MODULE 1

2.0: Introduction

Analog electronics is an electronics system where signal change continuously. Analog signal is a signal whose
amplitude can take any value between given limits. A continuous signal. An analog circuits operates on
continuous signals.

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals and the engineering of devices
that use or produce them. Digital signal is a signal whose amplitude can have only given discrete values between
defined limits. A signal that changes amplitude in discrete steps. A digital circuits operates on discrete signals.

Clock is a periodic, rectangular waveform used as a basic timing signal. Duty cycle for a periodic digital signal,
the ratio of high level time to the period or the ratio of low level time to the period. A table that shows all of the
input output possibilities of a logic circuit is called truth table.

Fig: Clock Signal

A digital circuit having one or more input signals but only one output signal is called a gate. Logic circuit is a
digital circuit, a switching circuit, or any kind of two-state circuit that duplicates mental processes.
The most basic gates are -the NOT gate (inverter), the OR gate and the AND gate.

NOT gate: A gate with only one input Truth table Logic diagram
and a complemented output.

OR gate: A gate with two or more inputs.

The output is high when any input is high.

AND gate: A gate with 2 or more inputs.

The output is high only when all inputs
are high.

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Realize following Boolean functions using basic gate.
i) Y=AB+CD ii) Y= (A+B)(C+D)

Any logic function/ logic circuit can be implemented using only one kind of gate then such gates are called
universal logic gates. NOR gate and NAND gate are called universal logic gates.

NOR gate: A gate with two or more inputs. Truth table Logic diagram
The output is low when any input is high.

Universality of NOR gate:

NOT from NOR OR from NOR AND from NOR

NAND gate: A gate with two or more inputs.

The output is low when all input is high.

Universality of NAND gate:

NOT from NAND AND from NAND OR from NAND

Other important gates are XOR and XNOR gates.

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 Exclusive-OR gate: A gate with two or more
inputs and output of is HIGH only when the
number of HIGH inputs is odd.

Equivalence/exclusive-NOR gate: A gate

with two or more inputs and output of is HIGH
only when the number of HIGH inputs is even.

Realize Y = AB + C using only NOR and NAND type of gate.

Active-low refers to the concept in which a signal must be low to cause something to happen or to indicate that
something has happened. Assert means to activate. If an input line has a bubble on it, you assert the input by
making it low. If there is no bubble, you assert the input by making it high.

Laws of Boolean algebra

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Minimum Forms of Switching Functions

In a positive logic system, binary 0 stands for low voltage and binary 1 for high voltage. In a negative logic
system, binary 0 stands for high voltage and binary 1 for low voltage. Assert means to activate. If an input line
has a bubble on it, you assert the input by making it low. If there is no bubble, you assert the input by making it
high. Active-low refers to the concept in which a signal must be low to cause something to happen or activate
the circuit. Active-high refers to the concept in which a signal must be high to cause something to happen or to
activate the circuit.

Combinational Circuits are circuits made up of different types of logic gates. The output of the combinational
circuit depends on the values at the input at any given time. The circuits do not make use of any memory or
storage device. A literal is a variable or its complement.

A minterm of n variables is a product of n literals in which each variable appears exactly once in either true or
complemented form, but not both. A maxterm of n variables is a sum of n literals in which each variable appears
exactly once in either true or complemented form, but not both.

Example: Minterms and Maxterms for Three Variables

Minterm expansion or a standard sum of products (SOP): A Boolean equation that is the logical sum of
logical products. This type of equation applies to an AND-OR circuit.

Maxterm expansion or standard product of sums (POS): A Boolean equation that is the logical product of
logical sums. This type of equation applies to an OR-AND circuit.

Steps to get SOP:

1) Locate each output 1 in truth table
2) Write the respective minterm

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3) Apply OR operation to the minterms
Example:

Steps to get POS:

1) Locate each output 0 in truth table
2) Write the respective maxterm
3) Apply AND operation to the maxterms

Example:

Conversion between SOP and POS:

1) Identifying complementary locations,
2) Changing mintenn to maxtenn or reverse, and finally
3) Changing summation by product or reverse

Example: Y = F(A, B, C) = Π M(O, 3, 6)

= Σm(l, 2, 4, 5, 7)
Example: Y = F(A, B, C) = Σm(3, 5, 6, 7)
= ΠM(O, 1, 2, 4)

Example: Combinational Circuit with Truth Table is given write SOP and POS expressions.

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An Incompletely specified function is a Boolean function that only define output values for a subset of its inputs
- i.e. a Boolean function who’s output is a don't care for at least one of its input combinations. The X’s in the
truth table indicate that we don’t care whether the value of 0 or 1 is assigned to F.

Example: Truth Table with Don’t-Cares

In SOP we use m to denote the required minterms and d to denote the don’t-care minterms.
F(A,B,C) = Σ m(0, 3, 7) + Σ d(1, 6)
In POS we use M to denote the required maxterms and D to denote the don’t-care maxterms.
F(A,B,C) = Π M(2, 4, 5) · Π D(1, 6)
Write minterm and maxterm expansions for the following truth table.

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2.1 Minimum Forms of Switching Functions
A minimum sum of products expression for a function is defined as a sum of product terms which
(i) has a minimum number of terms and
(ii) of all those expressions which have the same minimum number of terms, has a minimum number of literals.

The minimum sum of products corresponds directly to a minimum two-level gate circuit which
(i) has a minimum number of gates and
(ii) a minimum number of gate inputs.

The minimum sum of products is not necessarily unique; that is, a given function may have two different
minimum sum of products forms, each with the same number of terms and the same number of literals.
Given a minterm expansion, the minimum sum-of products form can often be obtained by the following
procedure:
(i) Combine terms by using 𝑋𝑌′+ 𝑋Y =(𝑌′+𝑌)=𝑋. Do this repeatedly to eliminate as many literals as possible.
A given term may be used more than once because X+X=X.
(ii) Eliminate redundant terms by using the theorems of Boolean Algebra.

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A minimum product of sums expression for a function is defined as a product of sum terms which
(i) has a minimum number of terms, and
(ii) of all those expressions which have the same number of terms, has a minimum number of literals.
Unlike the maxterm expansion, the minimum product of sums form of a function is not necessarily unique. Given
a maxterm expansion, the minimum product of sums can often be obtained by a procedure similar to that used in
the minimum sum of products case, except that the theorem (𝑋+𝑌′)(𝑋+𝑌)= 𝑋 is used to combine terms.

Simplification of Boolean function reduces the gate count required to implement the circuit, the circuit works
faster and circuit require less power consumption.

The various Boolean expression simplification techniques are

1) Algebraic techniques
2) Karnaugh Map/K-Map Method
3) Quine McCluskey Method
4) Entered Variable Map/ MEV/EMV Method

Switching/Boolean functions can generally be simplified by using the algebraic techniques. The disadvantages
of algebraic procedure usage are
(i) The procedures are difficult to apply in a systematic way,
(ii) It is difficult to tell when we have arrived at a minimum solution.

Karnaugh map/K map is a method simplifying and manipulating switching functions. K map method is faster
and easier to apply than other simplification methods.

2.2 Two and Three Variable Karnaugh Maps

Karnaugh map of a function specifies the value of the function for every combination of values of the independent
variables.

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Two Variable K-Map

The number of cells in 2 variable K-map is four (22), since the number of variables is two. The following figure
shows 2 variable K-map and location of minterms on a 2 variable K-map.

Example: Convert following truth table into K map.

Y = F(A, B) = Σ m (2, 3)

Three Variable K-Map

The number of cells in 3 variable K-map is eight (23), since the number of variables is 3. The following figure
shows 3 variable K-map and location of minterms on a 3 variable K-map.

OR

Example: Convert following truth table into K map.

Y = F(A, B, C) = Σ m (2,6,7)

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2.3 Four-Variable Karnaugh Maps

The number of cells in 4 variable K-map is sixteen (24), since the number of variables is 4. The following figure
shows 4 variable K-map and location of minterms on a 4 variable K-map.

Example: Convert following truth table into K map.

Y = F(A, B, C, D) = Σ m(1,6,7)

Pairs, Quads, and Octets

Two adjacent 1s in the K-map is called a pair and it eliminate the variable that changes form.
Sample of pair

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A quad is a group of four ls that are horizontally or vertically adjacent and a quad eliminates two variables and
their complements.

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An octet is a group of 8 ls that are horizontally or vertically adjacent and an octet eliminates three variables and
their complements.

Overlapping of groups: We are allowed to use the same 1 more than once.

Rolling of Map: Groups may wrap around the table. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped with the rightmost
cell and the top cell in a column may be grouped with the bottom cell. Roll and overlap to get largest group.

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Eliminating redundant group: A groups of 1s or 0s whose all members are overlapped by other groups is called
redundant group. After encircling all possible group, eliminate any redundant group if any. We don’t consider
this group while writing the simplified equations from the K-map.

2.4 Determination of Minimum Expressions using Essential Prime Implicants

Any single 1 or any group of 1’s which can be combined together on a map of the function F represents a product
term which is called an implicant of F. Several implicants of F may be possible. A product term implicant is
called a prime implicant if it cannot be combined with another term to eliminate a variable.

The following procedure can then be used to obtain a minimum sum of products from a Karnaugh map:

1) Choose a minterm (a 1) which has not yet been covered.

2) Find all 1’s and X’s adjacent to that minterm. (Check the n adjacent squares on an n-variable map.)
3) If a single term covers the minterm and all of the adjacent 1’s and X’s, then that term is an essential prime
implicant, so select that term. (don’t-care terms are treated like 1’s in steps 2 and 3 but not in step 1.)
4) Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 until all essential prime implicants have been chosen.
5) Find a minimum set of prime implicants which cover the remaining 1’s on the map. (If there is more than
one such set, choose a set with a minimum number of literals.)

The following figure shows the flowchart for determining a minimum sum of products using a Karnaugh map
with an example.

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Solve S(A,B,C)=Σm(1,3,5) using K map and implement using basic gates.

Solve S= F(A,B,C)=Σ m(0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14) using Kmap and implement uisng basic, nand only and norly
gates.

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 OR

Circuit diagram for

Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σ m(0,1, 2, 4, 5,6, 8,9,10,12,13) using Kmap and implement uisng basic, nand only and norly
gates.

Solve S= F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(7,9,10,11,12,13,14,15) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(1,2,3,6,8,9,10,12,13,14) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(7)+d(10,11,12,13,14,15) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S =F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(2,3,5,7,10,12)+d(11,15) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(6,7,9,10,13)+d(1,4,5,11) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S= F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(0,1,2,4,5,12,14)+d(8,10) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S= F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(0,1,4,8,9,10)+d(2,11) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,1,3,4,7) using K map to get minimum POS expression.

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,6,7,8,12,13,14,15) using K map to get minimum POS expression and implement uisng
basic, nand only and norly gates.

Solve F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,3,4,7,810,12,14).ΠD(2,6) using K map to get minimum POS expression and implement
uisng basic, nand only and norly gates.

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(6,7,9,10,13)+ Σd(1,4,5,11) using K map to get minimum POS expression.

S= F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,2,3,8,12,14,15).ΠD(1,4,5,11)

Limitations of K map:
Complexity of K-map simplification process increases with the increase in the number of variables
K map is manual technique and simplification process heavily depends on the human ability.

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