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Alkenes and Aromatics 1st Edition Taylor P.G. (Ed.)
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Taylor P.G. (ed.); Gagan J.M.F. (ed.);
ISBN(s): 9780854046805, 0854046801
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 25.82 MB
Year: 2002
Language: english
CJ Theopen
University RSeC
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CHEMISTRY
The
Molecular
World
Alkenes and
Aromatics
This publication forms part of an Open University course, S205 The Molecular World. Most of
the texts which make up this course are shown opposite. Detajls of this and other Open University
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1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 ,4ddition of HX 13
1.3 Addition of halogens and related compounds 18
1.4 Summary of Section 1 25
Addition -
pathways and products
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes
Addition reactions are those in which atoms or groups add to a molecule contain-
ing a double or triple bond, thereby reducing the degree of unsaturation; they are
the reverse of elimination reactions. Some typical examples of addition reactions
are shown below:
HzC= CH;! + 121.2 I ~ I C H ~ C HI ~ I J (1.1) Q+
(1.3)
catalyst
CHJC=N + 2t12 * CH,CI I INI I (1.4) E
Alkenes generally provide the nucleophilic component of the addition. You may
fiind it hard to picture how an alkene can act as a nucleophile. Figure 1.1 shows the
bonding picture of a carbon-carbon double bond. Carbon-carbon double bonds are
niatle up of a strong 0 bond plus a weaker n; bond. The two electrons in the 7c bond
dominate the chemistry of alkenes. They can be thought of as providing a negatively
charged cloud of electrons above and below the plane of the carbon atom framework.
This electron-rich centre repels nucleophiles and attracts electrophiles.
Figure 1.1
The electron distribution in ethene
after overlap of the two p orbitals not
used in forming CT molecular orbitals.
* This symbol, @, indicates that this Figure is available in WebLab ViewerLiteTbl on the CD-ROM
associated with this Hook.
11
Addition - p a t h w a y s a n d p r o d u c t s
So it is the pair of electrons in the IT bond that acts as the nucleophile in the
reactions of alkenes. Alkenes are certainly electron-rich, but they do not contain
a non-bonded pair of electrons. However, although the n; electrons are bonding
electrons, they do react with electrophiles, as you will see. This is because the n;
electrons are polarizable; that is, they are far enough from the carbon nuclei to be
susceptible to the influence of electrophiles.
One of the most characteristic reactions of alkenes is electrophilic addition, as
exemplified by the addition of halogens (X,) and hydrogen halides (HX) across the
double bond:
12
Look at the mechanism of the electrophilic addition reaction carefully, and try to
understand the changes in the bonding.
Two of the electrons from the n: system of the alkene form a new bond to the
electrophile, which is given the symbol E+. The carbocation intermediate formed
in this first step then reacts with a nucleophile, Nu-, to give the reaction product. So,
in order for reactions such as this to occur, an alkene must be treated with a reagent
that provides both an electrophile and a nucleophile.
Reactions 1.8, 1.9 and 1. 10 show that hydrogen iodide, hydrogen bromide and
hydrogen chloride, respectively, all add to alkenes:
HzC=CHz + HI - CH3CHzI (1.8) M
13
However, in Reactions 1.8 and 1.9 the two alkenes are symmetrically substituted,
so the same carbocation is produced no matter which carbon-hydrogen bond is
formed in the first step. For example:
or
I c1- 1 c1-
(CH3)3CCl (CH3)2CHCHzCl
1.1 LJ 1.2 L4 SCHEME 1.1
In practice, the only product is 2-chloro-2-methylpropane (1.1). The reason for this
predominance is apparent when the relative stabilities of the two intermediate
carboe ation s are considered.
14
In electrophilic addition reactions the major product arises from the more-stable
carbocation intermediate, because that reaction pathway has the lower energy of
activation (see Figure 1.2). So the reactions are kinetically controlled; that is, the
ma-jor product is the one that is formed faster. Other unsymmetrically substituted
alkenes also give the major product by way of the more-stable carbocation
intermediate. Thus, Reaction I . 16 proceeds via a secondary, rather than a primary,
carbocation; and Reactions I . 17 and 1.18 proceeds via a tertiary, rather than a
secondary, carbocation.
CHjCH2CH=CH2 + HI +CH3CH2CHICH3 (1.16) E
(CH3)*C=CHCH3 + HBr ---+ (CH&CBrCH2CH3 (1.17) G
(CH3)2C=CH2 + HCl +(CH3)2CClCH3 (1.18) B
Figure 1.2 Reaction-coordinate diagram (energy profile) for the alternative addition
reactions of an unsymmetrical alkene. Note that the favoured black route leads to the less-
stable product even though its activation energy, E,, is less than that for the brown route.
As you can see from Reactions 1.16, 1.17 and I .18, in order to generate the more-
stable carbocation, the proton adds to the less-substituted carbon atom of the double
bond -that is, to the one that already has more hydrogen atoms attached.
The generalization that, in the addition of HX to an unsyrnnzetrical alkerze, the
hydrogen always adds to the less-substituted carbon atom cf the double bond, was
made long before a mechanistic explanation was available. A Russian chemist,
Vladimir Markovnikov (Box 1.3), put forward this empirical rule -now known as
Markovnikov’s rule -after studying the products of a number of different HX
addition reactions. Markovnikov’s rule is sometimes summarized as ‘to the one who
has, will more be given’, because the hydrogen atom from HX goes to the alkene
carbon atom with the greater number of hydrogens already attached.
So fa-, the alkenes that we have considered have been unsymmetrically substi-
tuted (for example, CH3CH=CH2) or symmetrically disubstituted (for example,
CH&H =CHCH3). A third possible category consists of alkenes, such as pent-2-ene,
in which both carbon atoms of the double bond have the same number of alkyl
substituents, but the substituents are different.
tp How many products would you expect from the reaction of pent-2-ene,
CH3CH =CHCH2CH3, with HBr?
You might expect two products, because both possible carbocations formed by
the addition of a proton are secondary.
In reactions such as this, a mixture of both possible products usually does result:
CH3CH=CHCH2CH3 + HBr --+ CH3CHZCHBrCH2CH3 + CH3CHBrCHZCHZCH3 (1.19) R
Note thal. Markovnikov’s rule applies only to the addition of HX. The earlier
mechanistic discussion, however, applies to any electrophilic addition reaction:
the major product will always result from the more-stable carbocation. We shall
call this the mechanistic Markovnikov rule (see also Section 1.3).
1.3
H+ + C6HsCH=CHCH3 ‘
1.4 1.5
SCHEME 1.2
16
In both cases, a secondary carbocation is formed; however, 1.4 will be more
stable than 1.3 because in 1.4 the positive charge is adjacent to a phenyl group.
This means that the charge can be spread further by resufzaizce:
Since the spreading of charge leads to a more-stable carbocation, 1.5 will be the
predominant product.
The hydration of alkenes falls into the same category as the addition of HX.
Although this reaction is rarely carried out in the laboratory, it is an important
industrial process for preparing alcohols from alkene feedstocks, which in turn are
obtained from crude oil-. The alkene is usually passed into a 1 : 1 mixture of sulfuric
acid and water. With 2-methylpropene, for example, 60-65 5% aqueous sulfuric acid
is used to prepare 2-methylpropan-2-01, presumably by way of the corresponding
tertiary carbocation:
(1.21)
Therc is further discussion of the importance of the petrochemicals industry for the synthesis of organic
compounds in the Case Study Iiidustr-ial Organic Chemistr:v at the end of this Book.
Thc elimination o f water from alcohols is discussed in Chemical Kinetics mid Meclzuiiisnz. See Further
Rcatling (p. 36).
this method is sometimes used to convert a less-substituted alkene into a more-
substituted one; hence, for example, in Reaction l .22
- H+
Let's concentrate on the addition of bromine, although all the subsequent discussion
applies equally well to the addition of chlorine. The mechanism of this reaction is
not immediately obvious because bromine is a non-polar molecule. However, the
addition does proceed by an ionic mechanism in which the halogen molecule
provides the electrophile. In isolation, bromine is a covalent molecule with a
symmetrical electron distribution. However, in the presence of the high electron
density of the alkene double bond, polarization of bromine occurs, and one bromine
atom becomes electrophilic (Figure 1.4).
By analogy with the addition of HX, the mechanism for the addition of bromine to
an alkene can be written as shown in Reaction 1.24:
Figure 1.4
(The analytical applications of this type of reaction are discussed in Box 1.4.) Polarization of thc Br-Br bond in
However, this is not the complete story. In the reaction of trans-but-2-ene with the presence of a carbon-carbon
double bond. The red areas of the
bromine, for example, the only product is the diastereomer that results from one
surface indicate regions of high
bromine atom approaching from one face of the substrate and the other bromine electron density, and the blue areas
atom approaching from the opposite face: indicate low electron density.
18
Would this result be expected if a simple carbocation intermediate were
i n v 01 ved ?
19
I3y analogy with the S N l mechanism, you would expect the bromide ion to
attack the carbocation indiscriminately. If this were the case, two products
( d i astereomers) wou 1d result :
Reaction 1.29 shows the first two steps of the mechanism. The relative disposition
of the substituents in the three-membered ring reflects that on the alkene, because
the stxond step in Reaction 1.29 occurs very quickly, before rotation about the
central1 carbon-carbon bond can occur. In fact, it occurs so fast that we usually
represent Reaction 1.29 as a single step:
Once the bromonium ion intermediate has been formed, the bromide ion then
attack!;, opening up the three-membered ring:
This is very much like an SN2reaction, and attack occurs from the side opposite the
‘leavi,ng group’. As you can see, the overall result is the anti-addition of bromine,
and the product is rneso-2,3-dibroniobutane.
20
Would attack of bromide ion at the other carbon atom of the alkene double bond
(as shown in Structure 1.7) lead to a different product?
This again leads to the overall anti-addition of bromine, but because of the
internal symmetry of the molecule, the same product results, as shown in
Scheme I .4. (The two structures shown are simply two conformations of the
wme molecule, meso-2,3-dibromobutane.)
What would be the final product of addition if, as is equally likely, the initial
attack of the bromine molecule was from below the plane of the alkene (as in
1.8 rather than from above as in Reaction I .30)?
'This time, the bromide ion subsequently attacks the bromoniurn ion so formed
iit either carbon atom from above, to give the same meso product, as shown in
Scheme 1.5: H3C, r3 I'
,
21
So, symmetrically substituted trans alkenes lead only to meso products. However,
symmetrically substituted cis alkenes react with bromine to produce enantiomeric
products. This can be seen from the reaction of cis-but-2-ene:
Flow would you account for the formation of the bromomethoxy compound in
this reaction?
Methanol competes with bromide ion as the nucleophile to capture the
bromonium ion intermediate, and yields an ether as a byproduct:
(13 3 )
22
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes
This type of reaction is often used to prepare bromoethers. To ensure that a good
yield of the bromoether is obtained, rather than the dibromo product, the reaction
is carried out in dilute solution. This means that methanol is present in far greater
concentration than bromide ion. A similar reaction results if water is the solvent:
B r2
H?C=CHZ -~2()-BrCHZCH20H + BrCHZCHZBr (1.34) L2,
major product, minor product
a bromohydrin
This reaction gives rise to bromoalcohols, or bromohydrins, as they are sometimes
called. you will meet these compounds again in Part 3, where we discuss their
importance in the synthesis of pseudoephedrine.
In practice, these reactions obey the mechanistic Markovnikov rule, even though
the intermediate is a bromonium ion rather than a carbocation. During attack of the
nucleophile on the bromonium ion, the carbon-bromine bond breaks in advance of
the carbon nucleophile bond being made, leading to a build up of positive charge on
the electrophilic carbon in the transition state. Thus, the more alkyl groups that are
attached to this carbon, the greater the spread of charge, the lower the energy of the
transition state, and the faster the reaction, such that this isomer is the predominant
product. Put simply, to predict the predominant product, we must decide which of
the two potential carbocation intermediates is the more stable.
23
So, in addition reactions involving the bromonium ion, the electrophile (bromine)
ends up on the carbon atom with the most hydrogen atoms attached to it. Of course,
this is only apparent when bromide ion is not the nucleophile.
An alternative way of making bromohydrins is to use hypobromous acid, HOBr,
which reacts in the same way as bromine. Oxygen is more electronegative than
6- 6+
bromine, so the oxygen-bromine bond is polarized HO-Br. The bromine therefore
acts ax the electrophilic centre, leading again to the formation of a bromonium ion
i nterrnediate:
The hydroxide ion then attacks the bromonium ion from the opposite side to the
bromine 'leaving group'.
Hypobit-omousacid can conveniently be made by treating N-bromoethanamide
(N-brornoacetamide) with water in acid conditions:
N-bromoethanamide
c(r
f:
n r 7
..
+
Bi"
Since tertiary carbocations are more stable than secondary ones, the mechan-
istic Markovnikov rule predicts that attack of HO- will be more likely to occur
at the more-substituted carbon atom of the ring:
,--+
( I .40)
24
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes
abtn c / I HO
-OH
Tn SN2reactions the nucleophile approaches from the opposite side of the molecule /c-c- L '"
HO CH3
to the leaving group. Hence the product will be as shown in Reaction 1.42:
1.11 e
Br
As we shall see in Part 3, oxiranes are very useful compounds, because by reacting
with a nucleophile they create two adjacent functional groups. They also feature as a
key structural element of epoxy resins (Box 1.5).
25
Addition - pathways a n d products
Figure 1.5
/O\
H2C -CH- CH2C1
The two components of a typical epoxy resin glue.
1.14 W
hardener, 1.15
To set the resin, the adhesive is mixed with a hardener, which is a polymer
containing many amine groups, 1.15. When mixed, the amino groups of
the hardener undergo nucleophilic substitution at the epoxide groups of the
adhesive to give a rigid network of cross-linked polymers. The final step of
the reaction involves proton transfer from nitrogen to oxygen.
OH
S h L proton I
H2C-CHCH2- ___ transfer * RNHCH2-CHpCH2- ( I .43)
/-I
RNH~
26
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes
1,
Predict the products of the following addition reactions. If two products are
possible, say which one you think will predominate.
(a) C6H5CH=CHC6HS + HBr
(b) C6HsCH2CH=CHCH3 + HBr
What are the reactants needed to prepare the compounds 1.16-1.18? (Ensure
that the required stereochemistry will be obtained.)
c)
1
/-U
I L
and its enantioiner
STUDY NOTE
'4set of interactive self-assessment questions are provided on the Alkenes and Aromatics
(211-ROM. The questions are scored, and you can come back to the questions as many or
as few times as you wish in order to improve your score on some or all of them. This is a
good way of reinforcing the knowledge you have gained while studying this Book.
27
Addition -pathways a n d p r o d u c t s
The addition reactions we have studied so far all proceed by the electrophilic
addition mechanism. There are several other useful addition reactions that proceed
by a variety of mechanisms. We don't have space to discuss them all, but we shall
mention one important example.
I n certain addition reactions, both the new atoms or groups become attached to the
same side of the alkene; that is, syn-addition is said to take place. We shall deal
with only one of these reaction types, namely the hydrogenation of alkenes to
alkane:;. which is a reduction reaction.
Three examples are shown, in Reactions 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3:
CH~CHZCH~ -i I:/Ni
CH3CI-tzCH3 (2.1)
(2.2) E
(2.3) B
HOOC COOH
I I
H H
Figure 2.1
cat a1y st surface Schematic view of the catalytic
hydrogenation of an alkene to an
alkane.
28
O t h e r useful addition reactions
Al kynes can also be hydrogenated, and, when the normal hydrogenation catalysts
(platinum. palladium, nickel) are employed, the product is usually an alkane rather
than an alkene:
H2 H2
R~C-=CR~ R’ CH=CHR’ ---+ R’CH2CH2R’ (2.4)
However, by using special deactivated catalysts, the hydrogenation reaction can
be slowed down, and the alkene can be isolated. These catalysts are often referred to
a:, ‘poisoned’ catalysts, and the one most frequently used is called Lindlar’s catalyst.
This consists of palladium on barium sulfate; it is ‘poisoned’ by the addition of a
small amount of quinoline (2.1), which slows down the hydrogenation. 2.1 M
Do you think that the cis or the trans alkene will predominate from the
hydrogenation of an alkyne?
Because the mechanism of hydrogenation involves the delivery of both
hydrogen atoms from the metal surface to the same side of the alkyne, the
cis alkene is usually formed to the exclusion of the trans isomer; for example
29
Addition - p a t h w a y s and products
Margarine and butter are emulsions formed between fats and water (Figure 2.2).
Fats are known as triglycerides, 2.2. They are formed by the reaction of three
fatty acid molecules, 2.3, and glycerol, 2.4, which contains three -OH groups:
4)
I!
CH2-OH CH2- 0 __ C --R
I<’
,,C,
OH
+
I
CH-OH
I
-I CH-
I
OH + H20 (2.6)
2.3 I I
CH2d-H CHl-OH
2.4 a monoglyceride
a diglyceride
0 0
I I1
30
Other useful addition reactions
The double bonds usually have the cis configuration, the reaction is exothermic so further heating is not
such that the chains of the triglycerides do not pack required. The hot oil is filtered to remove the nickel, and
well together. This results in triglycerides from plants left to cool down and solidify. The ‘chemical’ nature of
having low melting temperatures -they are oils at margarine production is highlighted in Figure 2.3, which
room temperature -so they are not very useful for is from an advert to promote the ‘more natural’ butter.
making a solid spread. However, hydrogenation of
Saturated fats are thought to be unhealthy and lead to heart
:some of the double bonds in vegetable oils leads to less
disease, whereas margarine, which still contains reasonable
wnsaturation, converting the oils into solid fats that can
amounts of unsaturation, is thought to be more healthy.
be used to make a solid spread. In a typical process the
However, recently there has been concern over the
vegetable oil is mixed with finely divided nickel, and
formation of trans fatty acid esters in the hydro-genation
hydrogen is pumped through the mixture. The reaction
process. This arises from isomerization of the cis fatty acid
takes place above 170°C and at high pressures (200-
ester to the trans form on the surface of the metal.
700 kPa). Although the reaction needs heating at first,
Bleach with Fullers Earth Filter to produce refined oil. Deodorise under,vacuum to
remove odours created through f a t
degradation and oxidation.
React with hydrogen in Filter out hydrogenation Blend with either vegetable.
presence of nickle catalyst to catalyst and animal or fish oil.
harden p a r t of the oil. other suspended matter.
1 Figure 2.3
Illustration from an
add whey, colouring, flavouring Add Lecithin and E x t r u d e into plastic tub. advert to promote
and vitamins. Monoglycerine to emutsify.
butter!
31
Addition - pathways a n d products
Now that you have completed Alkevies and Aromatics: Addition -pathways and
produc-ts, you should be able to do the following things:
1 Recognize valid definitions of, and use in a correct context, the terms, concepts
and principles in the following ‘Table. (All Questions)
2 Given the reactants in an addition reaction: predict the structure of the product,
indicating its stereochemistry, and, where more than one addition product can
be formed, predict which one will predominate. (Questions 1.1 and 1.2)
3 Specify the reagents and conditions needed to form a given product by an
addition reaction. (Questions 1.2, 1.3 and 2.1 )
32
Questions: a n s w e r s and comments
(a) The product would be compound Q.1. Since one of the central carbon atoms is
chiral in Q.l, both enantiomers will be formed in equal amounts; that is, a racemic
mixture would be formed.
H .+
1 €31'
C6HSCHL CH- C6H5 - C~HSCH~-CH-C~H~
+
- I
C~H_SCH~-CCH-C~H~ (Q.l) Q
(I Q.1
B I--
(b) Both carbocation intermediates are secondary, and a mixture of both products,
Q.2 and Q.3, will probably be formed as racemic mixtures.
1 Ii
f-
C~,H_SCH~-CH=CH-CH~ - C~H_SCH~-,CH-CH~-CH~
+
- I
CbHsCH2- CH- CHz- CH3 (Q.2)
i Q.2
I3 I'
(c) Protonation will occur to give the tertiary carbocation, which will give rise to
the tertiary alcohol Q.4.
(Q.4)
N -I .% ~L~~~~~~~
(a) 'The product will be (CH3)2CClCCl(CH3)2.
(b I The intermediate bromonium ion will be intercepted by methanol and B r .
Nucleophilic attack will occur preferentially at the site of the more-stable potential
carbocation, and two major products will be formed: (CGHs)2C(OCH3)CH2Br and
(C6H&CBrCH2Br, whose relative proportions will depend on the concentration of
bromine.
33
Addition - p a t h w a y s and p r o d u c t s
(c) Initial attack of the chlorine can take place from above or below the plane of
the double bond. When the chloroniiim ion is formed, the C1- will attack the carbon
attached to the phenyl group, since this would be the site of the more-stable carbo-
cation (stabilization of a carbocation by a phenyl group is equivalent to that result-
ing from two alkyl groups). The two products formed from this reaction, Q.5 and
(2.6, are enantiomers.
c:/l\ C(jH.5
7'
Ail k k * l i i thtctlriie
C6H5 ~.
*c ~
+-H
C' -\
CH3
* H 4\\
/c-c- L (Q.5)
_?
i l < l r ! 'SiPt"i~<'
( i CH3
i l
Q.5
Q ~~~~~
H H
(ii)
I
c=c\ + Br2 gives 1.17
H3C CH2CH3
base
H- \
H3C--c-c-<
'
0
-CH2CH3
H plus its enantiomer
Q.7
I n the 1-hirdreaction, because both alkene carbon atoms give secondary carbo-
cations, a mixture of bromohydrins will be formed. However, treatment with
base gives just one oxirane (epoxide, Q.7).
34
Questions: a n s w e r s and c o m m e n t s
35
Addition -pathways and p r o d u c t s
36
Part 2
Aromatic Compounds
.s. .
.
, - .-
i
-
-
--I. * j
Introduction
39
Aromatic compounds
Very few people in 1850 could have expected that coal tar would provide the
raw material for a striking new industrial development, and no one anticipated
that within this black, sticky, often evil-smelling substance some 250 different
compounds would be identified, many of which would be found to have useful
applications. The birth of the organiic chemical industry was based on the careful
distillation of coal tar (Figure 1.2). Coal tar is a mixture of many different com-
pounds, and these distil off in an order determined by their boiling temperatures.
The various fractions that were obtained contained a mixture of compounds boiling
between two temperatures. Further fractional distillation of these mixtures led to the
isolation of individual compounds. About one kilogram of benzene can be obtained
from a thousand kilograms of coal. Although this is not a very high percentage
yield, so much coal is now being colked globally that the annual production of
benzene from the resulting coal tar is enormous. Even in the nineteenth century,
there was plenty of coal tar just waiting to be used; as indicated in Box 1.1, some
of it found application in surgical procedures.
It would be hard to exaggerate the importance to the chemical industry, and to our
present economy, of the large-scale production of benzene and its derivatives. Just
as the alkanes obtained from petroleum (see the Industrial Organic Chemistry Case
Study at the end of this Book) are ultimately the source of nearly all our aliphatic
compounds, so benzene, and compounds made from benzene, are ultimately the
source of nearly all our aromatic compounds. When a chemist wishes to make a
cornpl icated aromatic compound, whether in the laboratory or on an industrial scale,
a benzene ring is not built up from non-cyclic reactants: a simpler benzene deriva-
tive is modified to obtain the required structure.
Thus, benzene is the parent hydrocarbon of a very large class of organic com-
pounds, which have come to be known as aromatic compounds. The origin of
40
Introduction
this (classification is simple, but its use can be misleading. The word ‘aromatic’
(from the Greek word that means ‘fragrant smell’) sterns froin the fact that many
of these compounds that were isolated from natural sources had one obvious thing
in common -a pleasant odour; notable examples are vanilla, oil of wintergreen,
cinnamon and aniseed. Later, when it was found that these compounds were also
related to benzene and that this was their parent compound, the term ‘aromatic’
was adopted for benzene and all its derivatives. Given this historical explanation,
it should be pointed out that many aromatic compounds do not smell pleasant, even
to an organic chemist! Rather, the term should be thought of as indicating that a
compound is related to benzene.
I n the 1850s, two pharmacists in France, Ferdinand ring are less harmful. For example, thymol (1.2), which
LeBeuf and Jules Lemaire demonstrated that coal is a naturally occurring compound found in thyme, is
tar possessed antiseptic properties. Meanwhile, in used in mouthwashes and gargles.
Manchester, the industrial chemist F. C. Calvert was
Such phenolic compounds are present in coal tar soap
interested in carbolic acid because it was a useful
(Figure 1.4), and contribute to its characteristic smell.
intermediate from coal tar for use in the dyestuffs
industry. Calvert sold most of his carbolic acid to OH
France, and suggested to the French Academy of
OH CH3
Science that the disinfectant properties of coal tar I I
arose from carbolic acid. Letnaire confirmed that this
was true. About this time, Joseph Lister was looking
for substances that would kill bacteria and so prevent
H
infection during surgery. He investigated the use of
1.1 9; 1.2 0
carbolic acid for this purpose; in due course he found
that it could be utilized as an antiseptic during surgery
(Figure 1.3).
Carbolic acid, or phenol (1.1) as it is more commonly
known, contains a benzene ring and an OH group. As
well as being an antiseptic, phenol is corrosive and not
the kind of thing you would want to put on your skin. Figure 1.4
However, compounds with other alkyl groups on the Coal tar soap.
Figure 1.3 In 1965, Britain celebrated the centenary of Lister’s contribution to the development of antiseptic surgery
by issuing two stamps; the one shilling stamp shows a rather odd representation of the molecular structure of phenol,
the compound known to Lister as ‘carbolic acid’.
41
Aromatic compounds
Kekul6 (Figure 2.11, who was born on 7 September whirling in a giddy dance. I saw how the larger ones
18291 in Darmstadt, Germany, was descended from a formed a chain, dragging the smaller ones after them
Bohemian noble family. In the winter of 1847, Kekul6 but only at the ends of the chains.. ..The cry of the
enrolled at the University of Giessen to study conductor: ‘Clapham Road’ awak.ened me from my
archjtecture, but was so inspired by his chemistry dreaming; but I spent a part of the night in putting on
teacher, Justus von Liebig, that he changed to paper at least sketches of these dream forms.
chemistry, graduating in 1851. He then went to Paris This led to his proposals that carbon atoms with a
to study for his Doctorate. In 18541-5 he worked as an valency of four can form chains with each other of any
assistant to J. Stenhouse at St Bartholomew’s Hospital, length or shape. He later dreamt the solution to the
London. He then moved to Heidelberg, subsequently structure of benzene (1 865):
becoming professor first at Ghent (1 858) and then at
Bonn (1867). He first married in 1862, but his wife I turned my chair to the fire [after having worked on
died during childbirth. He married again in 1876, and the problem for some time] and dozed. Again the
had three more children. He also caught measles in atoms were gamboling before my eyes. This time the
1876, and this affected his health for the remainder of smaller groups kept modestly to tlhe background. My
his life. mental eye, rendered more acute by repeated vision
of this kind, could not distinguish larger structures, of
Keku16 was apparently neither a p(articu1arlygood manifold conformation; long rowts, sometimes more
practical chemist nor an inspiring teacher. However,
closely fitted together; all twining and twisting in
he was a good theoretician and dreamer:
snakelike motion. But look! What was that? One
During my stay in London I resided in Clapham of the snakes had seized
Road.. ..I frequently, however, spent my evenings hold of its own tail,
with my friend Hugo Mueller.. ..We talked of many and the form whirled
things but most often of our beloved chemistry. One mockingly before my
fine summer evening I was returning by the last bus, eyes. As if by a flash
riding outside as usual, through the deserted streets of lightning I awoke.. ..
of the city.. ..I fell into a reverie, and lo, the atoms Let us learn to dream,
were gamboling before my eyes;. Whenever, gentlemen.
hitherto, these diminutive beings had appeared to
me, they had always been in motion. Now, however,
I saw how, frequently, two smaller atoms united to
form a pair: how a larger one embraced the two Figure 2.1
smaller ones; how still larger ones kept hold of three Friedrich August Kekulk von
or even four of the smaller: whilst the whole kept Stradonitz 1829-1 896. I-
42
The s t r u c t u r e a n d stability of benzene
Thc special problems associated with understanding the structure and properties
of benzene stemmed from the knowledge that its molecular formula is C6H6.
This formula requires that benzene contains four double bonds, or four rings, H
or two triple bonds, or. more likely, some combination of rings and multiple I
bond!,. However, benzene does not easily undergo addition reactions, but it readily
undergoes substitution reactions, in which an electrophile, X+, leads to a C-X
bond being formed, and a C-H bond being broken, with H+ as a leaving group.
Furthermore, only one substitution product, C6HsX, can be formed, requiring that I
all six hydrogen atoms are in chemically identical environments. To account for H
thes,e.,and other, observations, Kekuli proposed Structure 1.3 for benzene: 1.3
He ;also proposed (to account for some structural observations) that the double
bonds were ‘oscillating’ between the two possible positions 1.3 and 1.4:
I-I H
I I
f-I H
1.3 1.4
Modern techniques, such as X-ray crystallography have shown that all the carbon-
carboln bonds in benzene are of exactly the same length, forming a regular hexagon
with sides 140 pm long. The carbon-carbon bond length in benzene lies between
that for a carbon-carbon single bond ( 1 54 pm) and a double bond ( 1 33 pm). The
benzene molecule is perfectly planar, all bond angles are 120°, and the C-H bonds
are all 108 pm long (1.5).
We no longer think that the bonds in benzene are oscillating, but the concept of
resonance can be used to explain why all the carbon-carbon bonds in benzene have 1.5
the siinie length. The two resonance forms of benLene contribute equally to the
actual structure, so that each carbon-carbon bond is intermediate in nature between
a single bond and a double bond; we say that the electrons are deZocnEized around
the ring.
2 -1
Write i n your own words what is meant by the following representation:
1.6
From now on, for convenience, we shall draw benzene as a single resonance form -
that is, as one of the two forms shown as 1.6. Always remember that this is simply
a convenient representation, and that in the real structure all the C-C bonds have
equal bond lengths. Also, remember that a hydrogen atom is attached to each carbon
atom.
Although the idea of resonance stabilization is useful in helping to understand the
structure and properties of benzene, it is not quite sufficient. As you will see in
detail in the next Section, benzene derivatives have a very strong tendency to
maintain intact the six-electron n: system (from the three double bonds). We cannot
explore the concept of aromaticity in detail here, but it has been shown that planar,
43
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