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UNIT – II

PART – A

1. Write the types of inversion (May / June 2016)

Inversion:

When the temperature of the environment increases with altitude, then the lapse state
becomes negative form its normal state which is known as inversion

Types of Inversion:

(I) Radiation inversion

(II) Subsidence inversion

Radiation inversion:

● When the earth cools rapidly and more quickly than the air above etc,.
● As may happen at nights, when the earth may lose heat by radiation, and thereby cooling
the surrounding air.

Subsidence inversion:

● It is associated with a high pressure system

● It is caused by the characteristic sinking of air in a high pressure area surrounded by low
pressure area.

2. Mention the purpose of wind rose diagram (May / June 2016, Nov/Dec 2015)

Purpose of wind rose diagram:

● Any one of a class of diagrams of designed to show the distribution of wind direction at a
given location, over a considerable period.

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● The wind close diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale to represent percentage
frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades, lines etc to represent
various wind speed.
● It is necessary to keep in mind the metrological convention that wind direction from
which the wind is blowing.
● A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind
speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location.

3. List out the metrological factors in the content of air pollutions (May / June 2012)

Metrological factors influencing air pollution:

● The degree to which air pollutants discharged from various sources concentration in a
particular area depends largely on metrological conditions.
● The important metrological parameters that influence air pollution can be classified into
primary parameters and secondary parameters.

Primary Parameter Secondary Parameters

● Wind direction & Speed ● Precipitation

● Temperature ● Humidity

● Atmospheric stability ● Solar radiation

● Mixing Height ● Visibility

4. What is the prime mechanism to disperse air pollution (May / June 2012)

Dispersion of Air pollutants into the atmosphere:

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● When once a pocket of some, containing air pollutants, is released into the atmosphere
from a source like an automobile or a factory chimney.
● It gets dispersed into the atmosphere into various directions.
● The dispersion depends upon the prevailing winds, temperature and pressure conditions
in the environment.
● When a pocket of artificially cheated air (i.e automobile exhaust (or) stack gas is emitted
into the environment, it rises up, expands becomes lighter and gets cooled.
● A process occurring without the addition of outside heat or loss of its own internal heat.

5. Define atmospheric stability (Nov / Dec 2012, May / june 2012)

Atmospheric stability:

● When the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a dense cold stratum of air at ground level
gets covered by lighter warmer air at higher level.
● During inversion the denser air at ground level.
● As a result during temperature inversion, atmosphere is stable and very little turbulence
or mixing takes place.
● Under such condition, pollutants in the air do not disperse

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6. What are dispersion model? (Nov / Dec 2012, May/ june 2012)

Dispersion Models:

● Mathematical approaches have been made to the dispersion of pollutants in the

atmosphere.
● Atmospheric dispersion models have been developed based on picks molecular diffusion
equation and an statistical theory.
● The dispersion models are based on plume behaviors, eddy diffusion, wind speed and
amount of dilution etc.,
● Based on stability classification in the field of atmospheric diffusion the dispersion
models are (IS : 8829)
Pasquill model
ASME model (American societyof mechanical Engineers model)
McElroy model

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7. What is mixing height? (Nov / Dec 2011, May / June 2014)

Mixing Height:

● The fourth primary meterological mixing parameter is the mixing height.

● Height above the earths surface to which related pollutants will extend, primarily through
the action of atmospheric turbulence.
● It is related on or more following three factors
Wind direction
Wind speed
Wind turbulence

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8. Define Plume rise. (Nov / Dec 2011)

Plume rise:

● It is defined as the rising of the emissions to a certain distance into the atmosphere due to
velocity and temperature
● The plume rise depends on many factors like exit velocity, wind speed, diameter of the
stack, temperature of the plume, lapse rate etc.

t 1 = h + Ah
h = actual height of stack (m)
Ah = Plume height on plume rise (m)
Ah = k (Qα / uβ)

α, β, k = Constants
Q = Heat emission rate from stack
u = Horizontal velocity (m/s)

9. What is planetary boundary layer? (May /June 2013)

Planetary boundary layers:

● The planetary boundary layer (PBL) also called atmospheric boundary layer (ABL),
lowest part of atmosphere (troposphere)
● Its behaviour is directly influenced by its contact with a planetary surface.
● In these layer physical quantities such as flow velocity, temperature, moisture etc, display
rapid fluctuations and vertical mixing is strong.

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● In this layer extending from the ground to the bottom of where cumulus clouds form.

10. What is turbulence and how it is formed? (May / june 2013)

Turbulance:

● A state or condition of confusion, movement in a liquid or gas

● Irregular motion of the atmosphere, as that indicated by gusts and lulls in the wind.
● Turbulence is formed due to the rapid variation of pressure, velocity etc.

11. Express Gaussian dispersion model (May / June 2013)

Guassian dispersion model:

● On the basis of ticks law, Gaussian developed a statical equation called guassian
dispersion equation.

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C = (Q / u) . (f/ (σy 2π )) . ((g1+g2+g3) / (σ2 2π ))

Where,
f = crosswind dispersion parameter,
g = vertical dispersion parameter = g1 + g2 + g3
c = concentration of emission in g/m3
Q = Source pollutant emission rate g/s
u = horizontal wind velocity m/s

σz & σy = vertical & horizontal standard deviation of emission distribution (m)

● This equation include the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and cross
wind dispersion of the plume and also included the effect of ground reflection of the
plume.

12. State the types of Dispersion model (May / June 2013)

There are five types of air pollution dispersion models:

1. Box model – It assumes the air shed (volume of atmospheric air in a geographical region)
2. Gaussian model – The pollutant distribution has a normal probability distributor.
3. Lagrangran model – Uses a fixed three dimensional cargesion grid frame of reference.
4. Dense gas model – Pollution plumes that are heavier than air.

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13. What are the types of plume? (May / June 2016)

The localized air stability is a main factor of plume behaviour:

Types of plume:

1. Looping plume
2. Coning plume
3. Farming plume
4. Lofting plume
5. Fumigation plume
6. Trapping plume

Various types of plumes and their characteristics, occurrence and related weather condition.

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14. Define lapse rate

The rate at which the temperature decreases with the increase in height is called lapse Rate, and
which is about 5° C/Km

A lapse rate is the negative of the rate of temperature change with altitude change.
Lapse rate, rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the
Earth’s atmosphere.
The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero when
the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature increases with
elevation (temperature inversion)

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15.What is ozonosphere?

Ozone layer is the layer in the stratosphere which exists between 20km 40km above the earth’s
surface. Hence stratosphere is sometimes referred as ozonosphere. Ozone layer protects all
ultra-violet radiation from the sun.

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16. Define radiation inversions.

Inversions occurring at night, when the earth loses heat by radiation and cools the air, in contact
with it, is called radiation inversions.

17.Define ambient lapse Rate.

The lapse rate changes with respect to time and place. Even at the same place, the rate changes
with time. However the lapse rate cane be determined by raising a balloon (attached with a
thermometer), by the digital self-recoding mechanism and it is called prevailing or ambient or
environmental lapse rate.

18. Define wind rose.

Wind rose at a location is defined as the pictorial representation of distribution of wind direction
at the given location over the observation period. Wind rose is used to show the prevailing wind

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direction.

19. Define Pollution Rose.

Pollution Rose are defined as the wind rose diagram and in which, various parameters of
precipitation, smoke, sulphur-di-oxide, hydro carbons etc. are attached with the wind direction,
instead of wind speed.

20.What is middle atmosphere.

The stratosphere, mesosphere and the lowest part of the atmosphere is collectively referred as
middle atmosphere, which has the altitudes approximately from 10km to 100km above the11
earth’s surface.
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21.Define sub-adiabatic lapse rate.

When the adiabatic lapse rate (ALR) is greater than the environmental lapse Rae (ELR) the
environment is said to be stable, and this is called sub-adiabatic lapse rate.

22. Differentiate dry and wet adiabatic lapse rates.

Dry air, expanding and cooling adiabatically cools at the rate of 9.8°C per kilometer, is called dry
adiabatic lapse rate.

In wet air, the expanding and cooling is calculated to be 6°C per kilometer and, is called
wet-adiabatic lapse rate.

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23.What are the factors influencing the plume behaviour?

The factors influencing the plume behaviour are as follows.

● Stack height
● Diurnal Variation (in the atmosphere stability)
● Seasonal variation (long – term vatiation)

24.Name the layers of the atmosphere from the lowest to highest.

The layers of atmosphere are,

● Troposphere (0 to 12 km)
● Stratosphere (12 to 50 km)
● Mesosphere (50 to 80 km)
● Thermosphere (80 to 500 km)
● Exosphere (above 500 km)

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25. Define Negative lapse rate.

When the temperature of the environment increases with altitude, then the lapse rate becomes
inverted and this is called negative lapse rate.

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PART-B

1.How does wind play its role in air pollution?

● The speed and direction of wind changes the concentration of pollutants, especially near
the ground levels. The high speed of wind carries away the pollutants at or near the point
of emission.
● The emitted air pollutants easily get diluted with high volume of atmospheric air. The
speed of dilution process highly depends on the speed and direction of the wind.
Alternatively, when the wind speed is low, pollutants concentrate the area at or near the
point of discharge.
● Gustiness is and important characteristic of surfaces winds that determines the extent to
which the pollutants are diluted and mixed with surrounding air. It is directly proportional
to the wind speed.
● The Concentration of pollutants is inversely proportional to the wind speed.
● In plain terrain, the wind speed and direction near the source decide the subsequent
movement of the pollutants.
● In hilly terrain, hills may deflect the air flow either horizontally, vertically or both and the
quantity of deflection depends on the vertical stability of the atmosphere.
● Wind speed can be measured by using an anemometer and let the height of anemometer
is z0.
● By measuring the wind speed, (u0) at anemometer height z0 the wind speed (u) can be
calculated at any other height (z) by using the following formula.

u = u0 (z / z0)k

Where,

Z0 - Anemometer height

Z - Height, where the wind speed is to be measured

u0 - wind speed at z0

K - Wind speed constant

= 1/9 for larger lapse rates

= 1/3 for marked inversions

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= Normally taken as (1/7).

2.What are dispersion models? State the types and explain them.

Dispersion models are mathematical simulation or approaches made to the dispersion of

pollutants to study how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The dispersion models
vary depending on the mathematical calculations used to develop the model.

The dispersion models vary depending on the mathematics used to develop the dispersion model.

The dispersion models require the following details.

Meteorological Factors:

● Wind speed and direction,

● The amount of atmospheric turbulence,
● Ambient air temperature,
● The height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present,

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● Cloud cover
● Solar radiation.

Sources of Emission:

● The concentration of quantity of toxins in emissions (or accidental release)

● Temperature of the material

Emissions parameters:

● Source location and height

● Type of source (i.e., fire, pool or vent stack)
● Exit velocity,
● Exit temperature and
● Mass flow rate or release rate.

Terrain eleveations at the source location:

● The receptor location (nearby homes, schools, businesses and hospitals)

● The location, height and width of any obstructions (such as buildings or other structures)
in the path of the emitted gaseous plume, surface roughness.

Types of Air pollution dispersion Models:

There are five types of air pollution dispersion models.

a) Box Model

The box model is the simplest of the model types. It assumes the air shed (i.e, a given volume
of atmospheric air in a geographical region)is in the shape of a box. It also assumes that the
air pollutants inside the box are homogeneously distributed and uses that assumption to
estimate the average pollutant concentrations anywhere within the air shed.

This model is very limited in its ability to accurately predict dispersion of air pollutants over
an air pollutions over air shed because the assumption of homogeneous pollutant distribution
is much too simple.

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b) Gaussian Model:

The Gaussian model is the oldest and most commonly used model type. It assumes that the
air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution, (meaning that the pollutant distribution
has a normal probability distribution). Gaussian models are generally used for predicting the
dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating ground-level or elevated
sources. Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the dispersion of non continuous
air pollution plumes (called puff models). The primary algorithm used in gaussian modeling
is the generalized dispersion equation for a continuous point source plume.

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c) Lagrangian Model:

Lagrangian dispersion model mathematically follows pollution plume parcels (also called
particles) as the parcels move in the atmosphere and they model the motion of the parcels as
a random walk process. The lagrangian model then calculates the air pollution dispersion by
computing the statistics of the trajectories of the large number of the pollution plume parcels.
A lagrangian model uses a moving frame of reference as the parcels move from their initial
location. It is said that an observer of a lagrangian model follows along with the plume

d) Eulerian Model:

Eulerian dispersions model is similar to a lagrangian model in that it also tracks the
movement of a large number of pollution plume parcels as they move from their initial
location. The most important difference between the two models is that the eulerian model
uses a fixed three dimensional Cartesian grid as a frame of reference rather than a moving
frame of reference. It is said that an observer of an eulerian model watches the plume go by.

e) Dense gas model:

Dense gas models are models that simulate the dispersion of dense gas pollution plumes (i.e.,
pollution plumes that are heavier than air).

Based on the stability classification in the field of atmospheric diffusion, the three following
well known models are used.

1. Pasquill Model
2. ASME (American society of mechanical Engineers) model.
3. McElroy model.

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3.Explain the influence of meteorological factors on air pollutants dispersion.

The concentration of air pollutants in a particular area from various sources depends highly on
the local weather conditions. The factors which change the concentration of air pollutants in a
particular area are called mateorological factors of air pollution.

● The degree of air pollution may vary, even though the total emissions in to the
atmosphere in a given area remain same from day-to-day, due to changes in
meteorological conditions.
● Meteorological data is very essential for air pollution studies and the objectives of
studying the meteorological factors are as follows.
1. To identify the source of pollutants.
2. To predict pollution events such as high concentration days.
3. To simulate and to predict the air quality (using computer models)
4. To determine the stack height
5. To evaluate the intensity of air pollution etc.

Mateorological factors:

The important meteorological parameters that influence air pollution can be classified as,

(a) Primary parameters

1. Wind speed and direction
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric stability

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4. Mixing height
(b) Secondary parameters
1. Rainfall and preceipitation
2. Humidity
3. Solar radiation
4. Visibility

The meteorological factors highly depend on the latitude, season and the topography of the area.

Wind speed and direction:

● The speed and direction of wind changes the concentration of pollutants, especially near
the ground levels. The high speed of wind carries away the pollutants at or near the point
of emission.
● The emitted air pollutants easily get diluted with high volume of atmospheric air. The
speed of dilution process highly depends on the speed and direction of the wind.
Alternatively, when the wind speed is low, pollutants concentrate the area at or near the
point of discharge.
● Gustiness is and important characteristic of surfaces winds that determines the extent to
which the pollutants are diluted and mixed with surrounding air. It is directly proportional
to the wind speed.
● The Concentration of pollutants is inversely proportional to the wind speed.
● In plain terrain, the wind speed and direction near the source decide the subsequent
movement of the pollutants.

In hilly terrain, hills may deflect the air flow either horizontally, vertically or both and the
quantity of deflection depends on the vertical stability of the atmosphere.

Wind speed can be measured by using an anemometer and let the height of anemometer is z0.

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4.Explain the Gaussian dispersion model and discuss the factors involved in the prediction of
ground level concentration of pollutants.

Dispersion Equations:

The dispersion of pollutants is due to turbulent flow of the wind. It is depending on the
atmospheric stability, gustiness etc. Generally dispersion is a three dimensional approach, and
the solution for that approach is difficult by mathematically. Hence three dimensional equations
are required to get the solution. These equations estimate the concentration of pollutants in the
plume at any distance x, y and z in the horizontal down – wind direction, cross-wind direction
and vertical wind direction respectively.

The turbulent diffusion models for atmospheric pollutants are based on fick’s law of molecular
diffusion Assuming Kx, Ky and Kz are eddy-diffusivity co-efficients in three directions and
applying the continuity in the atmosphere. We get,

Where,

Qx,y,z - Source or sink expressed in appropriate terms

In the above equation, the value Kx, Ky, Kz will vary with respect to location and time and
hence, the equation will be comprehensive.

On the basis of the fick’s law, Gaussian developed a statistical equation called Gaussian
distribution equation, and is given as

Where,

C - Concentration of pollutant in gm/m3

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Q - Emission rate of the pollutant gm/sec

U - Mean wind velocity in m /sec

x and y – down wind and crosswind horizontal distances in m

σy - Plume’s standard deviation in cross wind direction in m

σz - Plume’s standard deviation in vertical direction in m

H - Effective stack height

In the downwind horizontal direction along the centerline on the plume, when concentration is
required only along x – direction, then y = 0.

When the smokes are emitted at ground level the effective stack height H is zero.

The maximum ground level concentration occurs, where σz = 0.707 H, provided (σz / σy) is
constant with downwind distance x.

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Values of σx and σy are the function of downward distances (x) and atmospheric stability. Values
of σy and σz for various values of x and different types of atmospheric stabilities are given in
figure.

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5.What is plume rise? Make a note on facts influencing and its estimation. (May / June 2013)

Plume is defined as the path and its extension in the atmosphere of the emitted gas from a source.
The source is generally referred as stack. In general, plume is an air column, in which one air is
moving through another.

● In air pollution the diffusion of air pollutants into the environment is depending of the
environmental lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate.
● The factors influencing the plume behaviour are as follows.
1. Stack height
2. Diurnal variation (In the atmosphere stability)
3. Seasonal variation (long term variation)

Stack Height:

● Emission from the tall stacks, are generally allowed to ix with the atmosphere air (at
higher levels) in order to increase the rate of dilution.
● Ground level concentration of the emission highly depends on the,
1. Height of the stack
2. Height of the plume rise above stack.
● The actual stack height (H) is easy to determine while effective stack height (He) is quite
difficult to estimate with high degree of accuracy. The increased stack height is
considered to diffuse the pollutants better.
● Immediately above the stack, the rise of pollutant is proportional to the emission velocity
of gases and to the temperature differences between the gases and the surrounding
atmosphere.
● For a given stack height, the concentration at ground level decreases with increase in
wind velocity. However, there is a critical velocity, when the ground concentration attains
its maximum value,
● Maximum concentration (Cm)of pollutants on ground level is given as

Where,

H - Height of the stack

K - Constant

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M - Mass of the pollutant gases discharged per unit time

V - Volume of the pollutant gases discharged per unit time

AT - Difference in temperature of stack gases and surrounding air

The constant value K depends on the following:

(a) Horizontal and vertical mixing of pollutants in the air

(b) Settling velocity of polluting substances
(c) Discharge characteristics of the gases from stack.

It has been reported that in the direction of wind, the maximum concentration is attained at a
distance Xm, ranging from 10 to 40 times the stack height.

● The empirical formula for the stack height emitting maximum concentration of
pollutants emission, developed by USSR, is given as

Cmax =

Where,

A - Coefficient

- Depends upon atmospheric condition

- 200 for Indian conditions

F - Co efficient

- Depends upon dust precipitation efficiency

- Varies from 0.8 to 0.95

M - Co efficient

- Depends upon velocity of flue gases

H - Height of stack or chimney in m

N - Number of emitting sources

V - Volume of gases leaving the chimney in m3/s

t - Temperature difference between gases and temperature at the top of the stack

M - Quantity of flue gases in g/s

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The value ‘H’, used in the above equation is the effective height of the stack (or chimney) and
the actual height of the stack is not to be used. This effective height consists of actual height (h)
with the height to which the plume rises above the stack before leveling out.

H = h + Δh

Holland’s equation is also used to calculate the plume height (Δh)

Δh = (Vs. D / u) [ 1.5 + 2.68 x 10-3 PD ((Ts-Ta)/Ts)]

Where,

Δh - Rise of the plume above the stack in m

Vs - Stack gas velocity m/sec

D - Inside exit dia of the stack in m

u - wind speed in m / sec

P - Atmospheric pressure in millibars

Ts - Stack gas temperature, (in °K)

Tα - Air temperature, (in °K)

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6.Discuss the various plume patterns for the different prevailing lapse rates.

Plume behaviour observations are used,

1. To determine the locations of air sampling

2. To identify the invisible pollutants
3. To change the plume pattern according with the seasonal variations

Types of plume

Various types of plume behaviour are described below.

1. Looping plume
2. Neutral plume
3. Coning plume
4. Fanning plume
5. Lofting plume
6. Fumigating plume
7. Trapping plume

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1.Looping Plume

Looping plume is defined as, the behaviour of plume which has wavy character and it occurs at a
highly unstable atmosphere, due to the rapid mixing.

2.Neutral plume

Neutral plume is the upward vertical rise of the plume from the stack, which occurs, when the
environmental lapse rate is approximately equal to the adiabatic lapse rate. The upward
movement of plume will continue, till the plume density equals the air density.

3.Coning plume

Coning plume is the plume behaviour in the shape of the cone above the plume line, which
occurs at a slight stable environment. When the wind velocity is more than 32 km/h coning
plume occurs in a near neutral atmospheric (adiabatic condition). In this the plume reaches the
ground at great distances than the looping plume.

4.Fanning plume

Fanning plume is the horizontal plume pattern for a long distance, occurs when there will not be
a vertical mixing, Fanning plum occurs, under extreme inversion conditions due to the negative
environmental lapse rate from the ground to certain heights. It may extend even above the top of

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the stack, the emission will spread only in the horizontal direction, due to the high atmospheric
stability.

5.Lofting Plume

Lofting plume is the plume pattern, occurs when there is a strong super adiabatic lapse rate
above the surface inversion. In this pattern, diffusion is rapid in the upward direction and the
diffusion does not penetrate the inversion layer in the downward. In this case, emission will not
reach surface.

6.Fumigating plume

Fumigating plume patterns occurs, at a short distance above the stack height and a strong lapse
rate prevails below the stack. Because of the inversion layer, the emissions cannot move above
the top of the stack.

Fumigating is the worst case of plume pattern because they are brought down near the ground,
due to the turbulence in that region.

7.Trapping plume

When the inversion layer exists above the emission source and below the source, the plume lies
between the two inversions. In this case, the dispersion cannot go above a certain height.

From the above, it is clear that the lofting plume is the best plume pattern due to the minimized
air pollution. The trapping and fumigating plumes are the critical plumes from the point of
ground level pollutant concentrations.

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