Digital Logic Design

University of Gondar
Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering
Digital Logic Design:
Chapter 2: Logic Gates
By:
Habtamu Maru

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Digital Logic Design

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Types of Logic Gates

3 Universality of NAND Gates And NOR Gates

4 Alternate Logic Gate Representations

5 Multivibrators

6 Digital Integrated circuit

Digital Logic Families

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Digital Logic Design
Introduction

Logic Gates
A logic gate is a simple switching circuit that determines whether
an input pulse can pass through to the output in digital circuits.
The building blocks of a digital circuit are logic gates, which exe-
cute numerous logical operations that are required by any digital
circuit. These can take two or more inputs but only produce one
output.
At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary
conditions LOW (0) or HIGH (1), represented by different voltage
levels.
The numbers 0 and 1 represent the two possible states of a logic
circuit. The two states can also be referred to as ’ON and OFF’ or
’HIGH and LOW’ or ’TRUE and FALSE’.
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Digital Logic Design
Introduction

In most logic gates, the low state is approximately zero volts (0

V), while the high state is approximately positive five volts (+5V).
Boolean algebra
The Boolean value of 0 might be assigned to any voltage in the
range from 0 to 0.8V, while the Boolean value of 1 might be as-
signed to any voltage in the range 2 to 5V.
The digits/ symbols 1 and 0 are related to the logic levels in this
algebra; in electrical circuits, logic 1 will represent a closed switch,
a high voltage, or “on” state. An open switch, low voltage, or “off”
state of the device will be represented by logic 0.
In Boolean algebra, there are no fractions, decimals, negative num-
bers, square roots, cube roots, logarithms, imaginary numbers,
and so on.
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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

Truth table
A truth table is a means for describing how a logic circuit’s output
depends on the logic levels present at the circuit’s inputs.
The number of input combinations will equal 2N for an N-input
truth table.
Also note that the list of all possible input combinations follows
the binary counting sequence, and so it is an easy matter to write
down all of the combinations without missing any.
Types of Logic Gates

Basic Logic Gates Universal Logic Gates Other Logic Gates

NOT Gate Exclusive OR (XOR)
NOR Gate
OR Gate Exclusive NOR
NAND Gate
AND Gate (XNOR)
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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

NOT Gate (Inverter)

This gate always has only a single input, and its output logic level
is always opposite to the logic level of this input.
It inverts (complements) the input signal at all points on the wave-
form so that whenever the input is 0, output is 1, and vice versa.
The inverter (NOT circuit ) performs the operation called inversion
or completion.
The Boolean expression of NOT gate having input of A and output
of X is: X=A, this expression is read as X equals NOT A or X equals
the inverse of A or X equals the complement of A.

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

Truth table

Figure: symbol for NOT Figure: sample

gate waveforms

OR Gate
An OR gate can have two or more inputs with one output and
perform logical addition.
Let A and B represents two independent logic variables. When A
and B are combined using the OR operation the result Y can be
expressed as Y = A+B.
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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

In this expression the + sign does not stand for ordinary addition;
it stands for the OR operation.
The OR gate operates so that its output is HIGH (logic 1) if either
input A or B or both are at a logic 1 level. The OR gate output will
be LOW (logic 0) only if all its inputs are at LOW (logic 0).

Truth table

Figure: Symbol for OR gate

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

Example:An alarm system in chemical process

In many industrial control systems, it is required to activate an output
function whenever any one of several inputs is activated.

I The temperature transducer

circuit produces an output
voltage proportional to the
process temperature.

This voltage, VT , is compared with a temperature reference voltage, VTR ,

in a voltage comparator circuit.
The comparator output, TH , is normally a LOW voltage (logic 0), but it
switches to a HIGH voltage (logic 1) when VT exceeds VTR , indicating that
the process temperature is too high. A similar arrangement is used for
the pressure measurement.
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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

AND Gate
The AND gate composed of two or more inputs and a single output.
The AND gate output is equal to the AND product of the logic inputs; that
is, X= AB or X=A.B, this is the AND operation.
The . sign is usually omitted so that the expression simply becomes X=AB
In other words, the AND gate is a circuit that operates so that its output is
HIGH only when all its inputs are HIGH. For all other cases, the AND gate
output is LOW.

Truth table

Figure: Symbol for a three input AND

gate.

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

Example: Enable gate and Inhibit gate

I Enable gate means allowance

of data through a channel
and Inhibit gate is just the re-
verse of that process i.e. dis-
allowance.

We are going to show an enabling operation to understand it in

an easier way. Suppose in the measurement of frequency of a
pulsed waveform.
For measurement of frequency a gating pulse of known frequency
is sent to enable the passage of the waveform whose frequency
is to be measured.
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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

NAND gate
The term NAND is a contraction of NOT-AND and implies an AND function
with a complemented (inverted) output.

The symbol of NAND gate is the same as the AND gate symbol except for
the small circle on its output.

This small circle denotes the inversion operation. Thus, the NAND oper-
ates like an AND gate followed by an INVERTER and the output expression
for the NAND gate is X=AB.

The NAND gate is a popular logic element because it can be used as uni-
versal gate: that is NAND gate can be used in combination to perform the
AND, OR, and NOT operations.

NAND gate operation is equivalent to negative OR gate. (please check ?)

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

Truth table

Figure: (a) NAND symbol; (b)

equivalent circuit

The AND output goes HIGH only when all inputs are HIGH, while
the NAND output goes LOW only when all inputs are HIGH.

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

NOR gate
The term NOR is a contraction of NOT-OR and implies an OR func-
tion with an inverted (complemented) output.
It is the same as the OR gate symbol except that it has a small
circle on the output.
The small circle represents the inversion operation. Thus, the NOR
gate operates like an OR gate followed by an INVERTER.
The Boolean output expression for the NOR gate with two inputs,
X=A + B
NOR gate operation is equivalent to negative operation of AND.
gate.

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

Truth table

Figure: (a) NOR symbol;(b)

equivalent circuit

An OR gate output goes HIGH when any input is HIGH; the NOR
gate output goes LOW when any input is HIGH.

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

EXCLUSIVE-OR (XOR) Gates

Two special logic circuits that occur quite often in digital systems
are the XOR and XNOR circuits.
The output of Exclusive OR produces a HIGH output whenever the
two inputs are at opposite levels.

Truth table

Figure: XOR circuit

Figure: Traditional XOR symbol

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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

An XOR gate has only two inputs; there are no three-input or

four-input XOR gates. The two inputs are combined so that
X=AB+AB.But currently more that two inputs XOR gates are
applicable.
A shorthand way of XOR output expression is X=A⊕B
Quiz:Write the truth table for three inputs XOR gate?
Exclusive–NOR:
The exclusive-NOR circuit (Abbreviated XNOR) produces a HIHG
output whenever the two inputs are at the same level.
It should be apparent that the output of the XNOR circuit is the
exact inverse of the output of the XOR circuit.
The traditional symbol for an XNOR gate is obtained by simply
adding a small circle at the out put of the XOR symbol.
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Digital Logic Design
Types of Logic Gates

The XNOR produces a HIGH output whenever the two inputs are
at the same level.
The output expression is X=AB+A B which indicates along with
the truth table that x will be 1 for two cases: A=B=1 (the AB term)
and A=B=0 (the A B term).

Truth table

Figure: XNOR circuit

Figure: Traditional XNOR symbol

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Digital Logic Design
Universality of NAND Gates And NOR Gates

Universality of NAND Gates And NOR Gates

It is possible to implement any logic expression using only NAND
and NOR gates and no other type of gate.
This is because NAND and NOR gates, in the proper combination,
can be used to perform each of the Boolean operations OR, AND,
and INVERT

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Digital Logic Design
Universality of NAND Gates And NOR Gates

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Digital Logic Design
Alternate Logic Gate Representations

Alternate Logic Gate Representations

Standard and alternate symbols for various logic gates and
inverter(standard at the left and alternate symbol in the right).

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Digital Logic Design
Alternate Logic Gate Representations

HOME WORK
There are three doors in a room with a light switch next to each
one. you can turn ON the light from any door when you enter and
you can turn OFF the light from any door when you leave.
I Write the truth table for the function
I Draw the logic circuit for the function
I check if it possible to realize the function with a single logic gate

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Digital Logic Design
Multivibrators

Multivibrators
Multivibrators is the electronic circuit used to implement a vari-
ety of simple two-state systems such as oscillator, Timer and Flip
flops.
It is characterized by two amplifiers devices (Transistor, electronic
tubes or other devices). It has two state LOW (0) and HIGH (1).
Cross-coupled by resistor and capacitor
There are three types of Multivibrator circuit:
Astable Multivibrator
Monostable Multivibrator
Bistable Multivibrator

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Digital Logic Design
Multivibrators

Astable Multivibrator:
The output will not remain stable in any of the two states.
If we see the output, the output of the Multivibrator continuously
changes between the two state.
Due to this, it does not require an input (clock pulses or other)

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Digital Logic Design
Multivibrators

Monostable Multivibrator:
Monostable has only one stable state and is triggered externally.
Monostable Multivibrators or “one-shot” pulse generators are used
to generate a single output pulse, either “HIGH” or “LOW”, when a
suitable external trigger signal or start pulse T is applied.
But whenever some external trigger signal is applied then output
momentarily goes in to the unstable state and after some time it
comes back in to the stable state.
So, the time required to come back in to the stable state depends
upon the passive components like R and C.

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Digital Logic Design
Multivibrators

Bistable Multivibrator:
Both state are stable , and the output of the multivibrator can be
in any of the two stable state.
This type of multivibrator circuits passes from one state to the
other ”only” when a suitable external trigger pulses T is applied
and to go through a full ”SET-RESET” cycle two triggering pulses
are required.
This type of circuit is also known as a Bistable latch, Toggle latch
or simply T-latch, flip-flop.
such a circuit is important as the fundamental building block of a
register or memory devices.

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit

Integrated circuit (IC)

Integrated Circuit (IC) also called micro electric chip, microchip, or
chip. It is a group of electronic circuits placed on a metal plate
designed with semiconductor materials.
An IC is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic
circuits.
ICs are made up of several components such as diodes & tran-
sistors as active devices and C & R as passive devices, and their
interconnections are built up on a thin substrate of semiconduc-
tor material typically silicon.
An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, logic
gate, microcontroller, or microprocessor.

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit

Advantages of IC’s
I small size, Less weight and volume
I Low cost
I Improved performance, High reliability and ruggedness
I Low power consumption
I Less affected to parameter variation
I Easy troubleshooting and replacement
I Increased operating speed

Disadvantages of IC’s
I As IC is small in size its unable to dissipate large amount of power.
Increase in current may produces enough heat which may destroy
the devices.
I At present coils, inductors and transformers can not produced in IC
form.
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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit

There are two types of integrated circuits: Based on applications

Linear integrated circuits (Operational-Amplifier)

Digital integrated circuits.

Linear integrated circuits (Operational-Amplifier):

When the input and output relationship of a circuit is linear, linear
ICs are used.
Input and output can take place on a continuous range of values.
Eg. operational amplifiers, power amplifiers, microwave ampli-
fiers multipliers etc.
Op-Amp is a fundamental block of electronic functioning that is
used to construct all the electronic circuits.

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit

Digital integrated circuits:

When the circuit is either in ON-state or OFF-state and not in be-
tween the two, the circuit is called the digital circuit. ICs used in
such circuits are called the digital ICs.
They find wide applications in computers and logic circuits. Eg.logic
gates, flip flops, counters, microprocessors, memory chips etc.

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit

Classification of integrated circuits: Based on complexity

Small-scale integration ( SSI): IC’s that have up to 12 equivalent
gate circuits on a chip. Eg. basic gate and flip-Flop.
Medium scale integration (MSI): IC’s that have from 12 to 99 equiv-
alent gate on a chip. They include logic function (Encoder, De-
coder, Counter,Register.. )
Large scale integration (LSI): IC’s that have from 100 to 9999 equiv-
alent gate on a chip. E.g. Memories.
Very large scale integration (VLSI): IC’s that have from 10000 to
99999 equivalent gate on a chip.
Ultra large scale integration (ULSI): It has more than 100000 equiv-
alent gate. It describes very large memories, large microproces-
sor, and large single chip computer
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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

The basic Classification of the Logic Families

The set of compatible ICs with the same logic levels and same sup-
ply voltages fabricated to perform the various logic functions is
known as logic family.
Bipolar Families
I Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL)
I Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
Unipolar (MOSFET) Families
I PMOS (P-channel MOSFET)
I NMOS (N-channel MOSFET)
I CMOS (Complementary MOSFET)
TTL and ECL use bipolar transistors as their major circuit element;
PMOS, NMOS, and CMOS use unipolar MOSFET transistors as their
principal component.
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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Bipolar Logic Family

Transistors and diodes are bipolar devices, in which the current
flows because of both the charge carriers (electrons and holes).
The TTL fumily evolved from a previous technology that used diodes
and transistors for the basic NAND gate called DTL.
Later the diodes replaced by transistors to improve the circuit op-
eration and the name of the logic fumily was changed to TTL.
TTL gates are known for their high noise immunity, low power con-
sumption and good speed but their power dissipation is relatively
high.
However, they have a limited fan-out, which means that they can-
not drive a large number of inputs without affecting the perfor-
mance.
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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Emitter–Coupled Logic (ECL)

I Typical power dissipation is 25 mW, which is a little higher in com-
parison with TTL gates.
I This is because the transistors of an ECL circuit are operating in the
active region. ECL logic gates use differential amplifiers and are known
for their high speed.
I However, ECL gates have a low noise margin and are sensitive to
temperature changes. They are also more expensive than TTL and
CMOS gates.
I ECL gates are used in high-speed applications such as computer main-
frame systems, where speed is a critical requirement. For example,
the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) in a mainframe computer may
use ECL gates to perform high-speed calculations.

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Unipolar Logic Family

MOSFET is a unipolar device, in which the current flows because of
only one type of charge carrier (that is, either electrons or holes).
CMOS logic gates use both n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs and
are used to predominantly create digital circuitry.
Connecting NMOS and PMOS transistor together gives rise to the
CMOS family of logic gates.
A large number of function are available in CMOS

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Characteristics of the digital logic family

Propagation delay
I It is the time interval between the application of the input pulse and
the occurrence of the output.
I If the propagation delay is less, then the speed at which the IC oper-
ates will be faster.

Fan in and Fan out

I Fan-in refers to the number of inputs in a digital logic gate family.
I Fan-out refers to the number of inputs that is driven by the output
of another logic gates.
I Both fan-in and fan-out values are given by the manufacturer at the
time of designing and the data is specified in the data sheet.
I When the number of inputs or outputs are changed, it may cause
some malfunction to the device.
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Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Power dissipation
I It is the amount of power that the digital circuit dissipates. The power
dissipated is determined by the average current (value at LOW and
HIGH gate output), that is drawn from the supply voltage.
Noise Immunity and Noise margin
I Noise is an unwanted signal that is superimposed on the normal
operating signal. It may be due to various factors like operating en-
vironment, radiations, stray electrical and magnetic fields.
I LOW and HIGH voltage levels represented by 0 and 1. Due to the in-
terference of the noises, the voltage levels may increase or decrease.
This may lead to the wrong operation of the device.
I Noise immunity is the ability of the logic device to tolerate the noise
without causing spurious change to the output voltage.
I Noise margin allows the logic device to function properly within the
specified limits.
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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Figure of merit
I For an efficient operation of any device, whether it may be digital or
analog, the power dissipation and the speed are notable character-
istics.
I Achieving a higher speed with less power dissipation is a highly chal-
lenging task.
I In the digital logic circuit, a trade-off exists between these two char-
acteristics. That is, for higher speed, the power dissipation will be
more.
I The figure of merit or Speed Power Product is a common means of
measuring the performance of circuits in the digital logic family.

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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

Comparing Logic Families

Major parameters for comparing logic families are the propaga-
tion delay, the power dissipation and the speed-power product
RTL and DTL families are no more used for new system because
of their low speed, high power dissipation and low fan out
TTL is the most popular general purpose logic family. It is avail-
able in many different series with a wide range of operating speed
,power dissipation and fan out.
There are a large № of function in SSI and MSI available in TTL.
ECL is the fastest devices but not widely used as TTL and MOS
families, except in applications where speed is critical. Its main
disadvantage are low noise margin and high power dissipation .
For interfacing with other logic family ,level shifting networks are
required.
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Digital Logic Design
Digital Integrated circuit
Digital Logic Families

CMOS IC’s has the lowest speed power product and requires very
small power and are available in a wide range of standard logic
functions.
It is the most popular logic family and has led to the VLSI chips .
They are commonly used in low-power applications such as portable
devices, battery-powered equipment, and automotive electron-
ics.
However, CMOS gates have a higher input capacitance and have a
higher fan-out, which means that they are slower than TTL gates
and are less prone to noise.

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Digital Logic Design

!! !
O U
K Y
A N
T H
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