reduce weight in a divalent salt
solution, nor should divalent salts be added to sea/bay waters. Sea/bay
waters contain an abundance of dissolved minerals that frequently react
and precipitate out as solids.

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 2
Brine Densities Oil-based systems
Comparative densities of solids-free completion fluids
Comparative densities of solids-free completion fluids Oil-based systems can consist of
20.5 (2.46) • Crude oil
19.7 (2.36) • Diesel oil
19.2 (2.30)
• Mineral oil
Crude Oil
Crude can be used, as a completion fluid but is not suitable for a drilling
Density in lb/gal

15.4 (1.85)
15.1 (1.81) or Dril-N fluid.
Potential risks are:
13.3 (1.60) • Crude oil has low viscosity, a limited carrying capacity, and no
12.7 (1.53) gel strength.
11.8 (1.42)
11.5 (1.38)
• Fluid loss to the formation is not harmful to clay hydration and

CaCl 2/CaBr 2/ZnBr 2

11.1 (1.33) migration; however, since it has no fluid loss control, very fine

CaCl 2 /CaBr 2
solids can enter the formation.

NaBr 2 /NaCl
10.0 (1.20)
Na formate

Cs formate
K formate
NaCl/KCl

KBr/KCl

9.7 (1.16)
Crude oil should be checked for:

CaBr 2

ZnBr 2
CaCl 2
NaCl
NCl

• Presence of asphaltenes and paraffin’s which can damage the

Solids-free fluids
formation
• Possibility of emulsion forming with formation water
• Solids contamination
Synthetic Fluids
Synthetic-based systems can consist of Diesel Oil
• Esters Diesel oil is used as a base for Completion, Dril-N and Drilling fluids
• Olefins when a clean and low-density fluid is needed.
• Specialty base Diesel oil should be checked for:
Ester • Possible solids contamination
Esters can be used as a base for Drilling, Dril-N and Completion Fluids. • Wettability problems if it was obtained from a refinery before
Esters can be prepared from a variety of base stocks of differing fuel additives were added
molecular chain structure and bond. Each ester base can be a blend or • Possible introduction of bacteria
single material.
Areas to check include: Mineral oil
• Possible solids contamination Mineral oil is used as a base for Completion, Dril-N and Drilling Fluids
• Aliphatic and benzene ring contamination where disposal can be easily handled and has less environmental impact
than diesel, and it also minimizes permeability damage to the formation.
Olefin
Olefins can be used as a base for Drilling, Drill-N and Completion Fluids. Mineral Oil should be checked for
Olefins come in a variety of molecular structures and chain lengths; they • Possible solids contamination
are usually LAO; Linear Alpha Olefin, IO; Internal Olefin or PAO; Poly • Possible introduction of bacteria
Alpha Olefin.
Olefins should be checked for:
• Benzene Ring Contamination

Specialty Base
Specialty based systems are suitable for drilling fluid application.
They are composed of organic extracts and or hydrocarbon fractions
such as paraffin.

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 3
Formation Damage Location of clays in sandstones
Formation damage is the reduction of permeability in a reservoir rock • Pore filling
caused by the invasion of fluid(s) and/or solid(s) to the section adjacent • Pore lining
to the well bore (In some condition sets, can extend outward some • Grain attachment
• Streaks or laminates
distance from the well bore).
• Structural
Reduction of permeability is any type of restriction in the flow channels
of the reservoir rock that can reduce or prevent the flow of oil and gas Primary types of clays
towards the well bore. • Illite
The common term and measurement is “Skin Factor”. o Sensitive to dispersive environments
o High pH
o Chemical dispersants
Causes
o Migrates readily
Formation damage can be caused by:
o “Hairy” illite
• Foreign particle invasion o Breaks off and migrates
• Formation clay swelling o Sensitive to fluid movement
• Chemically incompatible fluids o
• Oil wetting of the reservoir rock • Kaolinite
• Emulsion blocking o Subject to dispersion and migration
• Smectite
• Fluid invasion (Water Blocking)
o Swelling clay
o Takes on water and expands
o Found primarily as pore lining
Foreign Particle Invasion
o Fresh water sensitive
Plugging of the flow paths in the formation by invading solids can cause
• Mixed Layer
formation damage. This type of damage occurs near the well bore or o Swells like smectite, but not to the same degree
perforation tunnel. Dirty brines can be the cause. • Chlorite
The size of the invading particle is important. Small solids such as clays o Disperses and migrates readily
and iron oxides can be carried deep into the formation and cause severe o Doesn’t swell, but binds water
o May occur as mixed layer with smectite
damage. Plugging of the pore spaces results when, the pore diameter is
less than three times the particle size. If the pore throat size of the o Degrades with HCl, releases Fe- and amorphous
silica
formation is known, the smallest damaging particle size may be
determined using formulas based on the relationship of particle to pore
size.

The most common particles creating formation damage include:

• Barite
• Clay
• Undissolved lost circulation material (LCM)
• Drilled solids
• Rust
• Scale
• Undissolved salts
• Frac sand
• Perforating debris
• Insoluble ion precipitants

Formation Clay Swelling

Formation clays swell and break apart if they meet most drilling fluid
filtrates. Especially if the filtrates are fresh water and/or have a high pH.
Chemical dispersants in a filtrate can break clays apart and allow them
to migrate. As the clay particles migrate, they block the pore spaces.
The result is a number of smaller particles, which can easily plug some Calcium Smectite
of the pore throats. These particles may also swell thus increasing the
severity of the damage.
To control clay migration, keep
the:
• Formation clays from
swelling by using
inhibitive systems
(i.e., brine fluids)
• pH in the 8.3 to 9.0
range
• Flow rates low when
initiating or resuming production

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 4
Clay and Mineral Dispersion and Migration
Fluids Compatible with Swelling Clays
Much testing has demonstrated that a 2% to 3% KCL prevents clay
swelling. Most data was generated on tests utilizing short cores. In tests
run on 3 ft. of cores, Halliburton has demonstrated that a 3% KCl will Brine Concentration Density, ppg
undergo ion exchange with the formation mineralogy, consider the
following excerpt from reference NH4CL 5% 8.5
1), and table from reference 2); HCl 4% 8.5
KCl 7% 8.7
1. Gdanski, R.D.: “Formation Mineral Content Key to Successful
Sandstone Acidizing”, Oil and Gas J. (Aug. 30, 1999) 90. CaCl2 5% 8.7
2. Gdanski, R.D. and Shuchart, C.: “Advanced Sandstone Acidizing NaCl 6% 8.7
Designs Using Improved Radial Models”, SPE 38597, (October
1997).

“Ion exchange occurs between formation minerals (usually

Formation Clay Damage Control Summary
clays) and injected brines. Sodium ions are often attached to
these clays, but these ions can become exchanged with ions
of the injected fluids. When ion exchange occurs, the clays
• Illite - Don’t expose to a dispersive environment. No
convert the injected fluids to salt water of the corresponding
lignosulfonates, keep pH below 10. Keep rate of filtration
concentrations. For example, when a 3% ammonium chloride
down to reduce fluid velocity through pores.
(NH4Cl) solution flows across ion-exchanging clay, the solution
• Kaolinite - Much the same as illite. But put more emphasis on
becomes 3.3% sodium chloride brine. Exposure to this low-
reducing fluid velocity through pores, if loosely held.
salinity brine can cause water-sensitive clays to swell and
• Smectite - Do not expose to fresh water to avoid swelling. Use
obstruct matrices. Table 1 lists various minerals and their
potassium-based or oil-based fluid.
capabilities for exchanging ions and transforming brines. The
• Chlorite - Avoid acid if possible. If not, use oxygen scavengers
rating of a mineral is directly proportional to its ion-
and iron chelating agents
exchanging capability. Sand, feldspars, and kaolinite have
ratings of zero.

Ability to inhibit
Table 1—Minerals and Their Ion-Exchange Capabilities Fluid, lb/gal (SG) Cost
clays
Mineral Ion-Exchange Capability
Methanol
Feldspar, kaolinite 0
Methanol, 6.6 (0.79) High Good
Illite, chlorite 20

Mixed-layer clays 20 to 80
Methanol/water,
Smectite, mica 80 to 100 Medium Fair
6.6 - 8.2 (0.79 - 0.98)
Zeolites 100 to 250
Water
Of the ion-exchanging clays listed, smectite and mixed-layer
(illite and smectite) clays are the most sensitive to water and Fresh water, 8.345(1.0) Low Poor
are therefore the most prone to swelling after ion exchange.
Operators who identify or suspect the presence of these clays Sea water (filtered), 8.50 (1.02) Low Poor
in their formations should use brines that transform into
approximately 6% salt water after ion exchange, such as 5% Brines
NH4Cl, 7% KCl, and 5% calcium chloride (CaCl2). Such fluids
are concentrated enough to maintain formation permeability
by preventing clay swelling. By contrast, 2% KCl will NaCl, 10.0 (1.20) Low Good
transform into only 1.5% salt water after ion exchange. Such KBr 11.5
a brine is too weak to prevent clay swelling.” CaCl2 11.6 (1.39) Medium Good
NaBr 12.7
CaBr2 14.2 (1.70) High Good
ZnBr2 19.2 (2.30) High Good

Oils

Diesel, 7.034 (0.84) Medium Excellent

Crude, 7.03 - 7.9

Medium Excellent
(0.84 - 0.94)

Emulsion, 7.03 - 8.33 (0.84 -

Medium Excellent
1.0)

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 5
Chemically Incompatible Fluids HCl and Dolomite
A third type of formation damage results from incompatible fluids. The The reaction for dolomite is similar, but the chemical composition is
most common form of damage from incompatible fluids is due to the slightly different.
precipitation of salts or insoluble ions. Analysis of formation water can 4HCl + CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCl2 + MgCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2 . . . . (Eq. 3)
Hydrochloric Acid (1,000 gal) + Calcium Magnesium Carbonate (9.5 ft3)
identify potential problems and reactions between the formation water
= Calcium Chloride (1,040 lb) + Magnesium Chloride (875 lb) + Water
and brine. (40 gal) + Carbon Dioxide (6,620 ft3)
Examples are: The total volume occupied by 1,000 gal of 15% HCl after spending is
1,020 gal. The reaction is a mixture of 10.5% calcium chloride solution
CaCl2 + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 + 2HCl + CO3-2 and 9.0% magnesium chloride solution with a specific gravity of 1.185,
CaCl2 + HCO3-2 → CaCO3 + 2HCl- weighing 8.70 lb/gal.
Organic Acid
Other acids that are used alone or in conjunction with HCl are acetic
acid and formic acid. These are organic acids and considered much
ZnBr2 + CO3-2 → ZnCO3 + 2Br- weaker acids than hydrochloric acid. This means their hydrogen ions are
CaCl2 + SO4-2 → CaSO4 + 2Cl- released more slowly and they react more slowly with most materials
found in wells.
CaCl2 + SO3-2 → CaSO3 + 2Cl → CaSO4 + 2HCl They can be used alone as retarded or slow-reacting acids. Acetic acid is
slower to react than formic acid. Organic acids are also used where low
corrosion is important. Acetic acid is the only acid available that does
F- + CaCl2 → CaF + 2Cl- not damage chrome plating. They can be used in combination with HCl
to allow deeper penetration and to provide unique etching properties
Fe- + 2OH- → Fe (OH)2 with some formations.
They react with limestone as shown in Eq. 3.
Ca+2 + SO4-2 → CaSO4

ACIDS
Acid Types Acetic Acid
All acids, regardless of composition, have one thing in common: They 2HCH3CO2 + CaCO3 → Ca(CH3CO2)2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . .(Eq. 4)
break down into hydrogen ions and an anion when in solution in water. Acetic Acid + Limestone = Calcium Acetate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen ions react with calcareous rock to form water and carbon A 10% solution of acetic acid dissolves as much limestone as a 6%
dioxide. hydrochloric acid solution.
Hydrogen ions are generally depicted by the following symbol: H+. They Formic Acid
react with carbonates as shown in Eq. 1. 2HCO2H + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO2)2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . (Eq. 5)
2H+ + CaCO3 → Ca++ + H2O + CO2 . . . . . . . (Eq. 1) Formic Acid + Limestone = Calcium Formate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Ion + Limestone = Calcium Ion + Water + Carbon Dioxide A 10% solution of formic acid dissolves as much limestone as an 8%
Acids have a pH less than 7 and taste sour. The more completely an hydrochloric acid solution.
acid ionizes to hydrogen ions and its anion, the stronger the acid is. HF Acid
Hydrochloric Acid Hydrofluoric acid is mixed with HCl or organic acids to dissolve clay
Hydrochloric acid (Muriatic acid) is composed of hydrogen and chloride minerals, feldspars, and sand. Because of the higher surface area of the
gasses and is commonly referred to as hydrogen chloride in its gaseous clay minerals and feldspars, most of the HF acid will be spent on these
state. The gas is readily soluble in water up to 43% hydrogen chloride, materials rather than quartz or sand.
by weight, at 60°F. However, a solution of this strength is impractical HF acid reacts with calcareous minerals, such as limestone, but
because at temperatures higher than 60°F, hydrogen chloride produces this reaction results in an insoluble precipitate of calcium
pungent fumes. fluoride.
Commercial hydrochloric acid has been standardized at 20°Be, which is 2HF + CaCO3 → CaF2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . . (Eq. 6)
31.45% acid, by weight, with a specific gravity of 1.160 and weighing Hydrofluoric Acid + Limestone = Calcium Fluoride + Water + Carbon
9.67 lb/gal. Higher strength acid is sometimes available at 22°Be, which Dioxide
is 35.2% acid with a specific gravity of 1.179 and weighing 9.83 lb/gal. Hydrofluoric acid reacts with calcium ions from any source to
The chemical formula for hydrochloric acid is HCl. Even though it form insoluble calcium fluoride. Avoid this reaction.
contains mostly water, the water is omitted from the formula. Ca+- + 2F → CaF2 (insoluble). . . . . (Eq. 7)
Hydrochloric acid ionizes completely and is considered a strong acid. HF is the only acid that reacts with sand and other siliceous minerals
HCl and Limestone such as clay. A simplified reaction is shown in Eq. 8.
The basic reaction between hydrochloric acid and limestone is shown in 6HF + SiO2 → H2SiF6 + 2H2O . . . . . . (Eq. 8)
Eq. 2. Hydrofluoric Acid + Silica = Fluosilicic Acid + Water
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . . . . (Eq. 2) The reaction product, fluosilicic acid, is readily soluble in water,
Hydrochloric Acid (1,000 gal 15%) + Calcium Carbonate Limestone but its potassium and sodium salts are practically insoluble. Do
(10.9 ft3, 1,843 lb) = Calcium Chloride (40 gal, 2,050 lb) + Water (6,620 not mix calcium, potassium, and sodium ions (Ca++, K+, Na+)
ft3, 331 lb) + Carbon Dioxide Gas (811 lb) with live or spent hydrofluoric acid.
The total volume occupied by 1,000 gal of 15% hydrochloric acid after Avoid formation water that contains calcium chloride, sodium chloride,
reaction follows. and potassium chloride. The only compatible salt solution with HF
• 912 gal water pumped into formation acid is ammonium chloride.
• 40 gal water produced by chemical reaction A more realistic reaction between a clay, such as bentonite, and HF acid
• 68 gal volume occupied by 2,050 lb calcium chloride is shown in Eq. 9.
• 1,020 gal total, assuming no volume is occupied by the CO2 or 36HF + Al(Si4O10)(OH)2 → 4H2SiF6 + 2H3AlF6 + H2O . . . . . . (Eq. 9)
diluted by formation brine Hydrofluoric Acid + Bentonite = Fluosilicic Acid + Fluoaluminic Acid +
In summary, 15% hydrochloric acid spent on limestone becomes a Water
20.0% solution of calcium chloride with a specific gravity of 1.175, 1,000 gal of 3% hydrofluoric acid dissolves approximately 140 lb of dry
weighing 9.79 lb/gal. bentonite. A typical hydrofluoric acid solution used in the oil field
contains approximately 3% hydrofluoric acid and 12% hydrochloric
acids.

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 6
The section adjacent to the well bore is the most critical and the most
likely to be damaged. The water saturation of the formation close to the
Acid Mineral Negative Reactions well bore will increase significantly as a result of fluid invasion. This
Mineral Problem
filtrate or whole fluid invasion is called water blockage; the extent of the
Feldspars contain sodium and potassium. The major
production reduction of the reservoir will depend on the degree of the
concern
Feldspars water saturation and the radius of the effected area.
is fluosilicate precipitation. K-Spars cause the most
precipitation problems.
Carbonate consumes HCl and can cause precipitation of Water Block Key Points
Carbonate
fluosilicates and aluminum from spent acid. • Filtrate or brine invasion
Illite causes fines migration problems and is ion- • Reduces K relative to oil
exchanging. • Can self - correct
Illite • May increase bound water
It contains potassium, which can cause fluosilicate
precipitation from spent acid. • Drill in fluids - keep filtrate low use fluid loss additives and/or
Kaolinite causes fines migration problems. It disperses in bridging solids
Kaolinite
fresh water and causes plugging.
Completion fluids containing bromide have been shown to form stable
Smectite is an ion-exchanging mineral that swells in fresh
Smectite emulsions with some crude types. Fluid crude analysis should be
water.
Mixed layer clay is ion-exchanging and swells in fresh performed to determine the extent of emulsion risk and the best brine
Mixed-Layer water. formulation and or treatment to control the risk. Baroid offers two very
Clay It often contains potassium, which can cause fluosilicate effective non-emulsifiers No-Blok C and No-Blok Z. This chemicals help
precipitation from spent acid. to prevent emulsions from forming and or promote rapid breakout.
Chlorite Chlorite is ion-exchanging and unstable in HCl. Some zones produce a formation water/oil emulsion naturally. Fluid
invasions can exacerbate this condition. No-Blok C & Z have been shown
Mica is ion exchanging and unstable in HCl. It contains to control and or reduce the breakout time of these produced fluids.
Mica Potassium, which can cause fluosilicate precipitation from
spent acid.
Emulsion Blockage Key Points
Zeolite is ion exchanging and unstable in HCl. It often • Emulsion formed inside formation
Zeolite contains sodium, which can cause fluosilicate precipitation • Primarily water-in-oil emulsions (viscous)
from spent acid. • Goes hand-in-hand with oil-wetting
• Loss of oil mud filtrate containing high amounts of excess
emulsifier
Wettability of the Reservoir Rock • Loss of brine completion fluid to formation drilled with oil base
mud
A fourth cause of formation damage is a change in wettability of the
reservoir rock which indicates whether a given surface has the capacity Brine/Formation Water/Crude/Mineral Compatibility
To select the correct brine type, consider the potential interactions of
to be preferentially coated with a film of oil or water. If certain
the completion or work over fluid with formation solids, water, and
chemicals are injected into a water-wet formation, it is possible to cause gases. The most common incompatibility problems include:
the grains to become oil-wet. If this happens, capillarity forces and •
Scale production from the reaction of divalent brine with
friction tend to hinder the movement of the oil across the grains. The
dissolved carbon dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide
formation will then produce water more readily than oil. • Baroid can formulate brines that are divalent free and
inhibited against carbonate formation.
• Precipitation of sodium chloride from the formation water
when it is exposed to certain brines
• Precipitation of iron compounds in the formation resulting
from interaction with soluble iron in the completion fluid
• Baroid can formulate brines with varying relative
A,B,C from left to right: concentrations of free water, chloride and bromide content
that maintain density and TCT requirements. Chloride and
A) Completely water wet system, contact angle = 0° water content have shown to have a direct impact on
B) System of neutral wettability, contact angle = 90° precipitation of some ions as well as emulsion potential.
• Reaction of formation clays with the clear brine
C) Completely oil wet system, contact angle = 135° • Crude Emulsion formation
Baroid provides a non-emulsifier, NO-BLOK C & Z, to inhibit brines
Emulsion & Water Blocking against crude emulsion formation. Further, brine formulations can be
adjusted to provide the least risk of emulsion formation.
Fluid invasion can cause formation damage and reduce oil/gas recovery
and increase stack-up time. If large amounts of fluid invade the Primary Compatibility Tests
formation, obtaining maximum production can be difficult because of The following laboratory tests can be used to evaluate the compatibility
of a clear fluid with a formation:
the capillarity and friction restricting the production of the invaded zone.
•
Any invasion of fluid can upset the fine particles located throughout the Return permeability
formation. The particles will tend to migrate closer to the well bore, • Formation water analysis
• Formation mineralogy
blocking a higher percentage of the reservoir rock flow channels.
• Brine/water compatibility
• Brine/Crude emulsion potential

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 7
Other Process Chemical Compatibility
Varieties of chemicals are used during the course of a completion or Recommendation and Treating Guidelines for KCL and light
work over operation. weight CaCl brines
Examples are: Initial pH of Barabuf lbs/bbl Final pH of
Completion Fluid Completion Fluid
• Pipe Dope Removers 3 .10 8.5
• Pickling Agents
• Cements and Associated Spacers 4 .07 8.5
• Chemical Cutters 5 .06 8.5
• Frac and Gravel Pack Suspension Agents
• Lubricity Agents 6 .04 8.5
• Chelating Agents
7 .02 8.5
• Solvents
• Staging Flushes
• Acids • Always add Barabuf (Magnesium Oxide) to the completion
• Emulsion Inhibitors fluid in the return pit and filter the completion fluid to the
• Corrosion Inhibitors active pit. This will eliminate any precipitating of iron down
hole while circulating.
Reactions between these chemicals and the completion/work Note: Order fluids that are known to be susceptible to iron precipitation,
over fluid, formation matrix and formation fluids can cause pre-treated with BARABUF
subsequent production declines and costly completion fluid • Make sure you do not have a problem with compatibility of
treatments. the connate water of the formation or pH sensitive clays,
Compatibility issues for many of these chemicals are well known and can adjusting the pH of the completion fluid to a pH of 8-9 .
be eliminated. However, any treatments that directly affect the • Try to eliminate loose scale, rusty iron, etc…. Paint or coat
producing zone should be tested for potential risk. This process is a exposed mild steel. Using rust free drill pipe, pits and rigs
cooperative procedure between Baroid and other operation engineers. eliminates many sources of iron. This can also be
Baroid and the process engineer determine potential reaction and accomplished by proper rig preparation for the completion
course of action by performing a series of tests and analysis. fluid.
• In persistent precipitation cases, add OXYGON to the fluid @
Contaminants 0.1 to 0.2 ppb. OXYGON will remove soluble oxygen and
Contaminants that can affect completion and work over fluids include: chelate iron in solution.
• Iron • Watch the pH and iron values closely after the introduction of
• Acid acid to the well bore. Usually a lower PH and higher iron will
result because of the acid interface with the completion fluid.
• Solids
• It may be more economical to dispose of the return pit and
• Hardness well bore fluid volume instead of circulating and treating the
• Oil, Grease and Distillate iron contamination. Pre-treat the new completion fluid with
• Polymers .04 lbs/bbl of Barabuf prior to re-displacement.

Iron
Iron can be a contaminant in either soluble or insoluble form. Soluble Acids
iron is a product of corrosion and is common in zinc fluids. When Acid contamination has several sources:
exposed to certain waters, soluble iron can form a precipitate, which can • Tubular pickles
cause formation damage. • Frac & Gravel Pack Treatments
• Stimulation/Remediation Treatments
Note: No brine should be delivered to location with iron content greater
than 75 ppm. Consider displacing brine when its iron content reaches Acidic fluids can be over-displaced and enter the main body of the brine
625 ppm. system, enter the system at the surface by mistakes in routing returns,
At the brine plant, iron should be removed from a fluid by adding enter the brine from formation kicks or mistakes in storage containers.
hydrogen peroxide to the fluid, flocculating the fluid, and then filtering Acidic fluids can result in a broad range of effects. Interactions with
the fluid. other chemicals can create insoluble precipitants in the formation,
On location, treating a fluid for iron is very difficult and is usually amorphous gelatinous masses of several chemicals that reside in the
successful only in low-density, monovalent brines such as KCl and NaCl well bore may stop tool placement or function and significantly increase
and divalent CaCl2. The treatment consists of increasing pH with iron dissolution and precipitation.
BARABUF and removing the precipitated iron by filtering the brine. All brine fluids, with the exception of ZnBr2, are normally used in the 7
Fluids cut back with seawater are far more prone to iron precipitation to 9 pH range. ZnBr2 fluids must be kept below 6.2 pH or the Zinc ion
problems (particularly KCL and CaCl2 brines); fresh water is will begin to precipitate.
recommended as the best practice when cutting density with water. Careful handling of acidic chemicals along with regular monitoring of the
Brines containing KCL are the most likely to display iron precipitation. system pH will help avoid formation damage and costly brine
Elevating the pH of the brine to 8.5 is the recommended practice. Iron treatments.
in solution will precipitate and can be removed by filtration. All brines except ZnBr2 can be pH adjusted with BARABUF pH buffer.
A ph buffering agent is the preferred method of treatment. The next Caustic can be used in monovalent brine if magnesium hardness is an
table displays treatment levels for BARABUF. issue. NaOH or KOH should be prepared as an aqueous solution to add
to brines. Do not add sack chemical directly to brine. Caustic does not
provide an alkalinity buffer as BARABUF does.

Elevating the pH of ZnBr2 brine is very dangerous in field conditions.

Once the pH reaches 6, zinc precipitation is likely to begin and is not
necessarily reversible. The adjustment of pH in zinc brines requires
careful testing and application of the appropriate agent.

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 8
Solids Polymers
Solids can enter the fluid from the following sources. Brines contaminated with polymers usually cannot be filtered easily
• The water-based fluid obtained from rivers, bays or open sea, without chemical and/or special mechanical treatment. At the plant site
which can contain bacteria, sediments, and plant or animal where hydrogen peroxide can be used to oxidize polymers to permit
matter. filtration.
• Impurities in some sacked, dry salt used in making brine. At the well site, Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) or other polymer pills used
• Particulate matter from surface pits, tanks and tubulars such in displacement or other well operations should be caught and isolated
as wall cake, rust, scale, pipe dope and paint chips. from the active brine system. In some cases, HEC pills that have been
• Iron oxides or other chemicals precipitated from solutions that sheared and filtered can be processed by the filter system and returned
are circulated at elevated downhole temperatures. to the active system. The pill volume is maintained in separate storage
and metered into the returning well fluid stream in small quantities. The
Rock formations make excellent depth filters. A formation exposed at filter unit can then process the diluted polymer and return fluid for re-
the well bore to the pressurized flow of contaminated fluid will filter the use.
suspended particles from the fluid. Particles will penetrate the pore The use of breaker chemicals at the well site must be handled with care.
spaces and collect on the surface until an impermeable cake is formed Commonly used breaker chemicals can release hydrogen, chlorine and
and or penetrate the formation matrix and become lodged and block bromine gases. All of these gases are hazardous and proper ventilation
permeability away from the formation face. along with expert knowledge of the reactions is necessary for safe usage
The following line graph shows that if 300 barrels of a 12-lb/gal- of breakers.
completion fluid with 1,000 ppm (0.1 percent) of contaminant is
pumped down hole, a total of 150 pounds of solids will be delivered to Several damage mechanisms have been recognized in polymer use
the formation. • Cross linking of linear gel structures by metal salts
Weight and volume of solids in dirty completion fluid • Precipitation of base brine salts due to a reaction with other
1000 chemicals

Volume of solids in cubic feet SG of 2.4

5.0 • Yield failure or dehydration of HEC in ZnBr2
• Precipitation of HEC at elevated temperature
Cross linking of linear gel structures by metal salts
Weight of solids in pounds

Biopolymers are sensitive to iron in several valence states. Iron causes

the polymer to cross-link into (most often) very viscose masses that
150 1.5
completely plug the formation matrix. Subsequent treatments with
100 breaking chemicals are often ineffective. Iron contamination may come
0.5 from the base brine and/or from the reactions of acids in tubulars and
formation. Iron chelating agents such as erythorbates should be used to
prevent Fe2 and Fe3 ions from interacting with these polymers.
HEC is tolerant of iron contamination but reacts with other polyvalent
0.1
cations and other organic compounds.
A source of cross-linking ions can be the formation itself. Many types of
10
clay contain aluminum in their structure. Ion exchange due the chemical
10 100 300 1000 5000
reactions with acids or other chemicals can release Al ions and they may
become a source of contamination.
Total solids can be measured at the well site using a turbidity meter or a
shakeout machine. Solids that are not added to the system to enhance A list of some of the substances that cause cross-linking in polymers
the performance of brine are considered contaminants. Contaminants (HEC & Biopolymers) is as follows:
include formation clays, precipitates, and polymer residues, among • CrCl3
other things. These contaminants can be filtered at the well site using • Cr (NO3)
diatomaceous earth, a DE filter press, and two-micron absolute • FE
cartridges. • Borate Salts
• AlCl3
Note: A clear completion fluid should not be sent to the well site with an • Zn (NO3)
NTU (unit of measure of turbidity) greater than 30-50 NTU or a • ZnCl 2

suspended-solids concentration greater than 50 ppm. • ZrOCL2

Hardness • Etanedial
When monovalent brines have been selected to minimize calcium and • Ethylene Carbonate Cyclic Ester
magnesium scale formation, the total hardness content should not • Propylene Carbonate
exceed 100 ppm. Brines contaminated in the plant should be treated • Tetrastearyl Titanate
with soda ash and/or BARASCAV and filtered. A flocculent may be
required to settle the precipitate prior to filtration. Do not use BARABUF Precipitation of base brine salts due to a reaction with other chemicals
as a ph agent in these cases. Use either NaOH or KOH to elevate or Precipitation of divalent or monovalent ions is seen in some
maintain pH above 7. circumstances during well procedures. Borate cross-linkers are known to
cause Zinc to precipitate from brines containing ZnBr. A buffer with
Oil, Grease and Distillate acetic acid is necessary to reduce or stop this reaction. What negative
Produced oils, other hydrocarbons and pipe dope compounds affect impacts other link agents may have on brines is not clear at this time.
brine density and can blind filtration units. Normally hydrocarbons will
separate rapidly from the brine and form a separate layer above heavy
brine and should be pumped off the surface. In some circumstances,
from the actions involved in circulating trapped pressure from the well
bore, brine and hydrocarbons experience high shear and form emulsions
that can be very slow to break. BARABRINE DEFOAM and NO-BLOK C &
Z can be used to promote rapid emulsion break and to inhibit against
new emulsion formation.
Oily contaminants affect Static Sheen and Oil & Grease test parameters.
Contaminated brines cannot be discharged and may cause a significant
increase in disposal expense.

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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 9
Formation Damage Inherent to Polymer Use Precipitation of HEC at elevated temperature
Numerous studies have proven that any foreign substance entering the Studies performed by Conoco indicated the precipitation of HEC particles
formation matrix will impart some degree of permeability impairment. In that were water insoluble in NaCl and KCl fluids at temperatures from
fact even native formation fluids, when removed and then reintroduced 150°F and up. These particles were observed to dissolve readily with the
to the formation, have been shown to cause damage. lowering of pH by and acid.
Damage mechanisms include: Testing done by several brine vendor laboratories confirmed the
• Relative permeability impairment reaction and subsequently recommended the HEC polymer not be used
• Polymer deposition on clay surfaces in contact with formations when the base fluid was NaCl or KCl and the
• Blockage of flow channels from particulate bridging or direct temperature was 150°F or higher.
interception
• Wettability changes
• Destabilization of formation fines and the resultant fines
migration
• Reduction of the grain matrix cementation and the
subsequent reduction in rock integrity and or fines migration
• Hydration of clay structures
• Ion exchange mechanisms which contribute to any of the
before mentioned
• Precipitation of insoluble particles in the matrix
• Gross water flood effects from high fluid loss volumes
• Brine/crude emulsions

FLC treatments have polymers as an integral part of most applications.

Polymers are used as the primary loss rate reducer as a function of high
viscosity saturation of the formation matrix, as a carrying agent for
particulate bridging blends and as part of the subsequent filter cake
integrity and specially designed polymers in combination with a cross
linking agent, act as formation face blockers due to ultra high viscosity.
A variety of clean up methods and treatments are available. Methods
and chemicals used must be selected based on formation conditions,
potential interactions with other chemicals, equipment and formation
minerals/fluids and limitations placed by work plans, equipment and cost
budgets.

Polymer fragments attached to clay structures in the formation matrix