UNIT-4

Basic Processing Unit (BPU):

The Basic Processing Unit (BPU) is the core of a computer's central processing unit (CPU),
responsible for executing instructions from the program stored in memory. It handles the
basic operations necessary for instruction execution, like fetching instructions, decoding
them, and then executing them by utilizing different internal components such as the ALU,
registers, and control units.

Key components of the BPU:

● Registers: Small, high-speed storage locations inside the CPU. Common registers
include the Program Counter (PC), Instruction Register (IR), and Accumulator
(ACC). Registers hold data temporarily during processing.
● Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by interpreting and
executing instructions fetched from memory. It generates control signals that direct
data movement and processing within the CPU.
● Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations. It
processes data by adding, subtracting, comparing, or performing bitwise operations on
the data.
● Memory Interface: This allows the BPU to access instructions and data from main
memory, such as RAM.

Example: In a simple instruction like ADD R1, R2, R3, the control unit fetches the
instruction, the ALU adds the contents of R2 and R3, and the result is stored in R1.

In summary, the BPU is the engine that drives instruction execution by coordinating the flow
of data between memory and the ALU while following instructions sequentially.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a critical part of the BPU and is responsible for
executing the actual computation tasks that the processor needs to perform. It handles both
arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (AND, OR,
NOT, XOR).
The ALU typically consists of:

● Arithmetic Operations: It performs mathematical functions such as addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. These are essential for processing numerical
data.
● Logic Operations: Logical operations include comparisons (greater than, less than,
equal to), and bitwise operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR). These are essential for
decision-making processes in programs.
● Shift Operations: The ALU can also shift data to the left or right, which is often used
in bit manipulation and optimizing arithmetic operations (like multiplication/division
by powers of 2).

The ALU interacts closely with:

● Operands: These are the data inputs that the ALU manipulates. They are usually
provided by the processor's registers.
● Control Unit: The control unit signals the ALU on which operation to perform based
on the instruction being executed.

Working of ALU in Instruction Execution:

When the CPU fetches an instruction that involves an arithmetic or logical operation:

1. Instruction Fetch: The instruction is fetched from memory and loaded into the
Instruction Register (IR).
2. Instruction Decode: The control unit decodes the instruction to determine the type of
operation (arithmetic or logic) to be performed.
3. Operand Fetch: The data required for the operation (operands) is fetched from
registers or memory.
4. Execution: The ALU performs the desired operation (e.g., addition, subtraction) on
the fetched operands.
5. Result Storage: The result is stored in the appropriate register or memory location.

Importance of ALU in Processing:

The ALU is crucial because it performs the actual calculations and logical decisions that
programs need. Without the ALU, the processor wouldn't be able to perform even the most
basic functions, like adding two numbers or determining whether a condition is true or false.

ALU Design:

In modern processors, ALUs are highly optimized for performance. Some processors have
multiple ALUs to perform parallel operations. The size of the ALU (8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, etc.)
determines the word length it can process in a single operation.

Example:

Let’s consider a simple addition operation:

 ● The instruction ADD R1, R2 means to add the value in register R1 to the value in
register R2.

1. The instruction is fetched and decoded by the control unit.

2. The values in R1 and R2 are passed to the ALU.
3. The ALU adds the two values.
4. The result is stored back into R1 (or any destination register specified).

ALU Operations in Computer Organization and Architecture

1. Arithmetic Operations: These operations involve mathematical calculations on

binary data:
o Addition: Adds two binary numbers.
o Subtraction: Subtracts one binary number from another (often implemented
using addition with two’s complement).
o Multiplication: Multiplies two binary numbers (can be implemented as
repeated addition or more sophisticated algorithms).
o Division: Divides one binary number by another (implemented using
subtraction or specialized division algorithms).
o Increment/Decrement: Increments or decrements the binary value by one.
o Negation: Changes the sign of the binary number, typically by flipping the
bits and adding one (two’s complement for negative numbers).
2. Logical Operations: These operations manipulate individual bits within a binary
number:
o AND: Performs a bitwise logical AND operation between two binary numbers
(each bit is compared, and the result is 1 if both bits are 1).
o OR: Performs a bitwise logical OR operation (result is 1 if at least one of the
bits is 1).
o XOR (Exclusive OR): Performs a bitwise exclusive OR operation (result is 1
if the two bits are different).
o NOT: Inverts each bit in a binary number (0 becomes 1, and 1 becomes 0).
o NAND: Performs a NOT of the AND operation.
o NOR: Performs a NOT of the OR operation.
3. Shift Operations: Shifting moves the bits of a binary number left or right, with
specific rules for filling the gaps:
o Logical Shift Left (LSL): Shifts all bits to the left, filling in with zeros on the
right.
o Logical Shift Right (LSR): Shifts all bits to the right, filling in with zeros on
the left.
o Arithmetic Shift Left (ASL): Similar to LSL but may preserve the sign bit in
certain architectures.
o Arithmetic Shift Right (ASR): Shifts the bits to the right, but keeps the sign
bit intact (for signed integers).
o Rotate Left (ROL): Rotates the bits to the left, with the leftmost bit moving
to the rightmost position.
o Rotate Right (ROR): Rotates the bits to the right, with the rightmost bit
moving to the leftmost position.
 4. Comparison Operations: These operations compare two binary values and set flags
in the processor to indicate the result. The result is often used to make decisions in
branching instructions (e.g., if-else statements in programming):
o Equal to (==): Checks if two numbers are equal.
o Greater than (>), Less than (<): Compares two numbers.
o Carry, Overflow, Zero, Negative Flags: These flags are updated based on the
result of the comparison, influencing the control flow of the program.
5. Bitwise Operations: ALU supports direct manipulation of individual bits within
binary words:
o Bit masking: Extracting or modifying specific bits in a binary number using
AND, OR, and XOR operations with a bitmask.
o Bit clearing/set: Setting specific bits to 0 or 1 in a binary number.
6. Branching and Decision-Making Operations: The ALU aids in decision-making
through operations that set specific flags (like zero, carry, overflow, etc.) which the
control unit uses to direct program flow:
o Conditional Branching: Decisions based on flags set by the ALU (e.g., jump
if zero, jump if not zero, etc.).

How ALU is Integrated into CPU Architecture:

● Registers: Temporary storage locations used to hold operands and intermediate

results during ALU operations.
● Control Unit: Directs the operation of the ALU by sending control signals based on
the current instruction.
● Buses: ALU connects to the system's data buses to transfer data to/from memory,
registers, or other peripherals.

Importance in CPU Architecture:

● Performance: The speed of the ALU determines how fast the CPU can perform
operations, influencing the overall performance of the system.
● Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The types of operations the ALU supports are
defined by the CPU’s ISA (e.g., x86, ARM). More complex ALUs can support a
wider range of operations, including floating-point arithmetic, vector operations, etc.
● Parallelism: Modern CPUs often include multiple ALUs to perform several
operations simultaneously, enhancing the performance of multi-core processors.

Instruction Execution
 ● Steps in Instruction Execution:
o Fetch: The instruction is fetched from memory.
o Decode: The fetched instruction is decoded to understand what actions are
required.
o Execute: The CPU executes the decoded instruction using the ALU and
registers.
o Writeback: The result of the execution is written back to a register or
memory.
● Example:
o Consider the instruction MOV R1, R2. The CPU fetches this instruction,
decodes it to understand that R2 needs to be copied to R1, and executes the
operation.

Branch Instruction

Branch instructions alter the flow of execution in a program. There are conditional and
unconditional branch instructions. Branch Instructions are critical in controlling the flow of
execution in a program. Unlike sequential execution, where instructions are executed one
after another, branch instructions allow the program to "branch" or "jump" to a different part
of the code based on certain conditions.A branch instruction changes the flow of control by
modifying the program counter (PC) to jump to a new instruction address. This is usually done based
on a condition or an unconditional jump.

Types of Branch Instructions

Branch instructions can be categorized as:

● Unconditional Branch: The program control always jumps to a specific address,

regardless of any condition.
o Example: JMP address in Assembly language.
● Conditional Branch: The program control jumps to a new location only if a specific
condition is met. If the condition is not met, execution proceeds with the next
sequential instruction.
o Example: BEQ (Branch if Equal), BNE (Branch if Not Equal), BLT (Branch if
Less Than), etc.

Components of a Branch Instruction

A branch instruction typically has the following components:

● Opcode: Specifies the type of branch instruction (e.g., BEQ, JMP).

● Condition: The condition under which the branch occurs (e.g., if a register value is zero).
● Target Address: The address to which control will be transferred if the condition is met.

Working of Branch Instructions

A branch instruction affects the Program Counter (PC), which normally holds the address
of the next instruction to be executed.

● In an unconditional branch, the PC is directly updated with the target address.

 ● In a conditional branch, the condition is evaluated. If the condition is true, the PC is
updated with the target address; otherwise, it increments to the next sequential
instruction.

Multiple Bus Organization:

Multiple Bus Organization is a method of designing the internal data paths within a
computer system, particularly for its central processing unit (CPU). It improves the system's
performance by enabling multiple data transfers to occur simultaneously, which reduces the
number of clock cycles needed to complete instructions. A multiple bus architecture uses
more than one bus to transfer data simultaneously, allowing for greater data throughput and
faster performance. This is in contrast to a single bus system where all data and control
signals share a single bus.

Figure: A simplified example of a multiple bus organization

What is a Bus?
A bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer,
such as between the CPU, memory, and input/output (I/O) devices. It consists of parallel lines
that carry:

● Data: The actual information being transferred.

● Address: Specifies the location in memory where the data should be read from or
written to.
● Control Signals: Directs the operations (e.g., read/write signals).

In a single bus architecture, all components are connected to a single bus, which can lead to
bottlenecks when multiple components attempt to communicate simultaneously.
Control Sequence for Execution
Step Action
1 PCout , MAR in , Read, Select4,Add, Zin
2 Zout , PCin , Yin , WMF C
3 MDR out , IRin
4 R3out , MAR in , Read
5 R1out , Yin , WMF C
6 MDR out , SelectY, Add, Zin
7 Zout , R1in , End
Why Use Multiple Bus Organization?
The main motivation behind using multiple buses is to increase the speed and efficiency of
data transfers in the CPU. By having more than one bus, different units in the CPU (such as
registers, memory, and I/O devices) can communicate with each other in parallel, leading to:

● Reduced delays due to simultaneous operations.

● Faster execution of instructions.
● Increased throughput, as more data can be transferred at the same time.

Basic Structure of Multiple Bus Organization

In a typical multiple bus architecture, there are:

1. Two or more buses that connect various CPU components.

2. Dedicated buses for specific data transfers, such as:
o One bus might handle communication between the CPU and memory.
o Another bus might handle communication between registers and arithmetic
logic units (ALUs).
3. Control logic to manage data flow and avoid conflicts.
Key Features of Multiple Bus Organization

● Multiple Buses: More than one bus allows several data transfers to occur in parallel,
reducing overall instruction execution time.
● Register Transfers: Data can be transferred between different registers
simultaneously, improving the speed of operations.
● ALU and Memory Access: The ALU can fetch operands from one register, compute,
and store the result in another register, all in the same clock cycle.

Example of a Three-Bus Organization

A three-bus organization is a common type of multiple bus architecture used to speed up
instruction execution. Here's how it works:

1. Bus A: Connects the registers to the inputs of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
2. Bus B: Also connects the registers to the inputs of the ALU, providing simultaneous
access to two operands.
3. Bus C: Takes the result from the ALU and returns it to the registers or memory.

In this setup:

● Two source registers (say R1 and R2) can send data to the ALU at the same time
using Bus A and Bus B.
● The ALU computes the result and sends it back via Bus C to the destination register
(say R3).

This allows parallelism in the operations and increases the instruction throughput.
Instruction Execution in Multiple Bus Organization
Consider the execution of an instruction like:
assembly
ADD R1, R2, R3 ; R3 = R1 + R2
In a single-bus system, the operation would require multiple steps:

1. Fetch the value from R1.

2. Fetch the value from R2.
3. Send both values to the ALU.
4. Perform the addition.
5. Store the result back in R3.

In a multiple-bus system:

● R1 and R2 can be accessed simultaneously via separate buses (Bus A and Bus B).
● The ALU computes the sum in the same cycle and returns the result to R3 through
Bus C.

This saves clock cycles, allowing the next instruction to begin earlier.
Advantages of Multiple Bus Organization

● Parallel Data Transfer: Multiple buses allow for parallel communication between
different parts of the CPU, reducing the instruction execution time.
● Higher Bandwidth: Multiple buses increase the data transfer capacity, as more data
can be moved at the same time.
● Improved Performance: The overall system performance improves because there are
fewer bottlenecks, especially when dealing with multiple instructions or data transfers
simultaneously.

Feature Single Bus Organization Multiple Bus Organization

Number of One bus shared by all Two or more buses, with specific buses for
Buses components different purposes

Slower, as only one data Faster, as multiple transfers can occur

Performance
transfer occurs at a time simultaneously

Data Transfer Limited by the single bus Higher, as multiple buses increase overall
Bandwidth width bandwidth

Simpler, with a single More complex due to the need for coordination
Complexity
control logic between multiple buses

Applications of Multiple Bus Architecture

● High-Performance CPUs: Used in modern processors to enhance performance,

especially in superscalar and pipelined architectures.
● Multicore Processors: Each core may have its dedicated bus for communication,
allowing multiple cores to operate simultaneously without interference.
● Memory Hierarchies: Multiple buses allow efficient data transfers between levels of
memory (e.g., caches, main memory, etc.).

● Advantages:
o Reduces bus contention
o Increases data transfer rates
 Challenges in Multiple Bus Organization
While multiple bus systems offer higher performance, they come with some
challenges:

● Increased Complexity: More buses require more complex control logic to prevent
bus conflicts and manage data transfers efficiently.
● Cost: The additional hardware (wires, control units) needed for multiple buses
increases the cost of the system.
● Synchronization: Managing data transfers across different buses in a synchronized
manner is challenging, especially in highly parallel systems.

Hardwired Control

● Hardwired Control is one of the methods used for designing the control unit in a
CPU. The control unit is responsible for generating the appropriate signals that
coordinate the operation of the other parts of the CPU during the execution of an
instruction. In a hardwired control system, the control signals are generated by a
combination of fixed logic circuits using gates, flip-flops, decoders, and other digital
components. Hardwired control involves designing control logic circuits to manage
the execution of instructions. These control signals are generated using a combination
of gates, flip-flops, decoders, and other circuits.

Advantages:

o Faster than microprogrammed control because there’s no need to fetch

microinstructions.
 o Simple to implement for small instruction sets.

Example: A control signal that directs data from the memory to the ALU could be
implemented using AND/OR gates based on the opcode.

Control Unit in a CPU

The control unit (CU) is a fundamental part of the CPU that interprets the instructions
fetched from memory and generates the necessary control signals to execute those
instructions. There are two main types of control unit design approaches:

● Hardwired Control: Control signals are generated by hardware circuits.

● Microprogrammed Control: Control signals are generated by executing
microinstructions stored in a control memory.

What is Hardwired Control?

In hardwired control, the control signals required to execute an instruction are generated by
combinational logic circuits based on the current instruction and the current state of the
system. The system uses circuits like decoders and encoders, and a fixed wiring pattern to
generate the required signals.
It is called "hardwired" because the control logic is implemented directly in the hardware,
and the control signal generation is based on a fixed connection of gates and logic elements.
How Hardwired Control Works
The hardwired control unit can be understood as a finite state machine (FSM). For each
instruction, the control unit goes through several states, and each state produces specific
control signals that drive various parts of the CPU. The sequence of states is determined by
the instruction being executed and the current state of the machine.
Steps in Hardwired Control:

1. Instruction Fetch:
o The instruction is fetched from memory and loaded into the instruction
register.
2. Instruction Decode:
o The fetched instruction is decoded to determine the operation to be performed
and the operands involved.
3. Generate Control Signals:
o Based on the decoded instruction, the control unit generates a set of control
signals to activate different components of the CPU, such as the ALU,
registers, memory, etc.
4. Execution:
o The control signals guide the execution of the instruction, and the control unit
moves through various states (like fetching operands, performing the
operation, and storing the result).

Components of a Hardwired Control Unit

A hardwired control unit uses the following components:
 1. Instruction Decoder:
o Decodes the binary instruction and determines the operation code (opcode)
and the addressing mode.
2. State Machine (Sequencer):
o
The control unit transitions through various states (fetch, decode, execute)
using a sequencer or state machine.
3. Combinational Logic Circuits:
oLogic circuits such as AND, OR, NOT gates are used to generate the required
control signals based on the current instruction and state.
4. Clock Signals:
oA clock signal drives the control unit to transition between states in
synchronization with the rest of the CPU.
5. Control Signal Generator:
o The actual control signals are generated by combinational logic, which
activates specific CPU components (like the ALU, memory, or I/O devices)
during different phases of instruction execution.

Control Signals in Hardwired Control

Control signals are used to enable or disable various components of the CPU at the correct
time. Typical control signals include:

● Register Control: Signals to read or write data from/to registers.

● Memory Control: Signals to read or write data from/to memory.
● ALU Control: Signals to select the operation (e.g., ADD, SUBTRACT, AND)
performed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
● Bus Control: Signals to manage data transfer on internal buses.
● Program Counter (PC) Control: Signals to increment or modify the program
counter to fetch the next instruction.

Example of Hardwired Control

Consider a simple instruction like:
assembly

ADD R1, R2, R3 ; Add contents of R2 and R3, and store the result in R1
1. Instruction Fetch:
o Fetch the instruction from memory into the instruction register.
o Control Signals: Memory Read, Load Instruction Register.
2. Instruction Decode:
o Decode the instruction and determine it is an ADD operation.
o Control Signals: Decode Instruction.
3. Execution:
o Transfer the values from registers R2 and R3 to the inputs of the ALU.
o Control Signals: Select ALU operation (ADD), Enable register R2 and R3,
Store result in register R1.
4. Store the Result:
 o The ALU computes the sum and stores the result in R1.
o Control Signals: Write back to register R1.

This whole process is controlled by hardwired circuits that generate the correct signals at
each step.
Finite State Machine (FSM) Model
The hardwired control unit can be visualized as a Finite State Machine (FSM). The control
unit moves from one state to another based on input signals, producing output control signals
in each state.

● States: Each state represents a phase of instruction execution (fetch, decode, execute,
etc.).
● Transitions: The FSM transitions between states based on inputs such as the opcode
and clock pulses.
● Outputs: In each state, the FSM generates specific control signals required for that
phase of instruction execution.

Advantages of Hardwired Control

1. Speed: Hardwired control is generally faster than microprogrammed control since the
control signals are generated directly by hardware circuits. There is no need to fetch
microinstructions from control memory.
2. Efficiency: Since control signals are generated by combinational logic, the execution
of instructions can be highly optimized for performance.
Disadvantages of Hardwired Control
1. Complexity: Designing and modifying hardwired control units can be complex,
especially for CPUs with a large instruction set. Changes in instruction set
architecture require redesigning the entire control logic.
2. Inflexibility: Since the control logic is fixed in hardware, it is difficult to add new
instructions or modify the control logic without redesigning the entire unit.
3. Scalability: Hardwired control is less scalable for complex and larger CPUs with
multiple instructions. As the number of instructions grows, the complexity of the
control logic increases significantly.
Hardwired Control vs. Microprogrammed Control

Feature Hardwired Control Microprogrammed Control

Generally faster due to direct signal Slower, as control signals are fetched from
Speed
generation memory

High complexity in design and

Complexity Easier to design and modify (change microcode)
modification

Flexibility Rigid and difficult to modify Flexible, can add new instructions easily

Cost More costly in terms of hardware Lower cost in terms of control unit design
 Feature Hardwired Control Microprogrammed Control

Suitable for simple and fast Suitable for complex processors with larger
Application
processors instruction sets

Applications of Hardwired Control

● Simple and Fast Processors: Hardwired control is used in processors where speed is
a critical requirement, such as in embedded systems, where a small set of instructions
is used.
● Specialized Processors: Used in CPUs designed for specific tasks, where the
instruction set is small and well-defined.

Generation of Control Signals

● Overview: Control signals direct the CPU to perform specific tasks, such as fetching
data from memory, sending data to the ALU, or writing data to registers. These
signals are generated based on the instruction's opcode.
● Components of Control Signals:
o Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction.
o Control Logic: Generates signals for memory, I/O devices, and the ALU.

Microprogrammed Control

● Overview: In microprogrammed control, the control signals are generated by a

sequence of microinstructions stored in a control memory. This is more flexible than
hardwired control and easier to modify.
● Advantages:
o Easier to design and modify.
o Useful for complex instruction sets.
● Example: Each machine instruction is broken down into a series of microinstructions
that perform simpler operations like fetching operands, performing ALU operations,
and storing results.

Pipelining:
 ● Overview: Pipelining is a technique used to improve the performance of the CPU by
overlapping the execution of multiple instructions. Instructions are broken into
smaller stages, and each stage is processed simultaneously in different parts of the
CPU.
● Stages of Pipelining:
o Fetch
o Decode
o Execute
o Memory Access
o Writeback
● Example: While instruction 1 is in the decode stage, instruction 2 can be fetched.
This allows multiple instructions to be in different stages of execution simultaneously.

Performance in Pipelining

● Performance Enhancement:
o Throughput: Pipelining increases the number of instructions that can be
processed per unit of time.
o Latency: Each instruction still takes the same amount of time, but the overall
throughput is improved.
● Example: If a CPU can complete one stage of an instruction per clock cycle, a
5-stage pipeline can potentially finish 5 instructions in 5 cycles, rather than 5
instructions in 25 cycles.

Hazards in Pipelining

In a pipelined processor, hazards are conditions that disrupt the smooth execution of
instructions and cause performance degradation. There are three main types of hazards:

1. Data Hazards

Data hazards occur when instructions that are executed in sequence depend on each other's
data. In a pipelined architecture, multiple instructions are processed concurrently, leading to
cases where an instruction requires data that is still being processed by a preceding
instruction.

Types of Data Hazards:

● Read-after-write (RAW): A subsequent instruction reads a source operand before a

previous instruction has written to it.
● Write-after-write (WAW): A subsequent instruction writes to a destination operand
before a previous instruction writes to the same operand.
● Write-after-read (WAR): A subsequent instruction writes to a destination operand
before a previous instruction reads from the same operand.

Influence on Instruction Set Design and Performance: Data hazards necessitate careful
instruction scheduling. Processor designers must ensure that operand dependencies are
minimized or handled without stalling the pipeline. Techniques like operand forwarding
(bypassing) and pipeline stalls (bubbles) are used to mitigate data hazards.

Mitigation Techniques:

● Operand Forwarding: Also known as bypassing, this technique allows a later

instruction to use the result of a previous instruction before it is written to the register
file.
● Pipeline Stalling: Temporarily halts instruction execution until the required data
becomes available.
● Out-of-order Execution: Instructions that are not dependent on previous instructions'
results can be executed out of order to maximize resource utilization and reduce stalls.

2. Control Hazards

Control hazards, or branch hazards, arise when the outcome of a branch instruction
(conditional or unconditional) is unknown. The pipeline may need to fetch the next
instruction without knowing if the branch will be taken or not.

Influence on Instruction Set Design and Performance: Control hazards require

mechanisms to predict the flow of control and minimize delays in instruction fetching. They
make branch instructions more complex to design and influence the performance of the
instruction execution cycle, as mispredictions can cause the pipeline to flush.

Mitigation Techniques:

● Branch Prediction: Modern processors use dynamic or static branch predictors to

guess the outcome of a branch before it is known.
● Delayed Branching: This technique schedules instructions after a branch to execute
regardless of whether the branch is taken or not, reducing the impact of control
hazards.
● Branch Target Buffers (BTB): BTBs store the target addresses of branches, allowing
the pipeline to fetch the correct instruction even before the branch is resolved.
3. Structural Hazards

Structural hazards occur when hardware resources required by the pipeline stages are
insufficient to support concurrent execution of multiple instructions. For example, a conflict
might arise if multiple stages of the pipeline need to access the memory at the same time.

Influence on Instruction Set Design and Performance: Structural hazards can significantly
impact performance if the pipeline design doesn’t provide sufficient resources (e.g., multiple
ALUs, memory access ports). To address this, instruction set design must account for
resource allocation and concurrency within the pipeline.

Mitigation Techniques:

● Multiple Functional Units: Adding more execution units like additional ALUs or
floating-point units helps mitigate conflicts over shared resources.
● Memory Interleaving: This technique increases memory bandwidth, allowing
multiple memory access requests to be handled concurrently.
● Out-of-order Execution: Helps alleviate the pressure on a single resource by
allowing instructions that don’t need that resource to execute first.

Overall Influence on Instruction Set Design and System Performance

Pipelining introduces complexity into the instruction set architecture (ISA) by requiring
considerations for dependencies, branching, and resource conflicts. To optimize pipelining,
instruction sets may:

● Favor simpler, regularly structured instructions to reduce hazards.

● Introduce specialized instructions like branch delay slots or conditional moves to
avoid control hazards.
● Design for load/store architectures to minimize data hazards.
● Include hazard detection and handling mechanisms in the hardware.

By addressing these hazards through techniques like forwarding, branch prediction, and
multiple functional units, processors can minimize pipeline stalls, thereby improving system
performance, throughput, and resource utilization. Efficient pipelining ensures a higher
number of instructions executed per cycle (IPC), maximizing the benefits of parallelism
inherent in the architecture.

Influence on Instruction Sets

● Overview: The design of a CPU’s instruction set can be influenced by the need to
optimize for pipelining. Some CPUs use reduced instruction sets (RISC) to simplify
pipelining by having uniform instruction lengths and fewer instruction types.
● Example: In RISC architectures, every instruction is typically executed in a single
cycle, making them more pipeline-friendly.