Trakia Journal of Sciences, Vol. 21, Suppl.

1, pp 222-230, 2023
Copyright © 2023 Trakia University
Available online at:
http://www.uni-sz.bg
ISSN 1313-3551 (online) doi:10.15547/tjs.2023.s.01.038

REVISIONS TO MASLOW'S HIERARCHICAL MODEL

OF BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
T. Taneva*
Department of Social Sciences and Business Language Education, Faculty of Economics,
Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT
Maslow's hierarchical model of human needs has been identified by some researchers as one of the
most cognitively contagious ideas in the behavioral sciences. This model is the most recognized, the
most widely known, and it is the basis for other major content theories of motivation. Scientific
discussions in the 21st century about the merits and limitations of Maslow's theory of basic needs have
periodically intensified, since human actions cannot be explained, predicted or managed without an
understanding of their motives, the main content of which are human needs.
In spite of the controversial attitude towards the theory, it is widely used in management practice
because it is coherent, logical, evolutionarily sound and easy to understand. The paper discusses the
principle of extreme deficiency as a condition for maintaining the hierarchy of needs, the ideas of
architectural extensions of the pyramid, and rethinking the content of some of the major groups of
needs in Maslow's model - self-actualization, status, and belonging/love. The enrichment and
expansion of Maslow's hierarchy, especially at the highest levels of the needs of self-actualization and
self-transcendence, has the potential to increase the predictive power of the model in exploring
people's motivation for activity in different contexts.

Key words: hierarchy of needs, Maslow's model, model revisions, self actualization need

INTRODUCTION only because of the belief that human actions

Maslow's theory (1) on human motivation is the cannot be explained without understanding their
most widely recognized, most widely known, motivations, but also because of the resonance
and is largely the basis for other major of Maslow's theses in contemporary societies
motivational content theories. Kenrick et al (2) and policies (8-10 et al.).
identify it as one of the most cognitively
infectious ideas in behavioural science. It It is known that according to Maslow (1) people
continues to generate research interest despite are born with a sustainable system of basic
controversy, both criticism (3 by 4) and support needs that do not change significantly
(5-7). For the first time in psychology Maslow throughout their lives and which they strive to
proposed a grounded structure of human needs satisfy. The main thesis in his theory is that man
that could be practically tested and refined. is "a wanting animal and rarely reaches a state
of complete satisfaction except for a short time"
In 2017, a symposium on "Revising Maslow: (1:24). Within the humanistic paradigm,
human needs in the 21st century" was held. In Maslow developed the idea that basic human
his introductory speech the renowned Israeli needs can be, on the one hand, meaningfully,
psychologist researcher Abulof (8) poses the conceptually grouped, and on the other,
question "Why do we need Maslow in the 21st hierarchically considered in terms of their
century?". The merits and limitations of genesis, degree of distance from the psychic,
Maslow's theory have been widely debated, not and consistency of satisfaction. This theory was
________________________ among the first to direct the attention of
*Correspondence to: Tanya Taneva, Department psychologists to needs higher than the
of Social Sciences and Business Language physiological and basic psychological needs
Education, Faculty of Economics, Trakia studied until then.
University, Stara Zagora, Student town,
[email protected], +359889848844
222 Trakia Journal of Sciences, Vol. 21, Suppl. 1, 2023
 TANEVA T.
In Maslow's theory the need is not the hardship or trials, they can defy public opinion
deficiency itself but the perceived lack of and conjuncture and they can fight for ideas (1).
something - the lack identifies the need (7). In With exception of the needs for self-realization,
short, when a certain basic need is satisfied, understanding, aesthetics, and transcendence
another, higher in rank, becomes dominant for which cannot be satiated, the other groups of
the individual. Only an unsatisfied need can needs are activated on the principle of
motivate behavior, with the currently dominant deficiency and scarcity, which may explain
need being the primary motivator. Moreover, human aggression (1). Hostility, destructive
behavior at a given time is rarely related to only behavior are reactive, not instinctoid (as
one dominant need (11). The inability to satisfy Freudians claim) and are due to frustration or
a higher-level need often provokes the so-called dissatisfaction of deficit-aroused needs. They
compensatory mechanisms by which the may be physiological, need for protection,
individual comes to value more highly the safety, security, belonging to family,
lower-level need. According to Maslow, an community, clan, affection, love, respect, self-
individual's interaction with the environment, esteem, reverence, dignity, approval. Thus
his flexibility and adaptability to changes, are attitudes and interests are determined by the
closely related to whether he has had and has the satisfaction and frustration of needs. Maslow
opportunity in his life to satisfy the full range of makes an important clarification: it is wrong to
his needs - physiological, security and safety, see morals, values, and ethics only as social
love and belonging, status (respect and self- habits. They have a determinant that is beyond
esteem) and self-actualization (11) environmental forces and these are the effects of
satisfying basic needs (1:13). Naturally, there
LIMITATIONS OF THE HIERARCHY OF are also gender and age differences as Maslow
NEEDS THEORY - THESES AND (1) says, which alter the intensity of needs.
COUNTERTHESES
The most commonly discussed limitations of Second, to the validity of the hierarchy and the
the hierarchy of needs theory, some noted by the ordering of needs by importance (13, 14). The
author himself, are related to the following: continuous dynamics of needs in different
First, to the universality of needs. Despite the situations calls into question their ordering in
great popularity of this model, according to levels and there is no expansive notion of
some authors it is not flexible and adaptable hierarchy in the simultaneous operation of
enough, it is not universal for all people who several needs (13). There is a dependence of the
have different priorities, preferences and needs. order of satisfaction on the developmental level
This is also due to the difficulty of organizations of the individual, so there is no obligatory
with the same incentives to motivate employees ascent, especially in individuals who have
with large individual differences, towards a deployed the whole system of needs, including
common goal of companies (12). Maslow self-realization and transcendent needs and
himself does not claim universality in the awareness of meaning. His idea of hierarchy is
intensity of needs but in their existence insofar not indisputable but it is a powerful and much
as they are biologically predetermined. That is, debated one because it is based on several ideas
although they are generally biologically that build a clear explanatory model for the
grounded (with exception of self-actualization), content of human motivation: 1) Human
basic needs are psychologically reworked activity is directed toward the satisfaction of
through personal experience and socialization, basic needs that can be grouped in meaning, and
so that their salience and intensity varies the groups are hierarchically related to each
individually. Maslow also formulated another other; 2) The hierarchy of needs relates to the
underlying hypothesis: the satisfaction of basic ontogenetic order of emergence (evidence in
needs in early childhood forms increased age and developmental psychology) and
frustration tolerance. That is, people who have operates primarily under conditions of extreme
had their basic needs met for most of their lives, frustration of any of the groups of needs. Once
and especially in childhood, develop an needs emerge, they may not operate in the same
"immunity" to possible frustration of the same hierarchy. The actualization of any higher-level
needs, do not fear frustration, and form a strong need contains, to some degree, the subjective
character because of a built-up basic sense of satisfaction of lower-level needs.
satisfaction. They are not afraid of judgment,

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 TANEVA T.
Maslow (1) explains the hierarchical structuring satisfied. Therefore, it is a potential motivator if
and intensity of needs on the principle of it is not currently dominated by another, on the
prepotency, understood as biologically innate principle of biological prepotency (1). Only an
intensity, urgency, and priority. The order of unsatisfied need can motivate behaviour, with
their sequence is dictated by the fact that some the currently dominant need being the primary
motives are simply biologically more urgent, motivator. Moreover, behavior at a given time
that is, more intense than others, and the is rarely associated with only one dominant
intensity itself arises from the fact that they have need (11).
something like an innate priority. This is also
why there is no expansive idea of hierarchicality Fifth, a link to real human activity. There is no
in the simultaneous operation of several needs connection between Maslow's motivational
(15). Hierarchy refers to the fact that when two theory claiming universality and the real
or more needs are unsatisfied, a person would process of human activity in which the
initially prefer to satisfy the most basic and satisfaction of needs is influenced by the
'intrinsic' need (1:16). This does not mean that specific context of each particular activity, at
his behaviour would be determined by it alone, each stage of it. From this point of view,
because needs are determinants of behaviour, Maslow is concerned with the instigators of
but it is also dependent on the environment and people's initial, incipient motivation for activity
external influences. but not with the trends and dynamics in the
course of carrying out that activity.
Maslow (1:56) also discusses that the hierarchy
is not entirely stable and introduces the term A CRITICISM OF THE
'reversion' of needs. For example, the need for UNDERSTANDING OF STATUS AND
self-affirmation may be stronger than the need SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS
for love and this is the most common case of Maslow's understanding of the status and self-
reversion. It is based on the notion that respect actualization needs generate one of the strongest
and fear of strong and powerful people is resistances to his theory, according to the first
perceived as an argument for deserving or and second limitations discussed above.
receiving more love. Often the frustration of the
need for love and belonging is manifested A number of authors interpret these needs as
through assertive and aggressive behaviour. distinctly self-centered, encompassing only the
Thus, the demonstration of self-esteem is not needs of people in modern democratic societies,
the final goal but a means to satisfy the need for and primarily of men in these societies, without
love. Another case is the need for creativity, considering the influence of culture and
which artists satisfy without having their basic socioeconomic context, and therefore not
needs met, even in spite of them. Reversion of encompassing universal human needs (14, 15).
needs refers to conscious desires and drives, Some authors insistently consider self-
since behavior does not always reflect the actualization as a self-perpetuating
motives behind it-e.g., in instinctive or individualism, sometimes in an asocial
conditioned reflex responses. The most striking direction, by changing socio-political
cases of reversion are those that are related to orientation in a radical way, towards different
higher values, social norms and ideals for which groupings and radicalizing organizations (15).
the subject may experience deprivation,
There have also been claims that shifting the
suffering and even death.
gaze to contemporary women allows one to see
Third, to the number of levels of needs. In that they do not, for the most part, follow the
different content theories, the levels of needs direction of the pyramid but are entangled in the
range from 3 to 10. It can be said that some of conflicting needs of love and self-actualization,
the need theories after Maslow's are actually often operating in different directions (18).
revisions of his. In new theories, his hierarchy There are differing views on the level at which
is also continuously discussed from different the need for love manifests - first, the
perspectives (16, 17 etc.). physiological level (18), third level in Maslow,
to the highest level of self-actualisation in
Fourth, the claim that need satisfaction is not Kenrick et al. (2).
a motivator is questioned (13). In fact, the point
is that rarely any psychological need is fully Graham (10) concludes that expectations and

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past experiences in phylogeny matter for the ARCHITECTURAL MODIFICATIONS OF
experience of self-realization. Burger (19) also THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF
discusses results showing that personal BASIC NEEDS
experience is closely related to individual One solution to the resistances to Maslow's
attitudes and behaviors. Graham (10) refers to hierarchy of needs is attempted by Kenrick et al.
empirical research that shows that minorities in (2) in a very interesting publication, in which
American society (e.g., blacks and Latinos) they argue that more and more people, after
realize success, incremental and difficult but achieving their innate fundamental needs,
success in many domains such as education, invest their efforts in starting a family, having
occupation, and life expectancy. At the same children and parenting instead of striving for
time poor whites in an increasingly stratified self-actualization. That is, they argue that the
society are not only not experiencing success, basic fundamental structure of the pyramid is
they are experiencing a downward trend relative worth preserving but needs to be supported by
to their parents. Using indicators of well-being, several architectural extensions. In the
Graham (10) attempts to show that stress, paradigm of evolutionary psychology, Kenrick
insecurity and hopelessness are the high costs of et al. (2) argue that Maslow's hierarchy is
inequality for poor whites. From this entirely consistent with later evolutionary views
perspective she asks how the hierarchy of needs of human motivation. Their general idea is that
can explain hopelessness and rising rates of by updating the design of the pyramid, it can be
suicide mortality among poor whites who are made relevant to the relationships between basic
not deprived of security and material goods, but and higher needs, but also to the situational
rather lack hope, identity, and opportunity in threats and opportunities of modern times
affluent societies. How are the needs of these (author’s note: giving rise to extreme deficits).
groups to be interpreted relative to those of To assess the basic needs, Kenrick et al. (2)
minorities who are more materially deprived but adopt three different levels of analysis, which,
much more optimistic? Whippman (9) even according to the authors, are not clearly
warns that Maslow's pyramid may 'collapse' of distinguished in the works of Maslow (1): 1.
its own accord, as the emphasis on self- The ultimative evolutionary function of needs;
actualization increasingly neglects basic needs 2. The sequence in their development; 3. Their
at a time when the middle class is facing serious cognitive priority induced by immediate input
financial difficulties, with growing doubts signals/data from the organism and the
about its ability to meet its basic needs, environment.
undermining the very foundation of the pyramid
(15). In the research of Dupuis and Newby- At a functional level of analysis, Kenrick et al.
Clark (20), the experimental challenge of a (2) acknowledge the great psychological
future economic threat is sufficient to reduce the importance of self-actualization but challenge
significance of autonomy and competence its status as a functionally distinct human need.
needs, explaining a deterioration in the sense of Self-actualization is hypothesized to be largely
well-being (17). Similarly, the threat of contained in status (esteem), but in addition it
potential job loss comes at a serious cost (e.g., manifests in the conscious needs of parenting
greater burnout) as job insecurity disrupts the (2). Therefore, in their new hierarchy, self-
satisfaction of basic psychological needs (17, actualization has been removed from its
21). privileged place at the top of the pyramid. The
developmental sequence presented is based on
A better knowledge of Maslow's theory, the biological framework of life-history theory.
however, allows one to understand that he From this perspective, the top of the pyramid
himself developed his ideas further, almost to a includes three types of goals (author’s note: the
philosophical level, and provided an answer to authors label them as goals rather than needs)
the main criticisms. For example, Maslow that are related to reproduction (2): partner
includes the three additional levels of needs, acquisition, partner retention and parenting.
considered by some authors as levels above What has also changed is the way in which the
self-actualization, namely (22): level six - the needs are depicted in the pyramid: not one
need for understanding, level seven - aesthetic above the other but overlapping, contained
needs, and level eight - needs for self- within each other (Figure 1), a thesis that,
transcendence. notwithstanding (2), has much merit and has

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already been discussed above in the context of
the status level in Maslow's original hierarchy. This theory contains interesting hypotheses, can
Therefore, (2) add grounds to the assumption be supported by many real-life examples but
that early developmental needs (b.e., from low repeats two of the limitations of Maslow's
levels) cannot be completely replaced by later theory: 1. It draws information from life in
emergent ones but in fact continue to be relevant Western societies, where there is indeed a
throughout life, depending on individual tendency to experience parenthood as a form of
differences and environmental conditions. Once self-realization, and after other psychological
a needs-relevant target system is developed, needs have been met. This is categorically
they will be activated whenever relevant different in other societies, e.g. the Arab world;
environmental cues appear. 2. Concentrates self-realization at the status
level, which does not significantly change the
In summary, by integrating ideas from original idea of the successful, self-actualized
developmental life history with Maslow's person and does not take into account Maslow's
classical hierarchy, Kenrick et al. (2) update the own elaboration of the theory of self-
hierarchy of basic human needs, with added transcendence and self-actualization in love, for
reproductive goals presented in the order in example.
which they are likely to first appear in
personality development.

Figure 1. Hierarchy of fundamental human needs according to evolutionary psychology

Maslow's interpretation of self-actualization as roles that carry meaning, value, and creativity.
difficult for any person to achieve and as The economic world has long had such
inherent mostly in successful people, does need conjectures, e.g. projected in advertising
revision and expansion. The available ideas and messages. Persuasive phrases such as "for the
assumptions discussed so far provoke the best mother" carry much more meaning than
following hypothesis (Figure 2): the realization simply satisfying a need for love and affection
of potentials and abilities can occur in domains for a child. These messages focus on a certain
that have little to do with success in society as type of meaning, self-fulfilment, self-
Maslow originally presented it. Rather, self- actualisation of the woman as mother. Kenrick
realization can be achieved and experienced in et al. (2) seem to have a point.
intimate, personal spheres for the individual,
such as love, hobbies, domestic pursuits, and in
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In fact, self-actualization can be seen not as a Maslow concludes that there is a crucial
separate need but as the peak stage at which a difference in the motivational lives of self-
person is able to realize talents and feel meaning actualized people due to a kind of cognition he
in activities that satisfy his basic psychological calls knowledge of being (B-cognition). B-
needs for love, affection, and status. That is, if cognition is the cognitive state of complete
frustration of these needs can potentially trigger absorption, surrender, functioning and
activity for the realization of abilities and the integration, enjoyment, spontaneity and focused
discovery of meaning, for the maintenance and perception, i.e., of peak (24). It carries within it
peak satisfaction of these needs, self- its own reward. Perceptions transcend the ego,
actualization-sustaining activity is in fact are completely devoid of ego, impersonal,
triggered. In cases in which the individual finds selfless and unmotivated, focused on something
meaning in love and affection, he may realize in that has its own independent reality. Maslow
them his needs for respect and self-esteem, but can be said to be positing the protoview of
also for self-actualization and self- intrinsic motivation and the flow theory.
transcendence. Maslow himself (1, 23), also in
his other work “The farther reaches of human B-cognition is an identification of the perceiver
nature”, expound at length on his key term and the perceived, without relation to its value
"peak experience," during which the subject for the observer or its consequences for him.
connects with reality and with himself Maslow himself gives the example of the
unintentionally, not because of the benefits he mother's selfless perception of the child, with a
expects, but because of the connection itself, love that is whole, complete in its true nature,
unmotivated. The quest for self-actualization, free of utility and connection.
awareness, maturity and identity can be
Therefore, the pyramid can be modified as
satisfied at various levels of basic psychological
visualized in Figure 2.
needs, including love, dignity, self-esteem, etc.,
and is also a condition for health, happiness, and An important clarification is that, as previously
well-being. The path to self-actualization is discussed, in Maslow's hierarchy (1), each of
peak experiences, "...moments of highest the needs, when satisfied, contains satisfaction
happiness and satisfaction" (23:73). of the lower needs to a degree specifically
optimal for the individual.

Figure 2. Possible domain of self-actualization against the updated hierarchy of Kenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg,
Schaller

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Etzioni (24), on the other hand, comments that polar degrees of one continuum needs to be
Maslow (1), when going beyond the notion of corrected (1:199). Mentally healthy people have
homo economicus, attributes higher needs to the no need to have power over other people.
individual Self, ignoring that people
simultaneously make moral choices between Self-actualizing people may appear
good and evil, both on an individual and societal conventional and conformist and accept most
level. Maslow (1) assumes that people are not states of affairs that they consider unimportant,
simply economic creators seeking to maximize secondary to themselves, or unchangeable. In
their happiness. Misinterpreting morality as a fact, however, it is more a matter of casual and
need rather than a value, Etzioni (24) criticizes superficial conformity in order to conserve
the hierarchy because it cannot explain the energy from unimportant things (1).
influence of morality on human motivation, as Differences in preferred music, for example,
well as instances in which people are able to may be taken as something annoying but
distinguish moral from immoral, right from understandable and not worthy of attention or
wrong, but continue to maintain deviant effort to change. For many people, therefore, it
behavior (24). would also not elicit purposeful activity towards
change (1:172).
The confusion between concepts such as needs,
values and goals is evident. On this point, some Maslow finds confirmation of some of his
clarifications need to be taken into account. theses in the studies of Goldstein, Jung, Adler,
Morality, as regulating relations between Angyal, Homey, Fromm, May, Buhier, Rogers,
people, cannot itself be seen as a need, but etc., who discuss the existence of a growth
rather as a specific value or system of values, tendency in the individual, and this tendency
rather instrumental (according to Rokich's from within urges him toward fuller
understanding), and with different content and development. That is, if, according to the
meaning in different societies (ancient, paradigm, a healthy organism has its basic
medieval, modern) and communities (mafia, needs met, then it is "freed for self-
religious communities, etc.). So morality has a actualization," and develops from within
bearing on the choice of activities to satisfy through intrinsic growth tendencies, rather than
needs at all levels and is a predictor of the through forces from without, as in the
choice of means to achieve goals in activities behaviorist tradition (1:68). The environment is
related to satisfaction of needs. Indeed, moral primarily a means for the self-actualizing
choices relate to the objectifications of needs person to achieve true psychological freedom.
and the choice of means, ways and instruments Failure to meet basic needs can be a source of
to achieve goals, but morality alone has no pathology and of expecting basic needs to be
grounds to be seen as a basic need. met by others. Thus the person becomes more
dependent on others, less autonomous and self-
Abulof (15) has an interesting insight that the determining (1). A consequence of these
need for self-actualization is hindered by an assumptions in Maslow's theory are the
essentialist understanding of "be yourself" as contemporary theories developed in the basic
suggesting the restoration and maintenance of psychological needs theory (BPNT).
some innate, latent core, and thus robs people of
the freedom to develop, build, and (re)create the CONCLUSION
authentic essence of who they are. There is also The goal of critical analyses in contemporary
the doubt "how is it possible for a person not to readings of Maslow is not to deny his theory but
be themselves?" (15). to revise it so that it can be useful for the future
development and application of motivational
The later Maslow also answers these questions theories. The pyramid needs to be enriched by
with his idea of the relationship between knowledge of the mechanism of action of the
individualism and altruism. Studies of very hierarchy under different conFigureurations and
healthy people show that they are both strengths of needs. The ultimate negation is
extremely individualistic and healthily selfish most often due to the absolutization of hierarchy
and extremely compassionate and altruistic" in the satisfaction of needs or in the limited
(1:68). These qualities go together and the understanding of their content.
dichotomy is understood in self-actualizing
people. The apparent error of viewing them as
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