CHAPTER TWO

TRANSFORMERS
 INTRODUCTION
 The transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from
one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium
of magnetic field and without a change in the frequency.
 The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is
called primary winding
 and the other circuit which delivers electrical energy to the load is
called secondary winding.
 If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding,
then the secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and the
transformer is called a step-up transformer.
 When the secondary winding has less turns than the primary windings
then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the
transformer is called step down transformer.
 Cont….
 Note that a step­up transformer can be used as a step­down
transformer, in which the secondary of step­up transformer becomes
the primary of the step­down transformer.
 The most important tasks performed by transformers are:­
i.Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems
ii.Matching source and load impedances for maximum power
transfer in electronic and control circuit and
iii. Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )
 Transformers are used extensively in ac power systems. AC electrical
power can be generated at one central location, its voltage stepped up
for transmission over long distances at very low losses and its voltage
stepped down again for final use.
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
 There are basically two types of transformer, the core­type and the
shell­type.
 The two types differ from each other by the manner in which the
windings are wound around the magnetic core.
 In the core­type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel
core as shown in Figure 2.1(a).
 In shell­type the steel core surrounds a major part of the windings as
shown in Figure 2.1(b).
 For a given output and voltage rating, core­type transformer requires
less iron but more conductor material as compared to a shell­type
transformer.
 The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or legs and
the top and bottom portions are called yoke.
 This means that for single­phase transformers, core­type has two­
legged core where as shell type has three­legged core.
 Cont…
 In core­type transformers, most of the flux is confined to high
permeability core.
 However, some of the flux leaks through the core legs and non­
magnetic material surrounding the core. The flux called leakage
flux links one winding and not the other.
 A reduction in this leakage flux is desirable as it improves the
transformer performance considerably.
 Consequently, an effort is always made to reduce it. In the core­
type transformer, this is achieved by :
Placing half of the low voltage (LV) winding over one leg and
the other half over the second leg or limb.
For the high voltage (HV) winding also , half of the winding
is over one leg and the other half over the second leg, as
shown in Figure 2.1.
Cont…

  
 
2 2 2
2

(a) b)

Figure 2.1 Constructional details of single-phase

(a) core-type transformer (b) Shell-type transformer
 Cont…
 In shell­type transformer the low voltage and high voltage windings
are wound over the central limb and are interleaved or sandwiched as
shown in Figure2.1(b).
 Note that the bottom and top are low voltage coils.
 In core­type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or
yokes as shown in Figure2.1(a).
 In shell­type transformer, the flux in the central limb divides equally
and returns through the outer two legs.
 There are two types of windings employed in transformers. The
concentric coils are used for core­type transformer as shown in Figure
2.1(a) and interleaved (or sandwiched) coils for shell­ type
transformers as shown in Figure 2.1(b).
 Cont…
 One type of laminations for the core and shell type of
transformers is illustrated in Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) respectively
 In both core and shell­type transformers, the individual
laminations are cut in the form of long strips of L's, E’s and I's as
shown in Figure 2.3.
 In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the
laminations are butted against each other, the alternative layers
are stacked as shown in Figure 2.4.
 Low­power transformers are air cooled whereas larger power
transformers are immersed in oil for better cooling.
 In oil­cooled transformer, the oil serves as a coolant and also as
an insulation medium.
 Figure 2.3 long strips of E’s, L’s and I’s
laminations

(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Arrangement of butt joints
Figure 2.2 Two adjacent layers for in magnetic core
(a) core and (b) shell type transformers
 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER
ACTION


Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source,
therefore, an alternating current Im starts flowing through N1 turns.

The alternating mmf N1Im sets up an alternating flux  which is

confined to the high permeability iron path as indicated in Figure 2.5.

The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and E2 in

secondary S. If a load is connected across the secondary, load current
starts flowing.
 IDEAL TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER
 For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as
follows.

1.All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e.
all of the flux is confined to the magnetic core.

2.Winding resistances are negligible.

3.The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.

4.The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for
the core is linear.
 EMF Equation of A Transformer
 Let the voltage V1 applied voltage primary be sinusoidal (or sine
wave). Then the current Im and, therefore, the flux  will flow with the
variations of Im.
 That is, the flux  is in time phase with the current Im and varies
sinusoidally. Let sinusoidal variation of flux  be expressed as
Ф=Фmsinwt
 Where m is maximum of the magnetic flux in Weber and  = 2f is
the angular frequency in rad/sec and f is the supply frequency in Hz.
 The emf e1 in volt, induced in the primary of N1 turns by the
alternating flux is given by:
d
e1   N 1
dt
  N 1  m Cos  t

 N 1  m sin(  t  )
2
Cont….
 Its maximum value, E1max occurs when Sin  t    is equal to 1
 2
E1m  N1m and
 
e  E 1 m sin   t  
1
 2

The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the primary winding is

E1m 2
E1   fN 1 m
2 2
 2fN 1 m
 4.44 fN 1m
Cont….
The emf induced in the secondary is
d
e2   N2  N2m cos t
dt

 N2  s in ( t  )
2

 Em2 sin( t  )
2
Therefore Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary winding is
given by
E2m
E2   2  fN 2  m
2
 4 .44 fN 2  m
 Voltage Transformation Ratio
 The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is known as voltage
transformation ratio:
E1 N1
  k
E2 N2

 If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step­up transformer.

 If N2 < N1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step­down
transformer
Input VA  Output VA I1 V2 1
For ideal transformer V1I1  V2 I 2 and  
I2 V1 k

The currents are in the inverse ratio of the(voltage) transformation ratio

Also the emf per turn in each of the windings is the same.
E1 E
 2  2  f m
N1 N2
Example 2.1 A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The net
cross­sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If the primary winding be connected to a 400 V, 50
Hz single phase supply, calculate
(i) the maximum value of flux density in the core and
(ii) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution
Voltage applied to the primary = 400 V
Induced emf in the primary, E1  voltage applied to the primary, V1 = 400 V
Number of turns in the primary N1 = 350
Net cross­sectional area Ai = 55 cm2­
= 55 10­4 m2
Frequency of the supply f = 50 Hz
Frequency of the supply f = 50 Hz
Induced emf in the primary is given by
E 1  4 .44 f  m N 1  4 .44 f B m A i N 1
Maximum value of flux density in the core,
400
Bm 
4.44  50  55  10  4  350
 0.93 T ( Wb / m 2 )
Number of turns in the secondary winding, N2 = 1050
Cont…

 For an ideal transformer,

E1 N1

E2 N 2
 Voltage induced in the secondary winding,

N2
E 2  E1 
N1
1050
 400 
350
 1200 V
=
Example 2.2 The required no­load voltage ratio in a single phase 50 Hz,
core type transformer is 6600/500. Find the number of turns in each
winding, if the flux is to be 0.06 Wb.
Solution 6000
No­load voltage ratio = 500
• No­load voltage of low voltage winding =500V
• Flux = 0.06 Wb
• Frequency f = 50Hz
• Induced emf in the low voltage winding (secondary) of the
transformer is given by,
E2  4.44 f m N2
500  4.44 50 0.06 N2
• Number of turns in the low voltage,

500
N2 
4.44  50  0.06
 37.5 ( not possible)
• The number of turns in each winding should be a whole number,
more­over each winding in the core type transformer is
accommodated on both the limbs. i.e. half number of turns of each
winding on one limb.
• As such the number of turns in each winding should be even,
Considering these facts , the number of turns in low voltage winding,
N2 = 38
• Number of turns in high voltage winding
V1 6600
N1  N 2   38 
V2 500
 501.6 (not possible )

• Considering all the factors mentioned above, the number of turns in

the high voltage winding N1=500. Here the number of turns finally
taken is 500 and not 502, because the high voltage winding will be
split up into a number of coils.
• With 250 turns on each limb, high voltage winding on one limb can
be split into 5 coils of 50 turns each.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
TRANSFORMER
 The equivalent circuit for electromagnetic devices consists of a
combination of resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltages etc.
 Equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations
describing the performance of the device.
 In the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(a), (rl +jx1) and (r2 + jx2) are
the leakage impedances of the primary and secondary windings
respectively.
 The primary current I1 consists of two components.
 One component is the load component and counteracts the secondary
m.m.f. I2N2 completely.
 The other component is exciting current Ie which is composed of Ic
and Im.
 E1 E2

Figure 2.6 (a) Exciting current neglected

I1'

E1

Figure 2.6 (b) Exact equivalent circuit

 I1' jx '2 r2'

N 
I1'  I 2  2 
 N1 
N 
E1 N  V2  1 
E 2  1   N2 
 N2 

Figure 2.6 (c) Referred to primary

r1' jx1'
N 
I e  1  I2
N   N2
I1  1  
 N2  I'c I'm
N 
V1  2  N  V2
 N1  E1  2  E2
 N1 

Figure 2.6 (d) referred to secondary

Cont…
The current Ic is in phase with and product V1' Ic gives core loss.

Pc  I c2 R c  V1' I c 
V 
1
' 2

Rc
AND
V1'
Rc 
Ic
The current Im lags V1' by 90° and this can, therefore , be represented in
the equivalent circuit by a reactance Xm, such that

V1'
Xm 
Im

The resistance Rc and reactance Xm are called core­loss resistance and

magnetizing reactance, respectively.
 Cont…

In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities

to primary side or primary quantities to secondary side.
Secondary resistance drop I2 r2 when transferred to primary side must
be multiplied by the turns ratio N1 /N2.

 Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primary= I2r2 N1

N2
 N N  N 
  I1  1  r2  1  putting I 2  I1  1 
N2 
 N2  N2 

 N 2  2
1 ' ' 
 I1   r2   I1r2 where r  r    N 1 
2 2  
 N2   N
   2
'
This resistance r2 is called the secondary resistance referred to
primary.
Therefore, the total resistance in the primary circuit is
2
N 
re1  r1  r2   1   r1  r2' (equivalent (or total) resistance referred to primary
 N2  winding.)
Cont…
2
 N 
Similarly the primary resistance referred to secondary is r1    2 
 N1 

the equivalent ( or total) resistance referred to secondary is

2
N
re2  r2  r1   2   r2  r1'
 N1 

Secondary leakage reactance drop I2 x2, when transferred to primary is

 N1   N 2 
I 2x 2    I1  1  x 2   I1x '2
 N2   N 2 




Figure 2.6 (e) equivalent circuit in general form

The quantity is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to
primary. Total primary leakage reactance is:
2
N 
xe1  x1  x2   1   x1  x'2
 N2 
Where xe1, is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to primary.
Likewise, the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is:
2
N 
xe2  x2  x1   2   x2  x1'
 N1 
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is
z e1  re1  jxe1

The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is

ze2  re2  jxe2

Following the above procedure, it can be shown that

2 2
N  N 
ze1   1  ze2 and ze2   2  ze1
 N2   N1 
 x 2' is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to primary. Total
primary leakage reactance is
2
N 
xe1  x1  x2   1   x1  x'2
 N2 
Where xe1, is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to primary.

Likewise, the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is

2
N 
xe2  x2  x1   2   x2  x1'
 N1 
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is

ze1  re1  jxe1

The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is

ze2  re2  jxe2

2
2
 N 2 
 N 1  z e 2    z e1
z e 1   
 N 2 
z e2 and  N 1 
Simplification of the exact equivalent circuit:

1 2

Figure 2.7 phasor diagram

for equivalent circuit of figure 2.6(e)
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2.8 (a) and (b) Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer

(c) and (d) Simplified forms of the approximate equivalent circuit.
 OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT
TESTS
These two tests on a transformer help to determine:
The parameters of the equivalent circuit
 The voltage regulation and
Efficiency of a transformer
The equivalent circuit parameters can also be obtained from the
physical dimensions of the transformer core and its winding details.
 Complete analysis of the transformer can be carried out, once its
equivalent circuit parameters are known.
 The power required during these two tests is equal to the appropriate
power loss occurring in the transformer.
Cont….

Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test

 The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase
transformer is given in Figure 2.9 (a).
 In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are shown
connected on the low voltage side of the transformer.
 The high voltage side is left open circuited.
 The rated frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low voltage
side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transformer.
 When the voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the L.V.
winding , all three instrument readings are recorded.
Cont…
Auto-
transformer Ie
A + Ie
W Ic Im

V1=E1 R Xm
c

H.V L.V _

(a) (b)
Figure 2.9 (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and
(b) approximate equivalent circuit at no load

The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current Ie.

 Since Ie is quite small (2 to 6%) of rated current), the primary leakage impedance
drop is almost negligible,
 and for all practical purposes, the applied voltage V1 is equal to the induced emf E1.
 Consequently, the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6 (e) gets modified to that shown in
Figure 2.9( b).
Cont…

The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic loss.
 The exciting current being about 2 to 6 percent of the full load current, the ohmic
loss in the primary(  I e2 r1 )varies from 0.04  100
2

2 
100  percent to 0.36 percent of the
 100 
full-load primary ohmic loss .
 In view of this fact, the ohmic loss during open circuit test is negligible in
comparison with the normal core loss (approximately proportional to the square of the
applied voltage).
 Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to transformer core loss.
V1 = Applied rated voltage on L.V. side,
Ie = exciting current ( or no-load current) and
Pc = core loss

Then, Pc  V1I e cos o

Pc
 No load p.f.  cos o 
V1 I e
 From phase diagram of Figure 2.7, it follows that

I c  I e cos o and I m  I e sin o

 From Figure 2.9( b), Pc
Ic 
V1

V V1
 Core loss resistant R CL  1 
Ic I e cos o
V12 V121
 
V1I e cos o Pc o

Also I c2 R CL  Pc
Pc Pc

R CL  
I c2 I e cos o 2
Magnetizing reactance

V1
X mL   V 1 / Ie sin  0
Im
 The subscript L with Rc and Xm is used merely to emphasize that
theses values are for the L.V. side
 It must be kept in mind that the values of Rc and Xm, in general, refer
to the side, In which the instruments are placed (the L.V. side in the
present case).
A voltmeter is sometimes, used at the open-circuited secondary
terminals, in order to determine the turns ratio.
Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information:
(i) core loss at rated voltage and frequency,
(ii) the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, i.e. Rc
and Xm and
(iii) turns ratio of the transformer.
 Short-Circuit Test
The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the
instruments are placed on the high voltage side, as illustrated in Figure
2.10 (a). Auto-
transformer
A

Short circuit
V

H.V L.V

Figure 2.10 (a) connection diagram for short circuit test on a transformer
Cont……
r1 x1 x2 r2

Short circuit
Rc Xm

Figure 2.10 (b) Equivalent circuit with short-circuit on the secondary side

r1 x1 x2 r2

Isc

Short circuit
Vsc

Figure 2.10 (c) Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary short-circuited

Cont……

 The wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss
in both windings.
 Since the core loss has been proved to be almost negligible in comparison
with the rated voltage core loss,
 the wattmeter can be taken to register only the ohmic losses in both
windings.
 At rated-voltage, the exciting Current is 2 to 6% of full load current.
 When the voltage across the exciting branch is 1 to 6% of rated voltage, the
 6 6 
exciting current may be 0.02 percent   100
2

1
100

 100  to 0.36% percent   100  100  100 


of its full-load current and can, therefore, be safely ignored.

 As a result of this the equivalent circuit of Figure2.6(e), with the secondary
short-circuited, gets modified to that shown in Figure 2.10 (c).
 Cont……
 Let VSC, ISC and PSC be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings;
then from Figure 2.10 (c), equivalent leakage impedance referred to H.V.
side,
VSC
Z eH 
ISC
equivalent resistance referred to H.V. side,
PSC
reH 
2
I SC

 and equivalent leakage reactance referred to H.V. side,

2 2
X eH  ZeH  reH
 In reH, XeH and ZeH„, the subscript H is used to indicate that these quantities are
referred to H.V. side. These parameters can however, be referred to the L.V. side, if
required.
Cont……
 In the analysis of transformer equivalent circuit, the values of equivalent
resistance and equivalent leakage reactance referred to either side are used.
 However, if the leakage impedance parameters for both primary and
secondary are required separately, then it is usual to take r1 = r2=½ re) and x1 =
x2=½ xe, referred to the same side.
Thus, the short-circuit test gives the following information:
(i)ohmic loss at rated current and frequency and
(ii) the equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance.
Voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined from the data obtained
from short-circuit test.
Data of both open-circuit and short-circuit tests is necessary (i) for,
obtaining all the parameters of exact equivalent circuit and
(ii) for calculating the transformer efficiency.
 Polarity Test
 On the primary side of a two-winding transformer, one terminal is positive
with respect to the other terminal at any one instant.
 At the same instant, one terminal of the secondary winding is positive with
respect to the other terminal.
These relative polarities of the primary and secondary terminals at any
instant must be known if the transformers are to be operated in parallel or are
to be used in a polyphase circuit.
E1- E2 E1+ E2

V V
A2 a2 A2 a1
- - - +

E1 E2 E1
E2

+ + + -
A1 a1 A1 a2

(a) (b)
Figure 2.11 Polarity test on a two winding transformer (a) subtractive polarity and (b) additive polarity
Cont……

Let E1 and E2 be the e.m.fs induced on H.V. and L.V. sides respectively.
 If the voltmeter reading is equal to E1–E2 then secondary terminal
connected to A1 is positive and is marked a1, the L.V. terminal connected
to A2 through the voltmeter is negative and is marked a2 as shown in
Figure 2.11(a).
 When the voltmeter reads the difference E1–E2, the transformer is
said to possess a subtractive polarity .
 If voltmeter reading is equal to E1+E2, then the terminals connected
to A1 and A2 are negative and positive and are marked a2 and a1
respectively as shown in Figure 2.11(b).
 when voltmeter reads E1+E2 the transformer has additive polarity.
 Example 2.3
A 20 kVA, 2500/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer gave the following test result
Open-circuit test (on L.V. side):250 V, 1.4 A, 105 W.
Short-circuit test (on H.V. side): 104 V, 8 A, 320 watts.
Compute the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to high-voltage
and low-voltage sides.
Also draw the exact equivalent circuit referred to the low -voltage side.
Solution
From open-circuit test:
105
No-load power factor, cos 0   0 .3
250  1.4
0 = 72.55 and sin 0 =0.954
Ic = Ie cos 0 = 1.40.3 = 0.42 A
and
Im = Ie sin 0 = 1.40.954 = 1.336 A
V1 250
hence, R cL    595 
I c 0.42
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
Alternatively, the value of RcL and XmL can be determined as follows:
V12 2502
R cL    595 
Pc 105
 Cont……
;

Now

V1 250
Ic    0.42 A and
R cL 595

I m  I e2  I c2  1.4 2  0.42 2  1.336 A

V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336

From short circuit test:

V 104
ZeH  sc   13 
I sc 8
Psc 320
reH   2  5
I sc2 8

2 2
x eH  Z eH  reH  132  52  12 

Equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:

RcL = 595  XmL = 187 

2 2
1
2
1
2 1 1
reL  reH     5   0.05  xeL  xeH     12   0.12 
k  10  k  10 
 Cont……
This equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below (a)

x eL  0.12  reL  0.05 

0.025  0.06  0.06  0.025 

Ie Ie

595 187 
R cL  595 XcL  187 

(a) (b)
Figure (a) approximate equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side and exact equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side.

Equivalent circuit parameters referred to H.V. side are:

R cH  R cL  k 2  595102  59,500 

X mH  X mL  k 2  187102  18,700 
reH = 5 ; xeH = 12
An equivalent circuit showing these parameters can easily be drawn. (b)
Exact equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
1 1 1 1
r1L  r1' H  reL  0.05  0.025  x1L  x1' H  x eL  0.12  0.06 
2 2 2 2

RcL = 595  and XmL = 187 

 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A
TRANSFORMER
The voltage regulation is defined as voltage in secondary terminal voltage,
expressed as a percentage (per unit) of secondary rated voltage i.e.
E2  V2
Voltage regulation  in p .u
sec ondary rated voltage
where E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no load
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at any load
It is stipulated that the secondary rated voltage of a transformer
is equal to the secondary terminal voltage at no load, i.e. E2.
E  V2 E  V2
Voltage regulation  2 in p .u  2  100 in percentage
E2 E2
At no-load, the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible,
therefore, the secondary no-load voltage
N2
E2  V1
N1
Cont…
The expression for voltage regulation can also be written as
N2 N
V1  V2 V1  V2 1
N1 N2
100 in percentage  100 in percentage
N2 V1
V1
N1

The change in secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to

the primary and secondary leakage impedances of the transformer.
The magnitude of this change depends on the load power factor, load
current, total resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer.
 A distribution transformer should have a small value of voltage
regulation (i.e. good voltage regulation) so that the terminal voltage at
the consumers does not vary widely as the load changes.
 For a transformer of large voltage regulation (i.e. poor voltage
regulation), the voltage at the consumers' terminals will fall appreciably
with increase in load.
Thus distribution transformer should be designed to have a low value
of leakage impedances
The voltage regulation of a transformer can be obtained form its approximate
equivalent circuit referred to primary or secondary.
For the calculation of voltage regulation, draw an arc of radius OD meeting
the extension of line OA in F. It may be seen from Figure 2.16 (b) that OF (=
E2) is approximately equal to OC.
E2  OC  OA  AB  BCor B' C' 
 OA  AB' cos 2  DB' sin 2
 V2  I 2 re2 cos 2  I 2 xe2 sin 2 F
D C’
2 C
E2 I2xe2
re2 xe2 2
+ + B B’
2
I2re2
E2 V2 A
V2

_ _
I2

(a) 2 (b)

O
Figure 2.16 (a) approximate equivalent circuit of a 2-winding transformer, referred to secondary;
(b) the phasor diagram of the circuit of Figure 2.16(a) for lagging power factor load.
Thus the voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage
E2  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin  2
per unit voltage regulation for any load current I2 is
E2  V2 I 2 re2 I x
 cos 2  2 e2 sin 2
E2 E2 E2
In case I2, is rated current, then
I 2 re2 voltage drop across re2 at rated current

E2 Rated (  base ) voltage E2
 p .u . equivalent resis tan ce or p.u. resis tan ce drop   r ( say )

I 2 re2 I 22r re2 Ohmic loss at rated current

Also r   
E2 E2 I 2 r Rated VA

Similarly, for rated current I2, I 2  xe 2

 x
E2
the per unit voltage regulation at rated current is given by
 r cos 2   x sin 2
Percentage voltage regulation at rated load

 r cos 2   x sin  2 100

For leading power factor loads, the phasor diagram of Figure reveals that
E2  Oc  V2  I 2 re2 cos 2  I 2 xe2 sin 2

Therefore , secondary terminal voltage drop, for any load current I2, is
E2  V2  I 2 re 2 cos 2  I 2 xe 2 sin  2
 p.u. voltage regulation at any load current I2 is given by

I 2 re2 I x
cos 2  2 e2 sin 2
E2 E2
then p.u. voltage regulation is given by

 r cos 2   x sin 2
Condition for zero voltage regulation
 voltage regulation varies with load power factor.
 r cos 2   x sin 2  0

 I r r
tan 2   r   2 e2   e2
x I x
E2 2 e 2 xe 2
E2
magnitude of the load p.f.
xe 2
cos 2 
ze 2
The negative value of tan2 indicates a leading power factor.
x
Therefore, zero voltage regulation occurs when load power factor is e2
ze2
Leading
For leading p.f.s. greater than xe2 , the voltage regulation will be
ze2
negative,
Condition for maximum voltage regulation
 P.u. voltage regulation
  r cos 2   x sin 2 .
The condition for maximum voltage regulation is obtained by
dedifferentiating the above expression with respect to 2 and
equating the results to zero.
d
 p.u. regulation    r sin 2   x cos 2  0
d2
re 2
x xe 2 cos  
tan 2   or 2
ze2

r re2
Here tan2 is positive, therefore, maximum voltage regulation
occurs at lagging load p.f. equal to re 2
ze 2

the magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is:

r x I r r I x x
  r e2   x e2  2 e2  e2  2 e2  e2
ze2 re2 E2 ze2 E2 re2

I2
E2 z e 2
  I z
re22  xe22  2 e2  ze2 pu
E2
Cont…

For example, if a transformer has ze2 = 0.054. then magnitude of maximum

possible voltage regulation is 5.4%.
 E2 < V2 voltage regulation (V.R.) is therefore negative .
 E2 = V2. V.R is zero.
Example 2.4 A 6600/440 V, single-phase transformer has an equivalent
resistance of 0.02 p.u. and an equivalent reactance of 0.05 p.u. Find the full-
load voltage regulation at 0.8 pf lagging, if the primary voltage is 6600 V. Find
also the secondary terminal voltage at full load
Solution
P.u. voltage regulation
  r cos 2   x sin 2
 0.020.8  0.050.6  0.046
E 2  V2
 0.046
E2

For a primary voltage of 6600 V, the secondary no load voltage E2 is

440 V.
The change in the secondary terminal voltage
E2  V2 = 440 (0.046) = 20.25 V
and secondary terminal voltage
V2 = 440 + 20.25 V
Example 2.5 A short-circuit test, when performed on the H.V. side of a 10 kVA,
2000/400 V,
single-phase transformer gave the following data: 60 V, 4 A, 100 W
If the L.V. side is delivering full load (or rated) current at 0.8 p.f. lag and at 400 V,
find the voltage applied to H.V. side.

Solution
From short circuit data
P 100
reH  sc   6.25 
2 2
I sc 4
Vsc 60
ZeH    15 
Isc 4
2 2
x eH  ZeH  reH  152  6.252  13.61 

For the L.V. side, the parameters are

2 2
1 1
reL  reH     6.25   0.25 
k  5
2 2
1 1
x eL  x eH     13.61   0.544 
k  5
Cont…

 Full load secondary current

S 10,000
I 2L    25 A
V2 400
E 2  V2  I 2L reL cos 2  I 2L x eL sin 2
 25  0.25  0.8  25  0.544  0.6  13.16 V

For V2 = 400 V, E2 = 400 + 13.16 = 413.16 V

Therefore the voltage applied to the primary is

2000
 413.16  2065.8 V
400
 TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
 Equipment is desired to operate at a high efficiency.
 Fortunately, losses in transformers are small.
 Because the transformer is a static device, there are no
rotational losses such as windage and friction losses in a
rotating machine. In a well-designed transformer the
efficiency can be as high as 99%.
Transformer Losses
 There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely
i. Core loss and
ii.ohmic loss

Core loss
The core loss Pc occurring in the transformer iron, consists of two components,
hysteresis loss Ph and eddy current loss Pe i.e.
Pc = Ph + Pe

The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core can be expressed by :-

Ph  K h f B xm


and 
Pe  K e f 2 B2 m 

 Where Kh = proportionality constant which depends upon the
volume and quality of the core material and units used.
Ke = Proportionality constant whose value depends on the
volume and resistivity of the core material, thickness of
laminations and the units employed
Bm = maximum flux density in the core and
f = frequency of the alternating flux
The value of the exponent x (called Steinmetz’s constant) varies from
1.5 to 2.5 depending upon the magnetic properties of the core material.
Therefore, the total core loss is
Pc = KhfB1.6m + Kef2B2m

Ohmic Loss
When a transformer is loaded, ohmic loss (I2R) occurs in both the primary
and secondary winding resistances. Since the standard operating temperature of
electrical machines is 750C. The ohmic loss should be calculated at 750C.
 Transformer Efficiency

 The efficiency of a transformer ( or any other device) is

defined as the ratio of the output power to input power
Output power
Thus Efficiency  
Input power

V2 I 2 cos 2
=
V2 I 2 cos 2 + Pc + I 2 2 R
Where Pc = total core loss
I22R = total ohmic losses
V2I2 = output VA
Cos 2 = load power factor
. Condition for Maximum Efficiency.

d
 the efficiency will be maximum when 0
dI 2
Therefore,

 
d V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22 re2 V2 cos 2   V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 cos 2  2 I 2 re2 
 0
dI 2

V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 22 re2
2

V2I2 cos 2  Pc  I22re2  V2 cos 2   V2I2 cos 2 V2 cos 2  2I2re2 
I 22 re2  Pc
variable ohmic loss, I 22 re2  cons tan t core loss , Pc

 Hence the maximum efficiency occurs when the variable ohmic loss I 22 re2
is equal to the fixed core loss Pc .
 Pc Pc
I2   I fl
re 2 I 2fl re 2

E2
both sides of above equation are multiplied by 1000

we get
E2 I 2 E2 I fl Pc

1000 1000 Full load ohmic losses

kVA load for maximum

 rated transforme r kVA 

Core loss
Ohmic losses at rated current

Pc
Or kVAmax  kVA
I 2fl re 2
Thus the maximum efficiency, for a constant load current,
occurs at unity power factor (i.e. at purely resistive load).
 RATING OF TRANSFORMER

The manufacturer of transformers fixes a name plate on the

transformer, on which are recorded the rated output, the rated
voltages, the rated frequency etc of a particular transformer.
 A typical name plate rating of a single phase transformer is as
follows: 20 KVA, 3300/220V, 50Hz,Here 20 KVA is rated output at
the secondary terminals.
 For any transformer
 Rated input in kVA at    Rated 0utput in kVA at  
 the primary ter min als  cos1    the sec ondary ter min als  cos2   Losses
     

 Since a transformer operates at very high efficiency,

losses may be ignored.

 The voltage 3300/220 V refers to the design voltages of the two windings

Rated primary and secondary currents are calculated from the rated KVA and
the corresponding rated voltages.
Thus Rated (or full load) primary current
20,000
  6.06A
3300

Rated (or full load) secondary current

20,000
  90.91A
220
Example 2.6 A 100 kVA, 1000/10000 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has an iron loss of 1100 W.
The copper loss with 5 A in the high voltage winding is 400 W. Calculate the efficiencies at
(i) 25 %, (ii) 50 % and (iii) 100 % of normal load for power factors of (a) 1.0 and (b) 0.8.
The output terminal voltage being maintained at 10000 V.
Find also the load for maximum efficiency at both power factors.

Solution
Efficiency at 25% of normal load, unity pf:
Iron losses = 1100 W
Copper losses with 5 A in secondary = 400 W
100  1000
Secondary full load current, I2 I2 
10000
 10 A
Current in the secondary at 25 % full load = ¼  10 = 2.5 A

2
 2.5 
Copper losses at 25% full load =    400
 5 

= 100 W

Output at 25% full load = 0.25  100  1000  1

= 25 000 W
Efficiency at 25 % load, unity pf
 25000
 at 25%   100
25000  1100  100
 95.4%
Efficiency at 25 % full load, 0.8 pf:
25000  0.8
 at 25%   100
25000  0.8  1100  100
 94.34%

Efficiency at 50 % full load, unity pf

Copper losses at 25% full load = 400 W

Output at 50 % full load, unity pf = 0.5  100  1000  1
= 50 000 W

Iron losses = 1100 W

50000  1.0
 at 50%   100
50000  1.0  1100  100
 97.65%
Efficiency at 50 % full load, 0.8 pf
50000  0.8
 at 50%   100
50000  0.8  1100  400
 97.1%
 •

 Efficiency at 100 % full load, unity pf:

2
 10 
Copper losses at 100% full load =    400
5

= 1600 W

Output = 100  1000  1 = 100 000 W

Iron losses = 1100 W

100000  1.0
 at 100%   100
100000  1.0  1100  1600
 97.37%
Efficiency at full load, 0.8 pf:
100000  0.8
 at 100%   100
100000  0.8  1100  1600
 96.73%
Load for maximum efficiency at unity pf:
Maximum efficiency occurs when the iron losses equal the copper
losses.
Let the maximum efficiency occur at x per cent of the full load.
Copper losses at x % of full load = x2 1600
Thus x2 1600 = 1100
x = 0.829

Load for maximum efficiency = 0.829  100 = 82.9 kVA

Load for maximum efficiency at 0.8 pf:

Load for maximum efficiency will remain the same irrespective of

power factor

Thus load for maximum efficiency = 82.9 kVA

 PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
 Itmay be preferable to install two or more transformers in parallel, instead
of one large unit.
 yet this scheme posses certain advantages described below.

1.With two or more transformers, power system becomes more reliable. For
instance if one transformer develops a fault, it can be removed and the other
transformers can maintain the flow of power , though at reduced load.
2.Transformers can be switched on or off , depending upon the power demand.
In this manner, the transformer losses decrease and the system becomes more
economical and efficient in operation.
3.The cost of standby (or spare) unit is much less when two or more
transformers are installed.
 The various conditions which must be fulfilled for the satisfactory parallel operation
of two or more single-phase transformers are as follows:

a. The transformer must have the same voltage ratios, i.e with the
primaries connected to the same voltage sources, the secondary voltage
of all transformers should be equal in magnitude.
b.The equivalent leakage impedance in ohms must be inversely proportional to
their respective KVA ratings In other words, per unit (pu) leakage impedance
of transformers based on their KVA rating must be equal.
c.The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance
i.e. Xe/re should be the same for all transformers.
d.The transformer must be connected properly as far as their polarities are concerned.

Out of the conditions listed above, condition(d) must be

strictly fulfilled. If the secondary terminals are connected with
wrong polarities, large circulating currents will flow and the
transformers may get damaged.
 A1 A2 A1 A2

A B
+ - + -
a1 a2 a1 a2
V

Figure 2.19 Two single-phase transformers in parallel

Zero voltmeter reading indicates proper polarities.

If the voltmeter reads the sum of two secondary voltages,
the polarities are improper and can be corrected by
reversing the secondary terminals of any one of the transformers.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably
done through the use of three­phase systems because of its several advantages
over single­phase systems.
When three identical units of 1­phase transformers are used as shown in
Figure 2.20(a), the arrangement is usually called a bank of three transformers or
a 3-phase transformer bank.
A single 3­phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase core­type
construction Figure 2.20(b) or three phase shell type construction.
Actually, each limb has the L.V. winding placed adjacent to the laminated
steel core and then H.V. winding is placed over the 1.v. winding. Appropriate
insulation is placed in between the core and l.v. winding and also in between
the two windings.
Cont….

A 3­phase core­type transformer costs about 15% less than a bank of three 1­
phase transformers. Also, a single unit occupies less floor space than a bank.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.20 (a)Three-phase transformer bank, both windings in star;(b)

three-phase core-type transformer
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard
connections
(a) Star­Delta ( Y­) (b) Delta­Star (­Y)
(c) Delta­Delta (­) (d) Star­Star (Y­Y)
The various connections are now described briefly.
 Connection
(a)Star-delta (Y­)
This connection is commonly used for stepping down the voltage from a high
level to a medium or low level. The insulation on the h.v. side of the
transformer is stressed only to 57.74%
For per­phase m.m.f. balance, I2N2 =I1N1
Here primary phase current, I1 = primary line current I
Cont…
N1
 Secondary phase current , I 2  I 1  aI
N2
Secondary line current  3 I2  3 . aI

Also, voltage per turn on primary = voltage per turn on secondary

V 1 V2
. 
3 N1 N 2
N2 V V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  . 
N1 3 a. 3

V
Secondary line voltage = secondary phase voltage =
V a. 3
V
Input VA = 3 . I = output VA = 3. . aI  3 VI
3 a. 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on both primary and
secondary sides of star­delta transformer are shown in Figure 2.21(a)
Cont…

(b)Delta-Star (-Y) connection:- This type of connection is used for stepping

up the voltage to a high level. For example, these are used in the beginning of
h.v. transmission lines so that insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of line
voltage
For per  phase m.m.f . balance , I 2 N 2  I1 N 1
1
Here primary phase current , I1  ( primary line current I )
3
N1 1
Secondary phase current , I 2  I1  a
N2 3
V2 V1
Also 
N 2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  2 .V1 
N a
1
V
 Secondary line voltage  3.
a
I V I
Input VA  3. V .  3 VI  Output VA  3. . a  3 VI
3 a 3
Cont…
aI
I 3aI
I 3
V
V I aI V
3 3a
V aI I 3 a 3V
V
3 a

(a) (b)

Figure 2.21 (a) Star­delta connection and (b) delta­star connection of 3­phase transformers

I kI kI
V V I V
3 kI V
I kI k V 3k
V k
3 3

(a) (b)
Figure 2.22 (a) Delta­delta connection and (b) Star­star connection of three­phase transformers.
(c)Delta-Delta (-) Connection
This scheme of connections is used for large 1.v transformers. It is because a
delta­connected winding handles line voltage, so it requires more turns per
phase but of smaller cross­sectional area. The absence of star point may be a
disadvantage in some applications.
For per phase mmf balance, I2N2 = I1N1:
1
primaryphase current, I1  ( primaryline current I)
3
N1 aI
Secondaryphase current, I 2  I1 
N2 3
 aI 
Secondaryline current,  3   aI
 
 3
Cont…

V2 V
Also   1
N2 N1
N2 V
Secondary phase voltage , V2  V1  ( Here V1  V)
N1 a
V
Secondary line voltage  V2 
a
I V aI
Input VA  3V .  output VA  3. ,  3 VI
3 a 3
(d)Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
This connection is used for small h.v transformers. As stated before, with star
connection, turns per phase are minimum and the winding insulation is stressed
to 57.74% of line voltage. Star­star connection is rarely used in practice
because of oscillatory neutral problems
Cont…
.

For per  phase m.m.f .balance,I 2 N 2  I1 N1

Pr imary Phase Current, I1  primary line current, I
N1
Secondary phase current, I 2  I1  aI
N2
 Secondary line current
N V
sec ondary phase voltage, V2  2 V1 
N1 3a
V V
Secondary line voltage  3 V2  3 . 
3. a a
V V
Input VA  3. I  output VA  3. . aI  3 VI
3 3. a
Example 2.8 A 3­phase transformer is used to step­down the voltage of a 3­phase, 11kV
feeder line. Per­phase turns ratio is 12. For a primary line current of 20A, calculate the secondary
line voltage, line current and output KVA for the following Connections:
(a)star­delta (b) delta­star (c) delta­delta (d) star­star. Neglect losses.
Solution
(a) Star­delta
VL1 11000
phase voltage on primary , VP1   V
3 3
phase current on primary , I P1  I L1  20 A
VP1 V
Here ,  P 2 and I p1  12  I p 2  1
12 1
11000
 Phase voltage on sec ondary , Vp 2   529 .25 V
3 x 12
Line voltage on sec ondary , VL 2  Vp 2  529 .25 V
Phase current on sec ondary I p 2  12 I p1  12  20  240 A
Line current on sec ondary I L 2  3 I p 2  3  240  415 .68 A
3Vp 2 .I p 2 11000 1
Output KVA   3.  240 x  381 .04 KVA
1000 3 x 12 1000
(b)Delta-star
Vp1 VL1 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary VP 2    V  916 .67 V
12 12 12
11000
Line voltage on sec ondary VL 2  3 Vp 2  3   1587 .67 V
12
20
Phase current on primary I p1  I L1 / 3  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary I p1  12 I p1  12   138.568 A
3
Line current on sec ondary , I L 2  I p 2  138.568A
11000 12 x 20
Output KVA  3    381.04 KVA.
12 1000 x 3
(c)delta-delta
Vp1 VL1 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary, VP 2    V  916.7 V
12 12 12
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL 2  VP 2  916.7V
20
Phase current on primary , I P1  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary, I P 2  12 I P1  12  A
3
12  20
Line current on sec ondary, I L 2  3 I P 2  3 .  240 A
3
11000 12 x 20 1
Output KVA  3     381.04 KVA.
12 3 1000
(d)star­star
VP1 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary , VP2   V
12 3 x 12
11000 11000
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL2  3 VP2  3  V
3 x 12 12
Phase current on Pr imary, I P1  I L1  20A
Phase current on sec ondary, , I P2  12 I P1  12  20  240A
Line current on Secondary, I L2  I P2  240A
3 11000 240
Output KVA    381.04KVA
3 12 1000
Example 2.9 An 11000/415V, delta-star transformer feeds power to a 30 kW,
415V, 3-phase induction motor having an efficiency of 90% and full-load pf
0.833. Calculate the transformer rating and phase and line currents on both
high and low voltage sides.
Solution Transformer kVA rating  30
 40 KVA
0.9 x 0.833
Total load in VA 40,000
Line current on l.v. side of transformer    55.65 A
3 x line voltage 3 x 415
For star connected. 1.v. winding, phase current in 1.v. winding = line current on

1.v side = 55.65A.

40,000
Line current on HV side of transformer = 3 x 11000  2.1A
For delta connected HV winding, phase current in HV winding:
= 1 line current on h.v. side) = 1 x 2.1=1.212A
3 3
 Phase Shift
Some of the three­phase transformer connections will result in a phase shift
between the primary and secondary line­voltages. Consider the phase voltages,
shown in Figure 2.24, for the Y­ connections. The phases VAN and Va are
aligned, but line voltage VAB of the primary leads the line voltage Vab of the
secondary by 300.

Figure 2.24 phase shift in line­to­line voltages in a three­phase transformer

V-Connection
In the - connection of three single-phase transformers, one transformer
can be removed and the system can still deliver three-phase power to a three-
phase load. This configuration is known as an open-delta or V connection.

Figure 2.25 V­connection

It may be employed in an emergency situation when one transformer must be

removed for repair and continuity of service is required.
Transformer winding ab and bc deliver power
Pab  Vab I a cos30  

Pbc  Vcb I c cos30   

Let Vah = Vcb  = V, Voltage rating of the transformer secondary
winding.
Ia = Ic = I current rating of the transformer secondary winding and
 = 0 for a resistive load. Power delivered to the load by the V connection is
Pv  Pab  Pbc  2VI cos30
With all three transformers connected in delta, the power delivered is
P  3VI
Hence,
Pv 2 cos 30 0
  0.58
P 3
The V connection is capable of delivering 58% power without overloading the
transformer (i.e., not exceeding the current rating of the transformer winding).
 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
When the primary and secondary voltage are derived from the same winding,
the transformer is called an autotransformer.
An ordinary two­winding transformer may also be used as an autotransformer
by connecting the two windings in series and applying the impressed voltage
across the two, or merely to one of the windings.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.29 Autotransformers: (a) step-down; (b) step-up.
The voltage V2 is related to V1 as in the conventional two­winding
transformer, that is, N bc
V 2  V1 
N ac

where Nbc and Nac are the number of turns on the respective windings.
Assuming a resistive load for convenience, then,
V2
I2 
RL

Assume that the transformer is 100% efficient. The power output is

P  V2 I 2
In an autotransformer, the secondary current is this induced current, that is,
I1 I2 I1  I2
Hence the ampere­turns due to section bc, where the substitutions I 2  kI1
and N bc  N ac are made is
k
ampere­turns due to section bc  I2 I1Nbc
kI 1  I 1 N ac  1
  I 1 N ac 1    I 1 N ab
k  k
 ampere  turns due to sec tion ab
Thus the ampere­turns due to sections bc and ab balance each other, a
characteristic of all transformer actions.
Up on substitution we get,
P  V2 I 2  V2 I1  I2  I1  V2I1 V2 I2  I1 W
Cont…

This indicates that the load power consists of two parts. The first part is
Pc  V2 I1  conducted power to load through ab
The second part is
Ptr  V2 I 2  I1   transforme d power to load through bc
To show these powers Pc and Ptr in terms of the total power P:
Pc V2 I1 I1 1
  
P V2 I 2 I 2 k
and
Ptr V2 I 2  I1  I 2  I1 k 1
  
P V2 I 2 I2 k
P Pk 1
Thus Pc  and trP  with k > 1 for a step-down
k k
autotransformer.
Example 2.10 A standard 5­kVA 2300/230­V distribution transformer is
connected as an autotransformer to step down the voltage from 2530 V to
2300 V. The transformer connection is as shown in Figure 2.29 (a). The
230­V winding is section ab, the 2300­V winding is bc. Compare the
kVA rating of the autotrans­former with that of the original two­winding
transformer. Also calculate Pc, Ptr, and the currents.
Solution
The rated current in the 230-V winding (or in ab) is
5000 VA
I1   21.74 A
230
The rated current in the 2300-V winding (or in bc) is
5000
I 2  I1   2 .174 A
2300
Therefore,
I 2  2 . 174  I 1  23 . 914 A

The secondary current I2 can also be calculated from

2530
I 2  kI1  21.74  23.914 A
2300
2530
Since the transformation ratio k   1 .1
2300
P  V1I1  V2 I 2  2530  21.74  55.00 kVA
The conducted power is
P 55,000
Pc    50 kVA
k 1.1
and that transformed is

Ptr  P
k 1  55,0001.11  5.0 kVA
k 1.1
Example 2.11 Repeat the problem of Example 2.10 for a 2300 V­to­2530 V
step­up connection as shown in Figure 2.29 (b).
Solution
As calculated in Example 2.10, the current rating of the winding ab is I2 =
21.74 A, which also is the load current. The output voltage is 2530 V; thus the
volt­ampere rating of the autotransformer is
P  V 2 I 2  2530  21 . 74  55 kVA

The transformer ratio 2300

k   0 . 909
2530
The conducted power is therefore
Pc  kP  0.909  55 kVA  50 kVA
and the transformed power is
Ptr  P1  k   55 kVA1  0.909  5 kVA