Calculus (1) (Math 105)

3.2 The Derivative of a Function

Page 1 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.2 The Derivative of a Function
In this section we will discuss the concept of a "derivative," which is the primary
mathematical tool that is used to calculate and study rates of change.

3.2.1 Definition of the derivative a function at a point

▪ In the last section we showed that if the limit

𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

exists, then

✓ it can be interpreted either as the slope of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
✓ or as the instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
▪ This limit is so important that it has a special notation:

𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim (1)
ℎ→0 ℎ

Page 2 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 You can think of 𝑓 ′ (read " 𝑓 prime") as a function whose input is 𝑥0 and whose
output is the number 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) that represents either

✓ the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 or

✓ the instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .

To emphasize this function point of view, we will replace 𝑥0 by 𝑥 in (1) and make the
following definition.

3.2.2 The Derivative as a Function

Definition 1:

The function 𝑓 ′ defined by the formula

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (2)
ℎ→0 ℎ

is called the derivative of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥. The domain of 𝑓 ′ consists of all 𝑥 in

the domain of 𝑓 for which the limit exists.

If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , then the point-slope form of the equation of the

tangent line to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 may be found using the following
steps:

Finding an Equation for the Tangent Line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .

Step1: Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥0 ); the point of tangency is (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )).

Step2: Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and evaluate 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ), which is the slope 𝑚 of the line.
Step3: Substitute the value of the slope 𝑚 and the point (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) into the point-
slope form of the line

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

or, equivalently,

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

Page 3 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 1

Find the derivative with respect to 𝑥 of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , and use it to find the equation of
the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2.

Solution

It follows from (2) that

′
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2
𝑓 (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
2 2 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ − 𝑥 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim (2𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥
ℎ→0

Thus, the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2 is 𝑓 ′ (2) = 4.

Since 𝑦 = 4 if 𝑥 = 2, the point-slope form of the tangent line is

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

𝑦 = 𝑓(2) + 𝑓 ′ (2)(𝑥 − 2)

= 4 + 4(𝑥 − 2)

which we can rewrite in slope-intercept form as 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4 (See the Figure below).

Page 4 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • The function 𝑓 ′ is a "slope-producing function" since the value of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .

• This aspect of the derivative is illustrated in the Figure below, which shows the
graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and its derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 (obtained in the previous
Example).

• The figure illustrates that the values of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 at 𝑥 = −2, 0, and 2

correspond to the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 at those
values of 𝑥.

Checkpoint 1

Differentiate
(1) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥.

Answer:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1.

Solution

Page 5 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 2

𝑥
Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−1

Solution

𝑥 (𝑥+ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = , so
𝑥−1 (𝑥+ℎ)−1

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (Definition)
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
−
= lim 𝑥 + ℎ − 1 𝑥 − 1
ℎ→0 ℎ
1 (𝑥 + ℎ)(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ − 1)
= lim ⋅
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
1 −ℎ
= lim ⋅
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
−1 −1
= lim = . ( Cancel ℎ ≠ 0. )
ℎ→0 (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑥
The Figure below shows the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = (Black Curve) and its
𝑥−1

−1
derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = (Red Curve).
(𝑥−1)2

Exercise:

(a) From the graph on the right,

find 𝑓 ′ (0) and 𝑓 ′ (2).

(b) Find 𝑓 ′ (0) and 𝑓 ′ (2) using the

−1
equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = .
(𝑥−1)2

Compare the results from part (b) with

those obtained in part (a).

Page 6 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Summary

We have been discussing slopes of curves, lines tangent to a curve, the rate of change
of a function, and the derivative of a function at a point. All of these ideas refer to the
same limit.

The following are all interpretations for the limit of the difference quotient,

𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

✓ The slope of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

✓ The slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

✓ The rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

✓ The derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) at a point.

Page 7 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Differentiable on an Interval; One-Sided Derivatives

Definition 2:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable on an open interval (finite or infinite) if it has a

derivative at each point of the interval.

It is differentiable on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if it is differentiable on the interior

(𝑎, 𝑏) and if the limits
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
lim+ (Right-hand derivative at 𝑎)
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑏 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑏)
lim (Left-hand derivative at 𝑏)
ℎ→0− ℎ
exist at the endpoints (See the Figure below).

Page 8 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 3

Show that the function 𝑦 = |𝑥| is differentiable on (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) but has no
derivative at 𝑥 = 0.

Solution

The derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 is the slope 𝑚. Thus, to the right of the origin,

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(|𝑥|) = (𝑥) = (1 ⋅ 𝑥) = 1, (Because (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑚, |𝑥| = 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

To the left,

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(|𝑥|) = (−𝑥) = (−1 ⋅ 𝑥) = −1, ( |𝑥| = −𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(See the Figure below). There is no derivative at the origin because the one-sided

derivatives differ there:

|0+ℎ|−|0| |ℎ|
Right-hand derivative of |𝑥| at zero = lim+ = lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ
= lim+ |ℎ| = ℎ when ℎ > 0
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim+ 1 = 1
ℎ→0
|0+ℎ|−|0| |ℎ|
Left-hand derivative of |𝑥| at zero = lim− = lim−
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
−ℎ
= lim− |ℎ| = −ℎ when ℎ < 0
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim− − 1 = −1.
ℎ→0

Page 9 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 ▪ Differentiation

The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. You can think of

differentiation as an operation on functions that associates a function 𝑓 ′ with a function
𝑓.

▪ Other derivative notations

When the independent variable is 𝑥, the differentiation operation is also commonly

denoted by

𝑑
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥)] or
𝑑𝑥

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]

In the case where there is a dependent variable 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the derivative is also
commonly denoted by

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) or
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 𝑦(𝑥)

With the above notations, the value of the derivative at a point 𝑥0 can be expressed
as

𝑑
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]| ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]|𝑥=𝑥0 ,
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑦 ′ (𝑥0 ),
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = |
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0

The symbol ⬚|𝑥=𝑥0 is called an evaluation symbol.

Page 10 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 4

𝑥
Find the value of the derivative of 𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 4.
𝑥−1

Solution

−1
In the previous example, we found that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , so,
(𝑥−1)2

𝑑 𝑥 −1 −1 1
𝑓 ′ (4) = ( )| = | = = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 1 𝑥=4 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥=4 (4 − 1)2 9

or in other notation

𝑥 −1 −1 −1
𝑓 ′ (4) = 𝑦 ′ (4) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]|𝑥=4 = 𝐷𝑥 [( ) ]| =[ ]| = =
𝑥 − 1 𝑥=4 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥=4 (4 − 1)2 9

Checkpoint 2

𝑑 𝑥
Find ( )|
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+1
.
𝑥=2
Answer:
𝑑 𝑥 1
( )| =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 1 𝑥=2 9

Solution

Page 11 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.2.3 Differentiability and Continuity
A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative. So, Differentiability
Implies Continuity.

Theorem 1:

If 𝑓 has a derivative at 𝑥 = 𝑐, then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Proof

• Given that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists, we must show that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐),

𝑥→𝑐

or equivalently, that

lim 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑐).

ℎ→0

• If ℎ ≠ 0, then

𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑐) + (𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐))

𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
= 𝑓(𝑐) + ⋅ℎ
ℎ

• Now take limits as ℎ → 0 and Use the Sum Rule and Product Rule of limits,
we obtain

𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
lim 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) = lim 𝑓(𝑐) + lim ⋅ lim ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

= 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) ⋅ 0
= 𝑓(𝑐) + 0
= 𝑓(𝑐)

Page 12 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Appendix

Page 13 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 ▪ Increments

Definition 3:

If a variable 𝑤 changes from some initial value 𝑤0 to some final value 𝑤1 , then the
final value minus the initial value is called an increment in 𝑤 and is denoted by

Δ𝑤 = 𝑤1 − 𝑤0 (3)

• Increments can be positive or negative, depending on whether the final value is

larger or smaller than the initial value.
• The increment symbol in (3) should not be interpreted as a product; rather, Δ𝑤
should be regarded as a single symbol representing the change in the value of 𝑤.
• It is common to regard the variable ℎ in the derivative formula

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (10)
ℎ→0 ℎ

as an increment Δ𝑥 in 𝑥 and write (10) as

𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (11)
Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥

Moreover, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then the numerator in (11) can be regarded as the increment

Δ𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

in which case

𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥

• The geometric interpretations of Δ𝑥 and Δ𝑦 are shown in the left Figure below.
• Sometimes it is desirable to express derivatives in a form that does not use
increments at all. For example, if we let 𝑤 = 𝑥 + ℎ in Formula (9), then 𝑤 → 𝑥 as ℎ →
0, so we can rewrite that formula as

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 𝑓(𝑤) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝑤→𝑥 𝑤−𝑥

(Compare the two Figures below)

▪ Newton and Leibniz each used a different notation when they published their
discoveries of calculus, thereby creating a notational divide between Britain and
the European continent that lasted for more than 50 years.

▪ The Leibniz, notation 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 eventually prevailed because it reflects the

underlying concepts in a natural way, the equation
𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦
= lim
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥

being one example.

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When Does a Function Not Have a Derivative at a Point?
➢ Geometrically, a function 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥0 if the graph of 𝑓 has a tangent
line at 𝑥0 .
➢ Thus, 𝑓 is not differentiable at any point 𝑥0 where the secant lines from
𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) to points 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) distinct from 𝑃 do not approach a unique
nonvertical limiting position as 𝑥 → 𝑥0 .
➢ The Figure below illustrates three common ways in which a function that is
continuous at 𝑥0 can fail to be differentiable at 𝑥0 . These can be described
informally as

• cusp / corner points

• points of vertical tangency
• discontinuity

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Page 17 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi