Notes By:- heart_less_user

Computer Fundamentals
25/03/21
Computer
C - Common
O - Operating
M - Machines For
P - Personal
U - Use
T - Training
E - Education and
R - Reaserch

What is a computer ?
● Computer is an electronic device used to passes the data
with very high speed and good accuracy. It also has
capabilities to store huge amounts of data and to retrieve
them within no time.
What is data ?
● Data :- Data are raw facts which doesn't have meaning
by themself. But they are used for processing data can
be either in the form of set of alphabets, sets of digits of
set of both (alpha-number) or in the form of symbols,
form of pictures, diagrams etc.
Ex:- PANDU, (°v°) , 23499, A-109, ▽▽, BENGALURU, etc
/| : |\
/ : \
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

26/03/21
● Information:- When some behaviour is added to the
data or the data is manipulated or the processed data so
that it becomes meaningful , this meaningful thing is
known as information.
eg:- MR. Pandu having date of birth 23/04/99 is going through
flight no. A 109 to BENGALURU

#GIGO
● Need For Information :-
1. To increase our knowledge
2. To know about our surroundings and its rules and
regulations
3. For making decisions

● Data processing:- It is system, where the data are

collected (input) and then treated with some rules and
regulations (process) to get the desired result (output)

INPUT ➜ PROCESS ➜ OUTPUT

1. Input Phase:- In the input phase data collected

through the some reliable resource and the validation
check is done before it is sent to processing because
computers work on GIGO(Garbage in Garbage out)
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

Technology.after validation check correct data transfer to

the next that is process phase.
2. Process Phase:- The data collected from input phase
are treated as rule and regulation (sequence of
arithmetical and logical operations) to get the desired
result then this result is transferred to the next phase that
is output.
3. Output Phase:- The result obtained from the process
phase are arranged in a appropriate format including the
behaviour of result so that can be easily understood by
the user.
Types of Data Processing
1. Offline/Batch Processing
2. Online Processing
3. Real-time Processing

1. Offline/Batch Processing:- In the batch processing the

data are collected on some storage medium for a specific
period of time. Then batch of collected data is send for
Processing in which there is no human interference hence this
is the fastest data mechanism.
Ex. Landline telephone billing system, Employee daily
attendance system, etc
2. Online Processing:- As soon as the data is entered into
the computer system it is immediately send for the processing
the speed of data processing depend on how fast the user
enter the data into the computer system.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

Ex. Railway reservation centre, Airway reservation

centre, etc.
3. Real-time Processing:- To process the data one after
another and the result is soon after the specific real life time.
Ex. Satellite launching system,etc.

Characteristic Of Computer System

1. Speed 2. Accuracy
3. Diligence: concentration 4. Reliability
5. Storage Capability 6. Versatility: computer are quite
versatile in nature. 7. Resource Sharing
Application/ Uses of computer
1. Science 2. Education 3. Medical and Healthcare
4. Engineering Architecture and Manufacturing
5. Entertainment 6. Communication
7. Business Applications 8. Publication
24/05/21

Generation Of Computers

● First Generation
Vacum cube technology:- (1940-1956)
Characteristics Properties:-
1. These computers were based on vacuum tube
technology.
2. These were the fastest computing devices of their times
that is they are capable of computing one instruction in
one milli second.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

3. These computers were very large and required a lot of

space for installation.
4. Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used and they
generate a large amount of heat. Therefore, air
conditioning was essential.
5. These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
6. They lacked in versatility and speed.
7. They were very expensive to operate and used a large
amount of electricity.
8. These machines were unreliable and causes frequent
hardware failures. Hence, constant maintenance was
required.
9. Since machine language was used, these computers
were difficult to program and use.
10. Each individual components has to be assemble
manually. Hence, commercial appeal of these computers
was poor.
25/05/21

● Second Generation
Transistor Technology (1956 - 1963)
Characteristics Properties:-
1. These machines were based on transistor technology.
2. These were smaller as compared to the first generation
computers.
3. The computational time of these computers was reduced
to microseconds from milliseconds.
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4. These were more reliable and less hardware failure.

Hence, they required less frequent maintenance.
5. These were more portable and generated less amount of
heat.
6. Second generation still requires air conditioning
7. Assembly language was used to program computers.
Hence, programming became more time efficient and
less cumbersome.
8. Manual assembly of individual components into a
functioning unit was still required.

● Third Generation
Integrated Circuit Technology (1964 - 1970)
Characteristics Properties:-
1. These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC)
technology.
2. They are able to reduce computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds.
3. They were easily portable and more reliable than the
second generation computers.
4. These devices consumed less power and generated less
heat. In some cases, air conditioning was still required.
5. The size of these computers was smaller as compared to
previous generation computers.
6. Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance costs were
very low.
7. Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

8. Manual assembling of individual components was not

required, so it reduced the large requirement of labour
and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies
were required for the manufacturing of ICs chips.
9. Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
27/05/21

● Fourth Generation
Micro processors technology (1972 - till date)
Characteristics Properties:-
1. These computers are microprocessor-based systems.
2. These are very small in size.
3. These are the cheapest among all the other generation
computers.
4. They are portable and quite reliable.
5. These machines generate negligible amount of heat,
hence they do not require air conditioning.
6. Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance
is required.
7. The production cost is very low.
8. GUIs and pointing devices enabled users to learn to use
the computer quickly.
9. Interconnection of computers led to better
communication and resource sharing.
28/05/21

● Fifth Generation
Artificial Intelligence (present and beyond)-1990
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The dream of creating a human-like computer that would be

capable of reasoning and reaching at a decision through a
series of ‘what-if-then’ analyzes have existed since the
beginning of computer technology. Such a computer would
learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts. These
are the objectives for creating the fifth generation of
computers. The starting point for these computers had been
set in the early 1990s. The process of developing these
computers is still in the development stage and is using the
concept of expert system. The expert system is defined as a
computer system that attempts to mimic the thought process
and reasoning of experts in specific areas.

Three characteristics identified with the fifth generation

computers are:

1. Mega chips:- These computers will use super-large

scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will result in the
production of microprocessor having millions of electronic
components on a single chip. In order to store
instructions and information, these computers require a
great amount of storage capacity. Mega chips may
enable the computer to approximate the memory
capacity of the human mind.

2. Parallel processing:- Most Computers today access

and execute only one instruction at a time is called serial
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processing. However, a computer using parallel

processing access several instructions at once and work
on them at the same time. Through the use of multiple
central processing unit.
.
3. Artificial intelligence (AI):- It refers to a series of
related technologies that tries to simulate and reproduce
human behaviour including thinking, speaking, and
reasoning. It comprises a group of related technologies
such as expert systems, natural language processing,
speech recognition, vision recognition, and robotics etc.
31/05/21
These days, computers are available in many sizes and
types. Sone computers can be fit in the palm of the hand and
some can occupy the entire room.Computers are also differ
based on their data-processing abilities. Based on physical
size, performance and application areas. We can classify the
computers into four major category : microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframe computers, and supercomputers.

1. Micro Computers :- It is a small, low-cost digital

computers, which usually consist of a single
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

microprocessor, a storage unit, input and output

channels, all of which may be on one chip inserted into
one and several Printed Circuit Board (PCB). The
addition of a power supply and connecting cables,
appropriate peripherals devices such as keyboard,
monitor, printer, disk drives, etc, an operating system,
and other software programs can provide a complete
microcomputer system. They are generally the smallest
of the computer family. Originally, these were designed
for individual users only, but nowadays they have
become powerful tools for many businesses organisation
then, they are networked together, can serve more than
one user. Microcomputers include desktop, laptop, and a
modules such as Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

2. Mini Computers:- In the early 1960s, Digital

Equipment Corporation (DEC) started shipping its
computer, which was more powerful than the micro
Computers but less powerful than the mainframe
computers. It is capable of supporting upto 200 micro
computers simultaneously. They are used to serve as a
centralized computer server on the computer network.
Multiple users can simultaneously work on many
computers for running interactive application. Industries,
research organizations, colleges, and universities were
using this computers for real-time controls and
engineering design work.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

01/06/21
3. Mainframe Computers :- A mainframe computer is
ultra-high performance computers made for high-volume,
processor with intensive computing. It consist of high-end
computer processors, with related peripheral devices,
capable of supporting large volumes of data processing,
high-performance online transaction processing, and
extensive data storage and retrieval. Normally, they are
able to process and store more data than a
minicomputer. Moreover, it is designed to perform at a
faster rate as compared to minicomputer. Mainframe
Computers are the second largest computers in the
computer family. The largest computer is the
supercomputers. However, mainframe can usually
execute many programs simultaneously at a high speed.
Mainframes allow its user to maintain a large amount of
data storage at a centralized location and are able to
access and process these data from different computers
located at different locations. It is typically used by large
businesses organisation and for scientific purposes.

4. Super Computers :- Super computers are a special

purpose machines that are specially designed to
maximize the numbers of FLOPS (floating point
operation per second). Any computer below one
gigaflop/sec is not considered as a supercomputer. A
super computer has the highest processing speed at a
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given time for solving scientific and engineering

problems. Essentially, it contains a large number of
CPUs that operates in parallel to make it faster. It's
processing speed lies in the range of 400–10,000
MFLOPS (millions FLOPS). Due to this feature,
supercomputers help in many applications including
information retrieval and computer-aided design.
02/06/21

Computer System

● Computers are information machines. It can be viewed

as a system, which consists of a number of interrelated
components that work together with the aim of converting
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

data into information. In a computer system, processing

is carried out electronically, usually with little or no
intervention from a human. The instructions given to
computers are called programs. Without programs,
computers doesn't know what to do. The physical parts
that makes a computer are known as hardware. Any
hardware device connected to the computer, examples
are keyboards, mouse, monitors printers, pen drive etc.
There are wide varieties of computer available in the
market with the peripheral devices. In general computer
system consists of four major components :-
Central Processing Unit (CPU):- The unit performs
processing of instruction and data inside the computer.
1. Input Unit :- These unit accepts instruction and data.
2. Output Unit :- The unit communicate the results of
instructions and data.
3. Storage Unit :- These unit stores temporary and/or
final result.
03/06/21
Central Processing Unit
● It is an administrative section of the computer system
that interprets the data and instructions, coordinates the
operations, and supervises the instructions. It works with
data in discrete form, that is, either 1 or 0. It counts, lists,
compares, and re-arranges the binary digits of data in
accordance with the detailed program instructions stored
within the memory. Eventually, the results of these
operations are translated into characters, numbers, and
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

symbols that can be understood by the user. The circuits

necessary to create a CPU for a personal computer are
fabricated on a micro processor. The CPU itself has three
parts that is Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit
(CU), Memory Unit (MU).

(a). Arithmetic logic unit (ALU):- This unit performs the

arithmetic (add, subtract) and logical operations (and, or) on
the stored number. The data is transferred from the memory
unit to the ALU; processed and returned to its internal
storage. Before the completion of the processing, data may
be transferred back and forth several times between this two
units, Subsequently, the results are transferred from internal
storage to an output device.
(b). Control Unit (CU):- This unit checks the correctness of
the sequence of operations.It fetches the program instructions
from the primary storage unit, interprets them, and ensures
execution of the program.It also controls the input/output
devices and directs the overall functioning of the other units of
a computer.
(c). Memory Unit (MU):- This unit holds intermediate results
during the course of calculations and provides the data as and
when required. This internal storage is also known as primary
memory or main memory. This memory takes the data from
an input device and stores it until the computer is ready to
process it. It also stores the processed data and intermidiate
results when the processing is finished, it transfers the results
to an output device.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

04/06/21

Input Device,Output Device And Secondary Storage Device

Input Device:- A computer system also in corporates

input/output devices which are the communication media
between human and the computer. The input unit accepts
instruction and data from the users and communicates them
to the computer. The basic task of this unit is together the
data and convert it into binary form which is understood by the
computer. Some of the input devices are keyboard, mouse,
touch screen, light pen and so on.

Output Device:- The computer communicates with the human

using output devices. These device takes the machine coded
output result from the processors and convert them into the
form that can be understood by its users by other machines
for their processing. Some of the commonly used output
devices are printers, monitors and plotters.

Secondary Storage Device:- In addition to these parts

computer also employees secondary storage device which
are extensively used for storing datas and instructions in the
form of files. The physical components or materials on which
data is stored permanently are called storage units or devices.
It supplies the stored information to the other units of the
computer as and when required. Some common storage
devices are hard disk, CD/DVD, pen drive and so on.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

Chapter 2
Computer Organisation and Architecture
Since each computers has a visible structure which is referred
as architecture. The computer architecture is the hardware
elements interconnected with each other to create a computer
that meets functional, performance and goals. Extending the
concept of architecture and making this hardware
components to work in a harmonised manner. In order to
achieve, objective.

07/06/21
CPU :- It is a highly complacted, extensive set of electronic
circuitry which executes stored programm instructions also
controls internal and external devices and performs Arithmetic
and logic operations and also controls the use of main
memory to store data and instruction and control the
sequence of operations. It has three main subsystem i.e,
ALU, CU and the registers.

1. ALU :- It contains the electronic circuitry that executes

the all Arithmetic and logic operations. On the data made
available to it. These data are stored in designated
registers. The ALU performs Arithmetic operations such
as , +, -, *, ÷ , at vey high speed where as the logical unit
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

performs the logical operations such as, =, >, <,

conditions.
2. Registers :- Resister are special purpose , high speed
temporary memory unit. These are temporary storage
area for holding various types of information such as
data, instructions, addresses, and the intermediate result
of the calculation. Essentially they holds the information
that the cpu is currently working on. registers can be
working memory of the cpu.the register work under the
direction of cu to accept,hold,and transfer instructions or
data and perform the arithmetical and logical comparison
at high speed.the table below lists the some important
registers used by the cpu :-

For example:- X = Y + Z
Green:- operants , Red :- Operators
08/06/21
3. CU:- The CU of a CPU contains electronic circuitry that
uses electrical signal to direct the entire computer system to
carry out or execute stored programm instructions. The cu
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doesn't execute any program instruction rather it directs other

parts if the system to do so by communicating with them. The
cu controls the IO devices and transfer of data to and from the
primary memory. It itself controlled by individual instructions in
programm located in primary storage. The instructions are
retrieved from the primary storage one at a time for this it
uses the instruction register for holding the current instruction,
and an instruction pointer to hold the address of the next
instruction. Each instruction is interpreted/decoded so that it
can be executed, based on the instruction, the cu controls
how other parts of the cpu runs. So that the computer system
should work in order that the instruction are executed in a
correct manner. It also determines what data is needed,
where it is stored, where to store the results of the operation,
and sends the control signal to the devices involved in
execution of the instruction. It administrates the movement of
large amount of instruction and data used by the computer. In
order to maintain the proper sequence of events required for
any processing task, the CU uses clock inputs.

● System Bus/Lines: - A bus is a set of connection

between two or more components/devices, which are
designed to transfer several/all bits of a word from
specific source to destination. It is shared media of
information transfer. A bus consist of multiple paths
which are also termed as lines, each line is capable of
transferring one bit at a time. Thus to transfer 8 bit
simultaneously over a bus,8 lines are required to transfer
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

the data. In addition some other lines are needed for

controlling this transfer. A bus can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. In a shared bus only one source can
transmit data at one time while one or more than one can
recieve the signal. A bus that connects all three
components that is cpu, memory, i/o components is
called a system bus. A system bus may consist of 50-100
separate lines. These kinds are boldly categoriesed into
three functional group that is:-
1. Data Bus
2. Address Bus
3. Control Bus
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

09/06/21
1. Data Bus/Lines:- It provides a path for moving data
between the system modules. They are collectively known as
data bus or data lines. Normally it consists of 8,16,32, and 64
bits separate lines. The number of lines present in data bus is
called the width of the data bus. Its width limits the maximum
number of bits, which can be transferred simultaneously
between the modules. The width of the data bus helps in
determining the overall performance of a computer system.

2. Address Bus/Lines:- they are used to designate the

source of data for data bus. As the memory may be divided
into linear alley of bits on words therefore reading and writing,
any information on to memory, cou needs to specify the
address of a particular location. This address is supplied by
address bus. Thus the width of the address bus specifies the
maximum possible memory supported by a system.
For ex :- if a system has 16 bit wide address bus then it can
have maximum memory size=2¹⁶ bytes (65,536 bytes)

3. Control Bus/Lines:- they are used to control the access to

data and address bus this bus required as a shared medium.
They are collectively known as control Bus. These lines are
used to transfer of commands and timing signals between the
system modules. Timing signals Indicate rather data and
address information is valid or not where as the command
signal specify which operation are to be performed. Some of
the control lines of bus are required for providing clock signals
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

to shrinko lines and for resetting the modules. They are also
required for reading/writting to io devices and memory. A
control lines is used as a bus request, indicates that a module
needs to gain control of the bus bus can't control lines is used
to indicate that a requesting module has been granted control
to the bus.

Physically a bus is a number of parallel electrical

conductors. These circuit are imprinted on printed circuit
boards. The bus normally extends across most of the system
components which can be tapped into a bus lines.

10/0621
Communication Among Various Unit
All units in a computer system work in connection with each
other to facilitate a functional computer system. To have a
proper coordination among these units (CPU, catche,memory,
I/O),are reliable and robust means a communication is
required. One of the most important function in the computer
systems is the communication between these units:-

A. Processor to Memory communication

B. Processor to IO device comminication

A. Processor to Memory communication:- The whole

process of communication between the processor and the
memory can be divided into two steps, information transfer
from memory to processor and writing information in the
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

memory.The following sequence of events takes place when

information is transferred from the memory to the processor:-
1. The processor places the address in MAR (memory
assistant register) through the address line.
2. The processor issues a READ command through the
control bus.
3. The memory places retrieved data onto the data bus which
is then transferred to the processors.

Based on the read time of the memory, a specific number of

processor clock interval are alloted for completion of this
operation. During this interval the processor were forced to
wait. Similarly the following sequence of events takes place
when information is written in to the memory :-
1. The processor places the address in MAR through the
address bus
2. The processor transmitts the data to be returned in memory
by using the data bus.
3. The processor issues a WRITE command to memory by
using control bus.
4. The data is written in memory at the address specified by
the MAR.

The main concerned in Processor-memory communication is

the speed mismatch between the memory and the processor.
Memory access time is generally slower than the processor.
This speed mismatch is eliminated by using a small fast
memory as an intermediate buffer between processor and
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memory called as catche.

12/06/21
B. Processor to IO device comminication:- Devices are
connected to the computer ........

The Controller is connected to the buses to perform a

sequence of data transfer on behalf of the CPU. It is capable
of taking over control of the system bus from the CPU, which
is required to transfer data to and from memory over the
system bus. A DMA controller can directly access memory
and is used to transfer data from one memory location to
another, or from an IO device to memory and vice versa. Thr
DMA controller can use the system bus only when CPU
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

doesn't required or it should suspend the operation currently

being processed by the CPU.

With DMA, a dedicated data transfer device reads incoming

data from a device and stores at system memory buffer for
later retrieval by the CPU. DMA allows peripheral devices to
access the memories for both read and write Operations
without affecting the set of the computer processor. As a
result, the data transfer rate is significantly increased,
improving the system efficiency. When a large amount of data
is to be transferred from the CPU, a DMA controller can be
used. DMA allows IO units to exchange data directly with
memory without going through CPU expert, except at the
beginning (to issue the command) and at the end (to clean up
after the command is processed). While the IO is being
performed by the DMA, the CPU can start execution of
remaining part of the same programm is can start executing
some other program. Thus DMA increases the speed of IO
Operations By Taking over buses and the eliminating CPUs
intervation.

■ Instruction Format
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

14/06/21
● An instruction consists of an op(operation code) and one
or more oprants which may be addressed implicitly or
explicitly. To define the layout of the bits a located to
these elements of instruction,nd instruction format is
used. The instruction format also indicates the
addressing mode used for each operand in that
instruction. Note that most of the instruction said more
that one instruction format is used. Over the years a
variety of instruction format has been used,but designing
of the instruction format involves many complex issues
some of the key issues are:-
1. Instruction Length:- the core designing issue involves in
instructions format in instruction format is the designing of
instruction land. The instruction land determine the flexibility
of the machine. The desicion on length of the instruction
depends upon the memory size, memory organization,nd
memory transfer length.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

2. A Location of Bits:- For the given instruction land, there is

a trade between the no of op codes nd th power of addressing
capabilities. More op code means more bits in the op code
field, also for an instruction format of a give length, which
reduces the no of bits available for addressing.

3.️ Instruction Cycle:- The basic functions perform by cpu is

the execution of the program. The program to be executed is
a set of instruction,which r stored in the memory. The cpu
executes the instruction of the program to complete the given
task. The cpu fetches an instruction stored in the memory nd
thn execute the fatched instruction within the cpu before it can
proceed to fatch the next instruction from memory. This
process is continues until specified to sort*. The instruction
execution takes place in the cpu register, which r used as
temporary storage area nd have limited storage space.

15/06/21
In the simplicity form instruction processing consist of three
cycle that is fact cycle, decode cycle, and excusing. The cpu
fetch (reads) instruction from the memory one at a time, and
decode it to performance the second operation written in the
instruction then execution of this instruction may involve
serval operation depends upon the nature of instruction.

1) Fetch Cycle:- In beginning, the address which store in the

program counter (pc) is transferred to the memory address
register ( MAR). The cpu then transfer the instruction located
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

at the address store in the MAR to the Memory Buffer

Register ( MBR) through the data lines connect the cpu to
memory. This transfer from memory to cpu is co.......... by the
control unit (cu) to finish the cycle, newly fetch instruction is
transferred to the instruction rigster (ir) and unless instructed
otherwise, the cu irment the pc to point the next address
location.
1. PC ⇒ MAR
2. MAR ⇒ Memory
3. Memory ⇒ MBR
4. MBR ⇒ IR
5. CU ⇒ PC

After the cpu has finished fetch an instruction the cu check

contained of ir and determine which type of execution is to be
carried out next this process is known as decoding cylce.The
instruction is now ready for the execution cycle.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

2) Execution Cycle:- once the instruction has been load into

the cpu has examined and decode the fetch instruction and
determine it the required post of action to take, the execution
cycle came. Unlike the fetch cycle and decode cycle both
which have a set of instruction sequence, the execution cycle
can contain some complex .This action execution cycle can
categorised into four group:-
1) CPU Memory:- data may be transferred from memory to
cpu or from cpu to memory.
2) CPU IO:- data may be transferred from an Io module to the
cpu and vice-versa
3) Data Processing:- the cpu may perform sum arthematic
and logical operation by the ALU
4) Control:- An instruction may specify that the sequence of
operation may be altered that is the PC may be updated with
new memory to reflect the next instruction should read from
new memory allocation.
16/06/21
For simplicity LOAD ACC can be classified as instruction that
can be excuted without leaving the cpu are rapped as non
memory refferal instruction. LOAD ACC, Memory are
classified as instruction that can be excuted by the leaving the
cpu and are referred as memory refferal instruction. This
operation load the accumulated (ACC) with the data which is
stored in the memory location specified in the instruction. The
operation start by transferring the address proportion of the
instruction from to MAR. The cpu then transfer the instruction
located at address in the MAR to the MBR by other data line
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

connecting the cpu to memory. This transfer from memory to

cpu is cordinator by the CU. To finish the cycle the newly fetch
data transfered to ACC.This can be summarised in the
following points:-
IR [address portion] ⇒ MAR
2. MAR ⇒ Memory
3. Memory ⇒ MBR
4. MBR ⇒ ALU
5. ALU ⇒ ACC

After the excusing cycle complete,the next is fetch and the

process start again.

INSTRUCTION SETS
Process are built with ability to excuted a limit set of basic
operation.The collection of these operation are known as the
processor instruction set and instruction set is necessary
show that a user can create machine language program to
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

perform any logical, and or mathematical operation. The

instruction set is hard weird embedded in the processor which
determines the machine language of that processor. The
more complex instruction set, the slower the processor work.

Processor differ from one another by their

instruction set. If the same program run on to different
Processor, they are set to be compatible. For example:-
program written for IBM computer may not run on Apple
computer these two architect are not compatible since
processor has unique instruction set , machine language
written form one processor normally not run on different
processor. Therefore all operation system and software
program are constructed with in the boundaries of the
processor Instruction set. Thus the design of the instruction
set for the processor became an important aspect of the
computer architecture. Based upon the instruction set, there
are two common types of architectures; Complex Instruction
Set Computer (CISC) and Reduce Instruction Set
Computer (RISC).
17/06/21
CISC Architecture:- Earlier, programming was done in
low-level languages such as machine language and assembly
language. These languages were executed very quickly on
computers, but were not easy for programmers to understand
and code. To overcome these shortcomings and make
programming more accessible to the masses, high-level
languages were developed. However, instructions in
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

high-level languages were required to be converted into their

equivalent low-level languages before the processor can
execute them. This conversion process was performed by the
compiler. Writing compilers for such high-level languages
became increasingly difficult. To make compiler development
easier, CISC was developed. The sole motive of
manufacturers of CISC-based processor was to manufacture
processors with more extensive and complex instruction set. It
shifted most of the burden of generating machine instructions
to the processor. For example, instead of making a compiler
to write long machine instructions for calculating a square
root, a CISC processor would incorporate a hardwired
circuitry for performing the square root in a single step.
Writing instructions for a CISC processor is comparatively
easy because a single instruction is sufficient to utilize the
built-in ability. In fact, the first PC microprocessors were CISC
processors because all the instructions that the processor
could execute were built into the processors. As memory was
expensive in the early days of computers, CISC processors
saved memory because their instructions could be fed directly
into the processor. Most of the PCs today include a CISC
processor.
18/06/21
Advantages Of CISC Architecture

1. At the time of their initial development, CISC machines

used available technologies to optimize the computer
performance.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

2. CISC architecture uses general-purpose hardware to carry

out commands. Therefore, new command can be added into
the chip without changing the structure of the instruction set.

3. Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to

implement and much less expensive than hardwiring a control
unit (CU).
4. As each instruction became more capable, fewer
instructions could be used to implement a given task. This
makes efficient use of the relatively slow main memory.

5. As microprogram instruction sets can be written to match

the constructs of high-level languages, the compiler does not
have to be very complex.

Disadvantages Of CISC Architecture

1. Processors of early generation of computers were

contained as a subset in succeeding version, so the
instruction set and the chip hardware became complex with
each generation of computers.

2. Different instructions take different amount of clock time to

execute, and thus slow down the overall performance of the
machine.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

3. CISC requires continuous reprogramming of on-chip

hardware.

4. CISC design includes the complexity of hardware needed

to perform many functions and the complexity of on-chip
software needed to make the hardware do the right thing.

RISC Architecture:- RISC is a processor architecture that

utilizes a small, highly optimized set of instructions. The
concept behind RISC architecture is that a small number of
instructions are faster in execution as compared to a single
long instruction. To implement this, it simplifies the instruction
set of the processor, which helps in reducing the execution
time. The optimization of each instruction in the processor is
done through a technique known as pipelining. Pipelining
allows the processor to work on different steps of the
instruction at the same time; using this technique, more
instructions can be executed in a shorter time. This is
achieved by overlapping the fetch, decode, and execute
cycles of two or more instructions. To prevent more
interactions with the memory or to reduce the access time, the
RISC design incorporates a larger number of registers. As
each instruction is executed directly using the processor, no
hardwired circuitry is required. This allows RISC processors to
be smaller, consume less power, and run cooler than CISC
processors. Due to these advantages, RISC processors are
ideal for embedded applications such as mobile phones,
PDAs, and digital cameras. In addition, the simple design of a
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

RISC processor reduces its development time as compared to

a CISC processor.
21/06/21
Advantages Of RISC Architecture

1. A simplified instruction set allows for a pipelined,

super-scalar design RISC processor to often achieve 2–4
times the performance of CISC processor using a comparable
semiconductor technology and the same clock rates.

2. As the instruction set of a RISC processor is simple, it uses

less chip space. Extra functions such as memory
management units or floating point AUs can also be placed on
the same chip.

3. Since RISC architecture is simpler than CISC architecture,

it can be designed more quickly, and can take advantage of
the other technological developments faster than
corresponding CISC designs, leading to greater leaps in the
performance between generations.

Disadvantages Of RISC Architecture

1. The performance of a RISC processor depends largely on

the code that it is executing. If the compiler does a poor job of
instruction scheduling, the processor can spend time waiting
for the result of one instruction before it can proceed with the
subsequent instruction.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

2. Instruction scheduling makes the debugging process

difficult. If scheduling (and other optimizations) is turned off
the machine language instructions show a clear connection
with their corresponding lines of source.

3. RISC machines require very fast memory systems to feed

the instructions. RISC-based systems typically contains large
amount of cache memory, usually on the chip itself.

22/06/21

Comparing CISC and RISC

The CISC processor came with complex instructions sets,

where decoding and executing of soch instructions was a
complicated and time-consuming task. Moreover, with the
development of high-level languages, using the instruction set
posed problems in the compiler's design. As the CISC
processors were less memory (very expensive earlier)
intensive, it resulted in the rapid growth of CISC processors.
With time, memory prices reduced drastically but CISC
processors could not optimally use this availability of cheap
memory. Manufacturers started working towards processors,
which could run faster by using extra memory. This idea gave
birth to the RISC architecture, which included small, highly
optimised instructions but were more memory intensive.
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

The difference between the RISC approach and the CISC

approach can be best explained by the example, which shows
how each design carries out five multiplications task. The
general steps required to perform the multiplications are:

1. Read the first number out of memory

2. Read the second number out of memory.
3. Multiply the two numbers.
4. Write the result back to memory.
5. Repeat Steps 1-4 for each of the four remaining
multiplications.

On a simple CISC-based CPU, the CPU is first configured to

get (read) the numbers, then the numbers are read. Next, the
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

CPU is configured to multiply the numbers, and then the

numbers are multiplied. Next, the CPU is configured to write
the result to memory. Finally the numbers are written into a
memory. To multiply five sets of numbers, the whole process
must be repeated five times,

On a simple RISC CPU, the process is slightly different. A

piece of hardware on the CPU is dedicated to read the first
number. When this operation is complete, another piece of
hardware reads the second number. After completion of this
operation, another hardware performs the multiplication, and
when it is completed, another hardware writes the result to
memory. If this operation happens five times in a row, the
RISC hardware dedicated to obtaining the first number from
memory obtains the first number for the second operation and
second number for the first operation. At the same time, the
second number for the second operation is retrieved from
memory, while the first number for the third operation is
obtained. As the first result is written back to memory, the
second multiplication begains, while the second number for
the third operation is read from memory and the first number
for the fourth operation is read from memory, and so on.

23/06/21

Data Represention In Computer

 Notes By:- heart_less_user

A numbers system defines a set of value used to represent

quantity. Generally one talks about a number of people
attending the class,or a number of modules taken by each
student, and use numbers to represent grades achieve by
students. Hence the number system became important in the
advancement of machine for computing the task efficiently
and accurately. The number system worked on the principal of
digital logic design and a gateway to overcome complex
computation barriers. A number system can be categorised
into two, different boards i.e, non-positional number and
positional number system

1. Non-Positional Number Systems:- In ancient times,

people used to count with their fingers When fingers became
insufficient for counting, stones and pebbles were used to
indicate the values. This method of counting is called the
non-positional number system. It was very difficult to perform
arithmetic operations with such a number system, as it had no
symbol for zero. The most common non-positional number
system is the Roman number system. These systems are
often difficult to de calculations for large numbers.

2. Positional Number Systems:- This system is any system

that requires a finite number of symbols/digits of the system to
represent large numbers. Using these systems, the execution
of numerical calculations becomes simplified, because a finite
set of digits are used. The value of each digit in a number is
defined not only by the symbol, but also by the symbol's
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

position. The most popular positional number system being

used today is the decimal number system.

Base Or Radix Of Number System:- This means the quality

of admissible marks used, to a given number system. The
admissible marks are the characters such as Arabic
numerals, Latin letters, or other recognisable marks, which
are used to present the numerical magnitude of a "quantity".
The decimal number system originated in India. This system
has 10 as a base of the number system and is indicated by a
subscripts followed by the value of the number.

For example, (5928)10 .that means 10 is recognised as base

value 5928 is recognised as value.(512)8, 8 is defined as an
octal and its value is 512.

25/06/21
For a computer, everything is in the digital form (binary form)
whether it is number, alphabet, punctuation mark, instruction,
etc. To illustrate with the help of an example, Consider the
word "PANDU" that appears on the computer screen as a
series of alphabet characters. However, for the computer, it is
a combination of numbers. To the computer it appears as:-
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

Character Representation P A N D U

Binary Representation 01010000 01000001 01001101 01000100 01010101

Decimal Representation 80 65 77 68 85

Types Of Number System:-

Number System Radix Value Set Of Digits Example

Decimal R = 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9 (5148)10

Binary R=2 0, and 1 (1011001)2

Octal R=8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 (2751)8

Hexadecimal R = 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E, and (3C8F)16

F

Generally, a user is least aware about the actual operations in

a computer are done with a binary number system.
Traditionally, the two possible states for a binary system is
represented by the digits 0s and 1s. Long before the
introduction of octal and hexadecimal numbers, programmers
use a convinient number of handling large binary numbers in
Letter Later the 3 or 4 of the assembly language for a
particular cpu was introduced. it was also possible to use
more than one base numeration for writing data in the
assembly languages, so the programmer made sure their
translation……. Octal, hexadecimal and binary number. In
addition octal and hexadecimal number prevent unwidely in
that was written in binary form
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

1.Decimal To Binary
2.Binary To Decimal
3.Decimal To Octal
4.Octal To Decimal
5.Decimal To Hexa
6.Hexa To Decimal
7.Binary To Octal
8.Octal To Binary
9.Binary To Hexa
10. Hexa To Binary
11. Octal To Hexa
12. Hexa To Octal

1. Decimal To Binary Conversion:-

(397)10 = (?)2
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

2. Binary To Decimal Conversion:-

(110001101)2=(?)10

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

(28×1)+(27×1)+(26×0)+(25×0)+(24×0)+(23×1)+(22×1)+(21×0)+(20×1)

(256x1)+(128x1)+(64x0)+(32x0)+(16x0)+(8x1)+(4x1)+(2x0)+(1x1)

256+128+0+0+0+8+4+0+1 = 397

i.e, (397)10 = (110001101)2

26/06/21

Shortcut Method :-
Bin. To Dec. :-

(110001101)2 = (?)10

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

(28×1)+(27×1)+(23×1)+(22×1)+(20×1)

256+128+8+4+1
= 397
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

2n
2⁰ = 1
2¹ = 2
2² = 4
2³ = 8
24 = 16
25 = 32
26 = 64
27 = 128
28 = 256
2⁹ = 512
210 = 1024

3. Decimal To Octal Conversion:-

(397)10 = (?)8

(615)8 = (397)10

4. Octal To Decimal Conversion:-

(615)8 = (?)10
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

615
2 1 0

(8² x 6) + (8¹ x 1) + (8⁰ x 5)

(64 x 6) + (8 x 1) + (1 x 5)
384 + 8 + 5
=397
i.e. (397)10 = (615)8

5. Decimal To Hexa Conversion:-

(397)10 = (?)16

(18D)16 = (397)10

6. Hexa To Decimal Conversion:-

(18D)16 = (?)10
18D

1 8 13
2 1 0
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

(16² x 1) + (16¹ x 8) + (16⁰ x 13)

(256 x 1) + (16 x 8) + (1 x 13)
256 + 128 + 13
=397
i.e. (397)10 = (18D)16

Conclusion :-
Dec. To Bin. → Divide By 2
Dec. To Oct. → Divide By 8
Dec. To Hex. → Divide By 16

Bin. To Dec. → Multiply by 2x

Oct. To Dec. → Divide By 8x
Hex. To Dec. → Multiply by 16x

7. Binary To Octal Conversion:-

(110001101)2 = (?)8
2³ = 8

110001101
110 001 101
110 = 1 1 0 = 2² +2¹= 4+2=6
001 = 0 0 1 = 2⁰ = 1
101 = 1 0 1 = 2² + 2⁰ = 5
(615)8 = (110001101)2
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

Decimal Number Binary Number

0 0

1 1

2 10

3 11

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

8 1000

9 1001

10 = A; 1010

11 = B; 1011

12 = C; 1100

13 = D; 1101

14 = E; 1110

15 = F; 1111
 Notes By:- heart_less_user

8. Octal To Binary Conversion:-

(615)8=(?)2

6 = 110
1 = 001
5 = 101

110001101
i.e, (110001101)2 = (615)8