GIS Data Types and

Data Models

Although the two terms, data and information, are often

used indiscriminately, they both have a specific meaning. Dat:
can be described as different observations, which are collectod
and stored. Information is that data, which is useful in
answering queries or solving a problem. Digitizing a large
number of maps provides a large amount of data after hours
of painstaking works, but the data can only render useful
information if it is used in analysis.
GIS DATA TYPES
Attribute Data
The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities.
do not
They are often referred toas non-spatial data since they
This type of data
in themselves represent location information. features.
describes characteristics of the spatial These
characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature.
Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.
Spatial Data
feature has
Geographic position refers tothe fact that each
To specily
a location that must be specified in a unique way. is used.
the position in an absolute way a coordinate system the regular
For small areas, the simplest coordinate system is
approved cartographic
square grid. For larger areas, certain approved
there are many
projections are commonly used. Internationally information
different coordinate systems in use. This Locational
 GIS Data Types and Data Models
65
is provided in mapssby using
geometric descriptions, Points,
are the basicLines and Polygons. These
Thus spatial data describes the data elements of a map.
of geographic features. absolute and relative location
he coordinate location of a
while the forest would be spatial
characteristics of that forest, e.g. cover data,
dominant species, crown group,
closure, height, etc., would be attribute
data. Other data types, in particular image
data, have becomne more prevalent with and multimedia
changing technology.
Depending on the specific content of the data,
be considered either spatial, e.g. image data may
movies, etc., or attribute, e.g. sound, photographs, animation,
descriptions, narration's,
etc.

GIS DATA MODELS

A GIS is based on data, hence there must be a data model
that has to be followed to standardize procedures.
They are :
1. Spatial Data Models
2. Attribute Data Models.
Spatial Data Models
Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented
in the form of a map. Three basic types of spatial data models
have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are
referred to as:
Raster Vector Image
The selection of a particular data model, vector or raster,
as the
1s dependent on the source and type of data, as well
intended use of the data. Certain analytical procedures require
data.
raster data while others are better suited to vector
Raster Data Formats
grid of cells divided
A simple raster data set is a regular data values for
data set,
nto rows and columns. In a raster
cell these values may
agiven parameter are stored in each sea level, a land use
represent an elevation in meters above
meter, and so forth.
Class, a plant biomass in grams per square
is determined by
The spatial resolution of the raster data set
66 Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System
the size of the cell. For example, Landsat TM
data are raster data that are corrected to satellite imagery
have a cell size of
approximately 30 meters on a side. However, spatial resolution
can be much finer, or much coarser than 30
meters. In general.
spatial resolution isa function of the data collection
used, and the desired outcomes. techniques
The size of cells in a tessellated data structure is
on the basis of the data accuracy and the selected
resolution needed by
the user. There is no explicit coding of geographic
coordinates
required since that is implicit in the layout of the cell A raster
data structure is in fact a matrix whereany coordinate can be
quickly calculated if the origin point is known, and the size of
the grid cells is known. Since grid-cells can be handled as two
dimensional arrays in computer encoding many analytical
operations are easy to program. This makes tessellated data
structures a popular choice for many GIS software. Topology
is not a relevant concept with tessellated structures since
adjacency and connectivity are implicit in the location of a
particular cell in the data matrix.
Since geographic data is rarely distinguished by regularly
spaced shapes, cells must be classified as to the most common
attribute for the cell. The problem of determining the proper
resolution for a particular data layer can be a concern. If one
selects too coarse a cellsize then data may be overly generalized.
If one selects too fine a cell size then too many cells may be
created resulting in a large data volume, slower processing
times, and a more cumbersome data set. As well, one can imply
ccuracy greater than that of the original data capture process
and this may result in some erroneous results during analysis.
As well, since most data is captured in a vector format, e.g.
digitizing,data must be converted to the raster data structure.
This is called vector-raster conyersion. Most GIS software allows
the user to define the raster grid (cell) size for vector-raster
conversion. It is imperative that the original scale, e.g. accuracy,
of the data be known prior to conversion. The accuracy of the
data, often referred to as the resolution, should determine the
cell size of the output raster map during conversion. Most
raster based GIS software requires that the raster cell contain
only a single discrete value. Accordingly, a data layer, e.g
forest inventory stands, may be broken down into a series 0r
GIS Data Types and Data Models 67

raster maps, each representing an attribute type,e.g. a species

map, a height map, a density map, etc. These are often referred
to as one attribute maps. This is in contrast to most conventional
vector data models that maintain data as multiple attribute
maps.

0 1 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 0 1

ASimple Raster Data Set: Each cell in the raster is

assigned a single data value. In the above example simpl
binary data values have been used meaning that the possibilities
are limited to two digit numbers - either 0 or 1. This is an
example of a 1-bit raster data file. Mathematically, there are
an
only two possibilities for each pixel, O or 1. By contrast ineach
8-bit data file, there are 256 possibilities of data values for
pixel. In the above example, the computer "sees" the cells that
contain 0 as "turned off", while the cells that contain 1 as
"turned on".
68 Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System
The horizontal dimension of raster data is often oriented
parallel tothe east-west direction. Following image processing
convention, raster cells are numbered beginning on the left
margin of the raster.
Further, the positions of cells in the vertical dimension are
numbered starting from the top or northern boundary. Thus,
the origin of the raster is in the upper left corner.
This location is most often referenced (1,1). It is important
to note that this referencing system is different from more
traditional geo-referencing systems that are based on Cartesian
geometry where theorigin is in the lower left corner, and the
origin is typically referenced as (0,0).

1,1 1,2 1,3 | 1,4 0,3 1,3 2,3 3,3

2,1 2,2 2,3| 2,4 0,2 1,2 2,2 3,2
3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 0,1 1,1 2,1 3,1
4,1 |4,2 4,34,4 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0
The selection of a particular data structure can provide
advantages during the analysis stage.
For example, the vector data model does not handle
continuous data, e.g. elevation, very well while the raster data
model is more ideally suited for this type of analysis.
Accordingly, the raster structure does not handle linear
data analysis, e.g. shortest path, very well while vector systems
do. It is important for the user to understand that there are
certain advantages and disadvantages to each data model.
Advantages of Raster Data
1. The geographic location of each cell is implied by its
position in the cell matrix. Accordingly, other than an
origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographie
coordinates are stored.
2. Due to the nature of the data storage technique data
analysis isusually easy to program and quick to perform.
GIS Data Types and Data Models 69
3. Theinherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute
maps, is ideally suited for mathematical modelling and
quantitative analysis.
4. Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is
accommodated
equally wellas continuous data, e.g. elevation data, and
facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
Disadvantages of Raster Data
1. The cell size determines the resolution at which the
data is represented.
2. It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear
features depending on the cell resolution. Accordingly,
network linkages are difficult to establish.
3. Processing of associated attribute data may be
cumbersome if large amounts of data exists. Raster
maps inherently reflect only one attribute or
characteristic for an area.
4. Since most input data is in vector form, data must
undergo vector-to-raster conversion. Besides increased
processing requirements this may introduce data
integrity concerns due to generalization and choice of
inappropriate cell size.
Vector Data Models
The vector data model is based upon vectors as opposed to
space occupancy of raster data structures. The fundamnental
primitiveof the vector mnodel is a point.
The various objects are created by connecting the points
with straight lines, but some systems allow the points to be
connected using arcs of circles.
The areas are defined in this model by sets of lines.
The term polygon is synonymous with area in vector
databases because of these of straight-line connections between
points.
Very large vector databases have been built for
facilitating diferent purposes as vectors dominate in various
different fields such as transportation, utility and marketing
applications.
70 Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

Vector Raster

Several different vector data models exist, however only

commonly used in GIS data storage. The topologic data
structure is often referred to as an intelligent data structure
because spatial relationships between geographic features
easily derived when using them. Primarily for this reason the
topologicmodel is thedominant vector data structure currently
used in GIS technology. Many of the complex data analysis
functions cannot effectively be undertaken without a topologic
vector data structure.
The secondary vector data structure that is common among
GIS software is the computer-aided drafting (CAD) data
structure. This structure consists of listing elements, not
features, defined by strings of vertices, to define geographic
features, e.g. points, lines, or areas. There is considerable
redundancy with this data model since the boundary segment
between two polygons can be stored twice, once for each feature.
The CADstructure emerged from the development of computer
GIS Data Types and Data Models 71
graphics systems without specific considerations of processing
geographic features. Accordingly, since features, e.g. polygons,
are self-contained and independent, questions about the
adjacency of features can be difficult to answer. The CAD
vector model lacks the definition of spatial relationships between
features that is defined by the topologic data model.
Advantages of Vector Data
1. Datacan berepresented at its original resolution without
generalization.
2. Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing.
3. Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps are in vector form,
no conversion is required.
4. Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
5. Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result
more efficient operations that require topological
information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.
Disadvantages of Vector Data
1. Thelocation of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.
2. Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are
complex and may be processing intensive.
3. Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively
represented in vector form.
4. Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is
impossible.