Calculus 1 (Math 105)

1.1. Functions

Page 1 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Chapter 1: Graphs and Functions
1.1 Functions

1.1.1 Relations
1.1.1.1 Representation of Relations
1.1.1.2 Domain and Range

1.1.2 Functions
1.1.2.1 Determining Whether Relations Are Functions
1.1.2.2 Function Notation
1.1.2.3 Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions

Appendix

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1.1 Functions
Cartesian coordinate systems.

 Each point on a coordinate axis is associated with a number called its

coordinate.
 Each point on a flat, two-dimensional surface, called a coordinate plane or 𝑥𝑦-
plane, is associated with an ordered pair of numbers called coordinates of
the point.

Definition 1: Ordered Pairs

An ordered pair consists of two components, written inside parentheses

(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑥 is the first component (or coordinate) and 𝑦 is the second
component (or coordinate), where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers.

Definition 2: Equality of Ordered Pairs

The ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) and (𝑐, 𝑑) are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and
𝑏 = 𝑑.

1.1.1 Relation

Definition 3: Relation

A relation is any set of ordered pairs.

Definition 4: Domain and Range of a Relation

 The set of all first components of the ordered pairs is called the
domain of the relation.
 The set of all second components is called the range of the relation.

Example 1

Find the domain and range of the relation:

{(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐), (4, 𝑑)}.

Solution

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The domain of the relation is the set {1,2,3,4}.

The range of the relation is the set {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}.

1.1.1.1 Representation of Relations

As long as the numbers come in pairs, then that becomes a relation.

We can represent Relations (or functions) in many ways.

 Relation in set notation:

{(−2,1), (−2,3), (0, −3), (1,4), (3,1)}

 Relation in table

𝒙 𝒚
−2 1
−2 3
0 −3
1 4
3 1
 Relation in graph

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  Relation in mapping diagram (Venn’s Diagram)

Note that in each relation above,

 The domain is {−2,0,1,3}.

 and the range is {−3,1,3,4}.

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 1.1.2 Introduction to Functions and Function Notation

Definition 5: Definition of a Function

A function is a relation in which each member of the domain (input values

𝑥) corresponds to exactly one member of the range (output values 𝑦).

To get a better idea of this definition, look at the function that relates the
time of day to the temperature in Figure below.

This function can be represented by the following set of ordered pairs.

{(1, 9∘ ), (2, 13∘ ), (3, 15∘ ), (4, 15∘ ), (5, 12∘ ), (6, 4∘ )}

In each ordered pair, the first coordinate ( 𝑥-value) is the input and the
second coordinate ( 𝑦-value) is the output.

In this example, note the following characteristics of a function.

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  Each element of 𝐴 (the domain) must be matched with an element
of 𝐵 (the range).

 Some elements of 𝐵 may not be matched with any element of 𝐴.

 Two or more elements of 𝐴 may be matched with the same

element of 𝐵.

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  An element of 𝐴 cannot be matched with two different elements of
𝐵. The following diagram does not represent a function.

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1.1.2.1 Testing for Functions

Example 2

Determine whether each relation is a function:

(a) 𝐹 = {(1,6), (2,6), (3,8), (4,9)}

(b) 𝐺 = {(6,1), (6,2), (8,3), (9,4)}.

(c)

(d)

(e)

Solution
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(a) Relation 𝐹 = {(1,6), (2,6), (3,8), (4,9)} is a function, because for each

different 𝑥-value there is exactly one 𝑦-value.

We can show this correspondence using a mapping diagram.

(b)

Relation 𝐺 = {(6,1), (6,2), (8,3), (9,4)} is not a function, because that one

first component (the element 6) corresponds to more than one second

component (the elements 1 and 2).

(c )

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Since we have same value of 𝑥, 5 in the domain with different 𝑦-values (9

and 3) in the range, then this relation is not a function.

(d)

This figure represents a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵. It does not matter that each

element of 𝐴 is matched with the same element of 𝐵.

(e)

This figure does not represent a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵. The element 𝑎 of 𝐴

is matched with two elements of 𝐵. This is also true of the element 𝑏.

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Checkpoint 1

Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {1,3,5,7}. Decide whether each set of ordered pairs
represents a function from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵.

(a) {(𝑎, 1), (𝑐, 5), (𝑑, 7)} (b) {(𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 7), (𝑐, 1), (𝑑, 3)} (c){(𝑏, 3), (𝑏, 5)}

Solution

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1.1.2.2 Representing Functions by Equations

Definition 6: Representing Functions by Equations

 Representing functions by sets of ordered pairs is a common

practice in discrete mathematics.
 In algebra, however, it is more common to represent functions by
equations or formulas involving two variables.

 For instance, the equation

𝑦=𝑥 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥.

represents the variable 𝑦 as a function of the variable 𝑥.

 In this equation, 𝑥 is the independent variable and 𝑦 is the

dependent variable.

 The domain of the function is the set of all values taken on by

the independent variable 𝑥,

 and the range of the function is the set of all values taken on by
the dependent variable 𝑦.

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Example 3

Which of the equations represent(s) 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥 ?

(a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 (b) −𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1

Solution

To determine whether 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥, try to solve for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.

(a) Solving for 𝑦 yields

𝑥 +𝑦 =1 Write original equation.

𝑦 =1−𝑥 Solve for 𝑦.

.

To each value of 𝑥 there corresponds exactly one value of 𝑦.

So, 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥.

(b) Solving for 𝑦 yields

−𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 Write original equation.

𝑦 =1+𝑥 Add 𝑥 to each side.

𝑦 = ±√1 + 𝑥 Solve for 𝑦.

The ± indicates that to a given value of 𝑥 there correspond two values of

𝑦. So, 𝑦 is not a function of 𝑥.

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Checkpoint 2

Determine whether each equation represents 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥.

(a) 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑥 (b) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 25 (c) 𝑦 = 𝑥

Solution

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 1.1.3 Function Notation.

Definition 7: Function Notation.

When an equation is used to represent a function, it is convenient to

name the function so that it can be referenced easily.

 For example, you know that the equation 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 describes 𝑦 as

a function of 𝑥.
 Suppose you give this function the name " 𝑓".
 Then you can use the function notation shown below

 The symbol 𝑓(𝑥) is read as the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥 or simply 𝑓 of 𝑥.

 The symbol 𝑓(𝑥) corresponds to the 𝑦-value for a given 𝑥.
 So, you can write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
 Keep in mind that 𝑓 is the name of the function, whereas 𝑓(𝑥) is the
value of the function at 𝑥.
 For instance, the function given by

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 2𝑥

has function values denoted by 𝑓(−1), 𝑓(0), 𝑓(2), and so on.

 To find these values, substitute the specified input values into the
given equation.

For 𝑥 = −1,

𝑓 (−1) = 3 − 2(−1)
= 3 + 2 = 5.
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For 𝑥 = 0,

𝑓(0) = 3 − 2(0)

=3−0=3
For 𝑥 = 2,

𝑓(2) = 3 − 2(2)
= 3 − 4 = −1

Note That

 Although 𝑓 is often used as a convenient function name and 𝑥 is

often used as the independent variable, you can use other
letters.

 For instance,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 7, 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 − 4𝑡 + 7, and 𝑔(𝑠) = 𝑠 − 4𝑠 + 7

all define the same function.

In fact, the role of the independent variable in a function is simply

that of a “placeholder.”

Consequently, the function above could be described

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Page 18 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
1.1.3.1 Evaluating a Function

Example 4

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 1. Evaluate 𝑔(𝑥) at each specified value and simplify.

(a) 𝑔(2) (b) 𝑔(𝑡) (c) 𝑔(𝑥 + 2)

Solution

(a) Replace 𝑥 with 2 in 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 1.

𝑔(2) = −(2) + 4(2) + 1 = −4 + 8 + 1 = 5

(b) Replace 𝑥 with 𝑡.

𝑔(𝑡) = −(𝑡) + 4(𝑡) + 1 = −𝑡 + 4𝑡 + 1

(c) Replace 𝑥 with 𝑥 + 2.

𝑔(𝑥 + 2) = −(𝑥 + 2) + 4(𝑥 + 2) + 1

= −(𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4) + 4𝑥 + 8 + 1
= −𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 4 + 4𝑥 + 8 + 1
= −𝑥 + 5

Checkpoint 3

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1, and evaluate.

(a) 𝑓(−5) (b) 𝑓(3𝑏) (c) 3𝑓(𝑏) (d) 𝑓(𝑎 +

3) (e) 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(3)

Solution

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Example 5

For each function, find

(a) 𝑓(1) =

(b) 𝑔(2) =
𝑔 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑘), (3, 𝑚), (4, 𝑛)}

(c) ℎ(3) =

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 1.1.4 Graph of an equation
The equations below are equations in two variables.

(1) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 2 ,
(2) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 25 ,
(3) 𝑦= .

 The solution of an equation in two variables is an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦)

whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
 For instance, the ordered pairs (3,4), (4, −3), and (0,5) are some of
the solutions of 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 25.
 Generally, there are an infinite number of solutions of an equation in
two variables.
 These solutions can be displayed in a graph.

Definition 8: Graph of an Equation

The graph of an equation in the two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 is the set of all
points whose coordinates satisfy the equation.

Example 6

Draw a Graph by Plotting Points:

Graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1.

Solution

Substituting various values of 𝑥 into the equation and solving for 𝑦

produces some of the ordered pairs of the equation.

It is convenient to record the results in a table similar to the one shown

below.

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The graph of the ordered pairs is shown in the Figure below.

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Example 7

Graph: −𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.

Solution

Solve the equation for 𝑦

⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1.

Select values of 𝑥 and use the equation to calculate 𝑦. Choose enough

values of 𝑥 so that an accurate graph can be drawn.

Plot the points and draw a curve through them. See the Figure below.

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1.1.4.1 Domain and Rage of a Function

The graph of a function helps us to picture the domain and range of the
function on the 𝑥-axis and 𝑦-axis, as shown in the box below.

The domain and range of a function

The domain and range of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be obtained from a graph
of 𝑓 as shown in the figure. The domain is the set of all 𝑥-values for which
𝑓 is defined, and the range is all the corresponding 𝑦-values.

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Example 8

(a) Use a graphing calculator to draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 .

(b) Find the domain and range of 𝑓.

Solution

(a) The graph is shown in the Figure below.

(b) From the graph in the Figure above we see that the domain is [−2,2]

and the range is [0,2].

Definition 9: Domain of a Function

The domain of a function is the set of all input values (all real numbers)
for which the function will produce a real number.

Definition 10: Finding the Domain of a Function Defined by an Equation

1. Start with the domain as the set of real numbers.

2. If the equation has a denominator, exclude any numbers that give a
zero denominator.
3. If the equation has a radical of even index, exclude any numbers that
cause the expression inside the radical (the radicand) to be negative.

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Example 9

Determine the domain of each function.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 (b) 𝑔(𝑠) = √2𝑠 − 1

(c) ℎ(𝑡) = (d) 𝑚(𝑟) =

Solution

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.

∵ 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial, therefore, the domain is all real numbers (ℝ).

(b) 𝑔(𝑠) = √2𝑠 − 1.

𝑔(𝑠) is defined if

2𝑠 − 1 ≥ 0
1
⇒𝑠≥
2
1
⇒ 𝐷 = ,∞ .
2

(c) ℎ(𝑡) = .

ℎ(𝑡) is defined for all real number except the zeros of the denominator.

𝑡 − 3𝑡 − 10 = 0
⇒ (𝑡 − 5)(𝑡 + 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑡 = 5 or 𝑡 = −2
∴ 𝐷 = ℝ ∖ {−2,5} = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2,5) ∪ (5, ∞).

(d) 𝑚(𝑟) =

𝑚(𝑟) is defined for all real number except the zeros of the denominator.

𝑟−2=0⇒𝑟 =2

∴ 𝐷 = ℝ ∖ {2} = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).

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Checkpoint 4

Find the domain of each of the following functions.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5𝑥 (b) 𝑔(𝑥) =

√
(c) ℎ(𝑡) = √4 − 𝑡 (d) 𝐹(𝑥) =

Solution

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1.1.4.2 Range of a Function from a graph

Definition 11: Definition of Range

The range of a function is the set of all output values that are possible
for the given domain of the function.

Example 10

Find the range of each function shown the following graphs.

Solution

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1

It is clear that

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Thus the range of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 1 is [1, ∞).

(b) 𝑦 =

We can see from the graph above that the range of 𝑦 = is ℝ\{0} =

(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

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(c) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 1.

It is clear that √𝑥 − 1 ≥ 0 for all 𝑥.

Thus, the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 1 is [0, ∞).

1.1.4.3 Obtaining a function from an equation

Definition 12: Obtaining a function from an equation

To obtain a function 𝑓 of 𝑥 from an equation that involve 𝑥 and 𝑦, follow

the next steps:

Step 1: Solve the equation for 𝑦.

Step 2: Replace 𝑦 with 𝑓(𝑥).

Example 11

Use the notation 𝑓(𝑥) to express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥.

(a) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 (b) =1

Solution

(a) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2

⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 2

(b) =1 (Note that 𝑥 ≠ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 1.)

⇒𝑦−1=𝑥 ⇒𝑦 =𝑥+1

⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ 0

Note that 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 1, ∀𝑥 ≠ 0.

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Checkpoint 5

Use the notation 𝑓(𝑥) to express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥.

(a) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 2 (b) =𝑥

Solution

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 1.1.5 Determining Whether Relations Are Functions.
1.1.5.1 Vertical Line Test

The definition of a function as a set of ordered pairs in which no two

ordered pairs that have the same first coordinate have different second
coordinates implies that any vertical line intersects the graph of a
function at no more than one point.

This is known as the vertical line test.

Definition 13: The Vertical Line Test for Functions

A graph is the graph of a function if and only if no vertical line intersects

the graph at more than one point.

Example 12

Using the Vertical Line Test, state whether the graph is the graph of a function.
(a) (b)

Solution

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(a)

This graph (Black) is not the graph of a function because some vertical

lines (Red) intersect the graph in more than one point (A, B and C).

(b)

This graph (Black) is the graph of a function because every vertical line

(Red) intersects the graph in at most one point (A).

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Checkpoint 6

Find the domain and range of the following relations.

Then use the Vertical Line, to state whether the graph is the graph of a
function.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

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Page 34 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
Determine a Domain Value Given a Range Value
Example 13

Find the values of 𝑎 in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 4 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 2.

Solution

Checkpoint 7

find the value or values of 𝑎 in the domain of 𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) equals the given
number.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2; 𝑓(𝑎) = 10 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 16; 𝑓(𝑎) = −2

Solution

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Note:
It may be that, for a given number 𝑏, there is no number in the domain of
𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Example 14

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, find a value in the domain of 𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 2.

Solution

𝑓 (𝑎) = 3

𝑎 +3=2 Replace f(a) with 𝑎 + 3

𝑎 = −1 Solve for 𝑎

𝑎 = √−1

𝑎 = ±𝑖

The values of 𝑎 are complex numbers and not in the domain of 𝑓. Note

from the graph in the Figure above that the horizontal line through (0,2)

does not intersect the graph as it did in the previous Example.

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 1.1.6 Zeroes of a Function and Intercepts

 A problem in the previous Example is a special interest is

determining the values in the domain of a function 𝑓 for which
𝑓(𝑎) = 0.

 A value 𝑎 in the domain of a function 𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 is called a

zero of 𝑓.

 For instance, let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4. When 𝑥 = 2 , we have

𝑓(2) = 2(2) − 4 = 0.

Because 𝑓(2) = 0,
then 2 is a zero of 𝑓.

 Here is another example:

Suppose 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 15.
Then

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 15 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 15
𝑔(3) = 3 + 2(3) − 15 𝑔(−5) = (−5) + 2(−5) − 15
𝑔(3) = 0 𝑔(−5) = 0
3 is a zero of 𝑔. −5 is a zero of 𝑔.

In this case, there are two values in the domain of 𝑔, −5 and 3 , for
which 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

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Example 15

Find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3.

Solution

Checkpoint 8

Find the zeros of 𝑓.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5

Solution

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 1.1.7 Intercepts
Any point that has an 𝑥 - or a 𝑦-coordinate of zero is called an intercept of
the graph of an equation because it is at these points that the graph
intersects the 𝑥 - or the 𝑦-axis.

Definition 14: Definition of 𝒙-Intercepts and 𝒚-Intercepts

 If (𝑥 , 0) satisfies an equation, then the point (𝑥 , 0) is called an 𝑥

intercept of the graph of the equation.
 If (0, 𝑦 ) satisfies an equation, then the point (0, 𝑦 ) is called a 𝑦-
intercept of the graph of the equation.
 To find the 𝑥-intercepts of the graph of an equation, let 𝑦 = 0 and solve
the equation for 𝑥.
 To find the 𝑦-intercepts of the graph of an equation, let 𝑥 = 0 and solve
the equation for 𝑦.

Example 16

Find the 𝑥 - and 𝑦-intercepts of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3.

Solution

Algebraic Solution

To find the 𝑦-intercept, let 𝑥 = 0 and solve for 𝑦.

𝑦 = 0 − 2(0) − 3 = −3

To find the 𝑥-intercepts, let 𝑦 = 0 and solve for 𝑥.

0 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3
0 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
(𝑥 − 3) = 0 or (𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −1

Page 39 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Because 𝑦 = −3 when 𝑥 = 0, (0, −3) is a 𝑦-intercept. Because 𝑥 = 3 or

−1 when 𝑦 = 0, (3,0) and (−1,0) are 𝑥-intercepts. The Figure below

confirms that these three points are intercepts.

Visualize the Solution

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3 is shown below. Observe that the graph

intersects the 𝑥-axis at (−1,0) and (3,0), the 𝑥-intercepts. The graph also

intersects the 𝑦-axis at (0, −3), the 𝑦-intercept.

Page 40 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 1.1.8 Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions
 Consider the graph in the Figure below.
 As a point on the graph moves from left to right,
 this graph falls for values of −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0,
 remains the same height from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2,
 and rises for values of 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.

The function represented by the graph is said to be decreasing on the

interval [−2,0], constant on the interval [0,2], and increasing on the
interval [2,4].

Page 41 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 15: Definition of Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions

If 𝑥 and 𝑥 are elements of an interval 𝐼 that is a subset of the domain

of a function 𝑓, then

 𝑓 is increasing on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑥 ) whenever 𝑥 < 𝑥 .

 𝑓 is decreasing on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑥 ) whenever 𝑥 < 𝑥 .
 𝑓 is constant on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) for all 𝑥 and 𝑥 .

Example 17

In each graph below, determine all intervals where 𝑓 is increasing or decreasing.

Solution

Page 42 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

LEFT GRAPH:

𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, −1] and [1,3]

𝑓 is increasing on [−1,1] and [3, ∞)

RIGHT GRAPH:

𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, −1).

𝑓 is constant on [−1,1) and [2,4].

𝑓 is increasing on [1,2] and [4, ∞).

Checkpoint 9

State the intervals on which the given function is increasing, decreasing, or

constant.

Solution

Page 43 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Even Functions and Odd Functions

The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic symmetry

properties.

Definition 16:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is an
even function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥),
odd function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥),
for every 𝑥 in the function's domain.

Note:

 The names even and odd come from powers of 𝑥. If 𝑦 is an even

power of 𝑥, as in 𝑦 = 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 , it is an even function of 𝑥
because (−𝑥) = 𝑥 and (−𝑥) = 𝑥 .

 If 𝑦 is an odd power of 𝑥, as in 𝑦 = 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 , it is an odd function

of 𝑥 because (−𝑥) = −𝑥 and (−𝑥) = −𝑥 .

 The graph of an even function is symmetric about the 𝒚-axis.

Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph if and only if the
point (−𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph (See the Figure (a) below).

 A reflection across the 𝒚-axis leaves the graph unchanged.

Page 44 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

 Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph if and only if
the point (−𝑥, −𝑦) lies on the graph (See the Figure (b) below).

 Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about the origin if a rotation of

180∘ about the origin leaves the graph unchanged.

 Notice that the definitions imply that both 𝑥 and −𝑥 must be in the
domain of 𝑓.

Page 45 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 18

Say whether the function is even, odd, or neither. Give reasons for your answer.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 (d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1

Solution

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is Even function: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥) = 𝑥 =𝑓(𝑥 ), for all 𝑥; (symmetry about 𝑦-axis).

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is Even function: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥) + 1 = 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ), for all 𝑥; (symmetry about 𝑦-axis).

(Figure (a) below)

Page 46 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is Odd function because

𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 = −𝑓 (𝑥 ), for all 𝑥; (symmetry about the origin).

(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is Not odd: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 + 1, but − 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 − 1. The two are not equal.

And it is Not even: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥 ) + 1 ≠ 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 (Figure 1.13b).

Page 47 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Common functions

A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in

calculus. We identify and briefly describe them here.

 Piecewise-Defined Functions
 Sometimes a function is described in pieces by using different
formulas on different parts of its domain.
 One example is the absolute value function whose graph is given in
the Figure 1.8.
 The right-hand side of the equation means that the function equals 𝑥
if 𝑥 ≥ 0, and equals −𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0.
 Piecewise-defined functions often arise when real-world data are
modeled.

Here are some other examples.

Example 19

−𝑥, 𝑥<0 First formula

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 0≤𝑥≤1 Second formula
1, 𝑥>1 Third formula

 The function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is defined on the entire real line but has values
given by different formulas, depending on the position of 𝑥.

First Formula: The values of 𝑓 are given by 𝑦 = −𝑥 when 𝑥 < 0,

Second formula: 𝑦 = 𝑥 when 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1,

Third formula: 𝑦 = 1 when 𝑥 > 1.

 The function, however, is just one function whose domain is the

entire set of real numbers (See the Figure below).

Page 48 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 10

(a) Evaluate the function when 𝑥 = −1,0, and 1 .

𝑥 + 1, 𝑥<0
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 − 1, 𝑥≥0

𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≤ −5
(b) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2, −5 < 𝑥 ≤ 4,
𝑥 − 4𝑥, 𝑥>4

Evaluate

(a) 𝑓(5) (b) 𝑓(−1) (c) 𝑓(−5) (d) 𝑓(4)

Solution

Page 49 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Linear Functions

Definition 17:

A function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, for constants 𝑚 and 𝑏, is called a

linear function.

 Figure (a) below shows an array of lines 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 where 𝑏 = 0,

so these lines pass through the origin.
 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑏 = 0 is called the identity
function.
 Constant functions result when the slope 𝑚 = 0 (Figure (b)).
 A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes through
the origin is called a proportionality relationship.

Page 50 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 18:

Two variables 𝑦 and 𝑥 are proportional (to one another) if one is always a
constant multiple of the other; that is, if 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 for some nonzero constant
𝑘.

If the variable 𝑦 is proportional to the reciprocal 1/𝑥, then sometimes it is

said that 𝑦 is inversely proportional to 𝑥 (because 1/𝑥 is the multiplicative
inverse of 𝑥 ).

 Power Functions

Definition 19:

A function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.

There are several important cases to consider.

Case I: 𝑎 = 𝑛, a positive integer.

 The graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , for 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4,5, are displayed in the

Figure below.
 These functions are defined for all real values of 𝑥.
 Notice that as the power 𝑛 gets larger, the curves tend to flatten
toward the 𝑥-axis on the interval (−1,1),
 and to rise more steeply for |𝑥| > 1.
 Each curve passes through the point (1,1) and through the origin.
 The graphs of functions with even powers are symmetric about the
𝑦-axis; those with odd powers are symmetric about the origin.
 The even-powered functions are decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0]
and increasing on [0, ∞);
 the odd-powered functions are increasing over the entire real line
(−∞, ∞).

Page 51 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Case II: 𝑎 = −1 or 𝑎 = −2

 The graphs of the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 = and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 = are

shown in the Figure below.

 Both functions are defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 (you can never divide by zero).

 The graph of 𝑦 = is the hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 1, which approaches the

coordinate axes far from the origin.

 The graph of 𝑦 = also approaches the coordinate axes.

 The graph of the function 𝑓 is symmetric about the origin.

 𝑓 is decreasing on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
 The graph of the function 𝑔 is symmetric about the 𝑦-axis.
 𝑔 is increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞)

Page 52 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Case III: 𝑎 = , , , and .

 The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 = √𝑥 are the square root

and cube root functions, respectively.
 The domain of the square root function is [0, ∞), but the cube root
function is defined for all real 𝑥.
 Their graphs are displayed in the Figure below, along with the graphs

of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 . (Recall that 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑥 = 𝑥 .)

 Polynomials

Definition 20:

A function 𝑝 is a polynomial if

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎

where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer and the numbers 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , … , 𝑎 are

real constants (called the coefficients of the polynomial).

 All polynomials have domain (−∞, ∞).

 If the leading coefficient 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 > 0, then 𝑛 is called the
degree of the polynomial.
 Linear functions with 𝑚 ≠ 0 are polynomials of degree 1.

Page 53 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Polynomials of degree 2 , usually written as 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, are
called quadratic functions.
 Likewise, cubic functions are polynomials 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 +
𝑑 of degree 3 .
 The Figure below shows the graphs of three polynomials.

Page 54 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Rational Functions

Definition 21:

A rational function is a quotient or ratio 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥)/𝑞(𝑥), where 𝑝 and 𝑞

are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real 𝑥
for which 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0.

 The graphs of several rational functions are shown in the Figure

below.
 The straight red lines approached by the graphs are called
asymptotes and are not part of the graphs.

Page 55 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Trigonometric Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are reviewed in Section 1.3. The
graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in the Figure below.

 Exponential Functions
 Functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 , where the base 𝑎 > 0 is a positive
constant and 𝑎 ≠ 1, are called exponential functions.
 All exponential functions have domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞),
so an exponential function never assumes the value 0.
 We discuss exponential functions in Section 1.5. The graphs of
some exponential functions are shown in the Figure below.

Page 56 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Logarithmic Functions
 These are the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥, where the base 𝑎 ≠ 1 is a
positive constant.
 They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, and
we discuss these functions in Section 1.6.
 The Figure below shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions
with various bases.
 In each case the domain is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).

Page 57 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Algebraic Functions
 Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and taking roots) lies within the class of algebraic functions.
 All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are more
complicated functions.

 Transcendental Functions

These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic
functions, and many other functions as well.

Page 58 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Applications of Functions
Example 20

An open box is to be made from a square piece of cardboard that measures

40 inches on each side.

(a) Express the volume 𝑉 of the box as a function of 𝑥.

(b) Determine the domain of 𝑉.

Solution

To construct the box, squares that measure 𝑥 inches on each side are cut

from each corner of the cardboard as shown in the Figure below.

(a) The length 𝑙 of the box is 40 − 2𝑥.

The width 𝑤 is also 40 − 2𝑥. The height of the box is 𝑥. The volume 𝑉

of a box is the product of its length, its width, and its height. Thus

𝑉 = (40 − 2𝑥) 𝑥

(b) The squares that are cut from each corner require 𝑥 to be larger than

0 inches but less than 20 inches. Thus, the domain is {𝑥 ∣ 0 < 𝑥 < 20}.

Page 59 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 11

A triangle is bounded by the 𝑥 - and 𝑦-axes and must pass through 𝑃(2,2), as
shown below.

(a) Find the area of the triangle as a function of 𝑥. (Hint: Let 𝐶 be the point (0,2) and
𝐷 be the point (2,0). Use the fact that 𝐴𝐶𝑃 and 𝑃𝐷𝐵 are similar triangles.)
(b) What is the domain of the function you found in (a)?

Solution

Page 60 of 73 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus 1 (Math 105)

1.2 Combining Functions;

Shifting and Scaling Graphs

Page 1 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Chapter 1: Functions
1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs

1.2.1 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients

1.2.1.1 The Difference Quotient

1.2.2 Composite Functions and Domain

1.2.3 Shifting a Graph of a Function

1.2.4 Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function

Page 2 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.1 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients
Functions can be defined in terms of other functions. For example, the
function defined by ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 8𝑥 is the sum of

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 8𝑥

Thus, if we are given any two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, we can define the four

new functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and as follows.

Definition 1: Definitions of Operations on Functions

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions with domains 𝐷 and 𝐷 , respectively, then we

define the sum, difference, product, and quotient of 𝑓 and 𝑔 as

 Sum: (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷 =𝐷 ∩𝐷 .

 Difference: (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷 =𝐷 ∩𝐷 .
 Product: (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷 =𝐷 ∩𝐷 .
( )
 Quotient: (𝑥) = 𝐷 / = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
( )

Example 1

If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 6. Find

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥 ) (d) (𝑥 )

Solution

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )

= (3𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 + 6) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 4

(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )

= (3𝑥 − 2) − (𝑥 + 6) = −𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 8

Page 3 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥 )

= (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 6) = 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 18𝑥 − 12

( )
(d) (𝑥 ) =
( )
=

Example 2

If 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4, find the domains of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔,

and .

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 1, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 4.

𝐷 = [1, ∞), 𝐷 = ℝ.

⇒𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 = [1, ∞) ∩ ℝ = [1, ∞)

𝐷 / = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≠ 0.

𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 4 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = ±2

∴𝐷 / = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 \{−2,2} = [1, ∞)\{2} = [1,2) ∪ (2, ∞).

𝐷 / = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 , 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 if √𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1.

∴𝐷 / = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 = ℝ ∩ [1, ∞) ∖ {1} = [1, ∞) ∖ {1} = (1, ∞).

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Checkpoint 1

If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 1 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = .

(i) Find

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥 ) (d) (𝑥 )

(ii) Find the domains of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and .

Answer:
𝐷 =𝐷 − 𝐷 = 𝐷 ∩ 𝐷 = (1, ∞)
𝐷 / = (1, ∞)
𝐷 / = (1,5) ∪ (5, ∞)

Solution

Page 5 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Evaluate Functions

Example 3

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 9 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6. Find

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(5) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(−2) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(−1) (d) (4)

Solution

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(5) = 𝑓(5) + 𝑔(5)

= ((5) − 9) + (2(5) + 6)

= 16 + 16 = 32.

(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(−2) = 𝑓 (−2) − 𝑔(−2)

= ((−2) − 9) − (2(−2) + 6)

= −5 − 2 = −7

(c) (𝑓𝑔)(−1) = 𝑓 (−1) ⋅ 𝑔(−1)

= [(−1) − 9][2(−1) + 6]

= (−8)(4) = −32.

( )
(d) (4) =
( )
= ( )
= = .

Page 6 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 4

The Figure below shows the graph of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔. Use their graph
to calculate:
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(1) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(2) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(1) (d) (𝑓𝑔)(0)

(e) (0) (f) (0) (e) (2)

Solution

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(1) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑔(1)

= 1 + (−1) = 0
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(2) = 𝑓(2) − 𝑔(2)
= 4 − 0 = 4.
(𝑓𝑔)(1) = 𝑓(1)𝑔(1)
= (1)(−1) = −1

(𝑓𝑔)(0) = 𝑓(0) ⋅ 𝑔(0) = (0)(−2) = 0

𝑓 𝑓(0) 0
(0) = = =0
𝑔 𝑔(0) −2
𝑔 𝑔(0) −2
(0) = = (undefined).
𝑓 𝑓(0) 0
𝑓 𝑓(2) 4
(2) = = (undefined).
𝑔 𝑔(2) 0

Page 7 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

The Figures below represent the graphs of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and ,

respectively in the example above.

Page 8 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 2

Use the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 in the previous Example to calculate:

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(0) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(1) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(−1) (d) (2)

Answer:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(0) = −2
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(1) = 2
(𝑓𝑔)(−1) = −3
(𝑔/𝑓)(2) = 0
Solution

Page 9 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Difference Quotient
The expression

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
, ℎ≠0
ℎ

is called the difference quotient of 𝑓.

It enables us to study the manner in which a function changes in value as

the independent variable changes.

Example 5

Determine the difference quotient of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 7.

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) [(𝑥 + ℎ) + 7] − [𝑥 + 7]

=
ℎ ℎ
[𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ + 7] − [𝑥 + 7]
=
ℎ
𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ + 7 − 𝑥 − 7
=
ℎ
2𝑥ℎ + ℎ ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ)
= = = 2𝑥 + ℎ, ℎ ≠ 0.
ℎ ℎ

Note that

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(ℎ).

Page 10 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 3

Determine the difference quotient of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥.

Answer:
4𝑥 + 2ℎ − 1.
Solution

Page 11 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.2 Composite Function and Domain
Composition of functions is another way in which functions can be
combined.

This method of combining functions uses the output of one function as

the input for a second function.

For instance, when 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4, the composition of 𝑓 with

𝑔 is given by

𝑓 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 )
= √𝑥 + 4
In particular,

𝑔(0) = 0 + 4 = 4 and 𝑓(4) = √4 = 2.

So, if we apply these two functions consecutively, we get

𝑓(𝑔(0)) = 𝑓(4) = 2

In a diagram, this would look like

Page 12 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 2: Definition of the Composition of Two Functions

 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions such that 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓 for all
𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔.
 Then the composition of the two functions, denoted by 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, is the
function whose value at 𝑥 is given by

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)].

Page 13 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is read as " 𝑓 composed with 𝑔 " (also called the composite of 𝑓 and 𝑔).

Example 6

Consider the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3.

Find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1).

Solution

The expression (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) or, equivalently, 𝑓[𝑔(−1)] means to evaluate

the function 𝑓 at 𝑔(−1).

𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 3
𝑔(−1) = (−1) − 3
= −2 Evaluate 𝑔 at − 1.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) = 𝑓[𝑔(−1)] = 𝑓 (−2) Replace 𝑥 with 𝑔(−1).
= 2(−2) − 1 = −5 𝑔(−1) = −2

A graphical depiction of the composition (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) would look something

like the Figure below.

Page 14 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

We can find a general expression for 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥 )] by evaluating 𝑓 at 𝑔(𝑥 ).

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 1 - Replace 𝑥 with 𝑔(𝑥).

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 [𝑔(𝑥 )] = 2[𝑔(𝑥 )] − 1 - Replace 𝑔(𝑥) with 𝑥2 − 3.

= 2[ 𝑥 − 3] − 1 - Simplify.

= 2𝑥 − 7 (∗)

If we evaluate this function at −1 , we have

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 7

⇒ (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) = 2(−1) − 7 = 2 − 7 = −5

This is the same as the result that was obtained early.

Page 15 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

In general, the composition of functions is not a commutative operation.
That is,

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) .

To verify this, we will compute (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)], again using the

functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3.
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3
𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] − 3 ⋅ Replace 𝑥 with 𝑓(𝑥).
= [2𝑥 − 1] − 3 ⋅ Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 2𝑥 − 1.
= 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 2 (∗∗) ⋅ Simplify.

From (∗) and (∗∗), we conclude that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) , therefore,

composition is not a commutative operation.

Checkpoint 4

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, find

(a) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) (b) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (c) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(0) (d) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(0)
Answer:
(a) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 1.
(b) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2.
(c) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(0) = −2.
(d) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(0) = 1.

Solution

Page 16 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Page 17 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
 To evaluate (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑐) for some constant 𝑐, you can use either of the
following methods.

 Method 1: First evaluate 𝑔(𝑐). Then substitute this result for 𝑥 in 𝑓(𝑥).

 Method 2: First determine 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)]. Then substitute 𝑐 for 𝑥.

Example 7

Evaluate (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(3), where 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 7 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4.

Solution

Method 1:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(3) = 𝑓 [𝑔(3)]
= 𝑓 [(3) + 4] Evaluate 𝑔(3).

= 𝑓 (13)
= 2(13) − 7 = 19 Substitute 13 for 𝑥 in 𝑓.

Method 2:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2[𝑔(𝑥 )] − 7 Form 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)].

= 2[ 𝑥 + 4] − 7
= 2𝑥 + 1
Then (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(3) = 2(3) + 1 = 19 Substitute 3 for 𝑥.

Page 18 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Domain of Composite Function
Some care must be used when forming the composition of functions.

For instance, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 4, then

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(2) = 𝑔[𝑓(2)] = 𝑔(3) = √3 − 4 = √−1

which is not a real number.

Definition 3: The domain of the composite function 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈

The domain of the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the set of all 𝑥 such

that:

(1) 𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑔,

(2) and 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓.

Page 19 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

In the 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 diagram above, we can see that
𝐷∘ ⊆𝐷
 𝑅 ∘ ⊆𝑅
 If 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 ⋂𝐷 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 ∘

Page 20 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

We need to be careful in determining the domain for a composite function.

Excluding Values from the Domain of (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙))

The following values must be excluded from the input 𝑥 :

 If 𝑥 is not in the domain of 𝑔, it must not be in the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

i.e. if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷 ∘

 Any 𝑥 for which 𝑔(𝑥) is not in the domain of 𝑓 must not be in the
domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

i.e. if 𝑔(𝑥) ∉ 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷 ∘ .
For instance, in the diagram below, we con see that

𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥′ ∈ 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 ∘ .
𝑦 ∈ 𝐷 but 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦′ ∉ 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑦 ∉ 𝐷 ∘ .
𝑧∉𝐷 ⇒𝑧∉𝐷 ∘ .

Page 21 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 8

Given 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = , find

(a) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (b) the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

Solution

(a) Because (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) means 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), we must replace 𝑥 in 𝑓(𝑥) =

with 𝑔(𝑥).

2 2 2 2𝑥
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = = = =
𝑔(𝑥) − 1 3 − 1 3 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

Thus, (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = .

(b) We determine values to exclude from the domain of (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) in two

steps.

Excluding Values from the Domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔

Step 1: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷 𝑔(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0 ⇒ 0∉𝐷 ∘
Step 2: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷 𝑓(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ 1. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷 ∘ ,
(We need to find 𝑥)
3
⇒ =1⇒𝑥=3
𝑥
⇒ 3∉𝐷∘

We see that 0 and 3 must be excluded from the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔. The

domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is

ℝ\{0,3} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0,3) ∪ (3, ∞).

To find the excluded values from the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 in a fast way:

Page 22 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
  substitute 𝑔 into 𝑓 without doing any simplifications,

 then you can exclude all values that make 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 undefined from
this step.

For the example above,

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = = .
( )

We can see that the last expression, is defined if:

𝑥≠0 (From the denominator in )

 −1≠0 (From the denominator in )

⇒𝑥≠3
⇒ {0,3} ∉ 𝐷 ∘ ⇒ 𝐷 ∘ = ℝ\{0,3}

Example 9

Given 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 5, find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 and state their

domain.
Solution

We can see that

𝑓(𝑥 ) = − 1, 𝑥 ≠ 0

𝑔(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 5, 𝑥 ⩾ 5

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥 )

= 𝑓 √𝑥 − 5

= − 1, 𝑥 > 5.
√

It is clear that 𝐷 ∘ = (5, ∞).

Page 23 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑔 𝑓(𝑥 )

1
=𝑔 −1
𝑥

= − 1 − 5, −1 −5⩾0

= − 6, −6⩾0

= − 6, 0 < 𝑥 ≤ . (Exercise: Solve the inequality −6⩾0)

1
∴𝐷 ∘ = 0,
6

Checkpoint 5

Given 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = , find

(a) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (b) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (c) the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
Answer:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ≠ − .
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ −2.

Solution

Page 24 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.3 Shifting a Graph of a Function
 A common way to obtain a new function from an existing one is by
adding a constant to each output of the existing function, or to its
input variable.
 The graph of the new function is the graph of the original function
shifted vertically or horizontally, as follows.

Example 10

(a) Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 to get 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1

shifts the graph up 1 unit (see the Figure below).
b) Adding −2 to the right-hand side of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 to get
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 shifts the graph down 2 units (see the Figure below).

Page 25 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c) Adding 3 to 𝑥 ∣ in 𝑦 = 𝑥 to get 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3) shifts the graph 3 units to
the left, while adding −2 shifts the graph 2 units to the right (see the
Figure below).

(d) Adding −2 to 𝑥 in 𝑦 = |𝑥|, and then adding −1 to the result, gives 𝑦 =

|𝑥 − 2| − 1 and shifts the graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit down (see
the Figure below).

Page 26 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.4 Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
 To scale the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is to stretch or compress
it, vertically or horizontally.
 This is accomplished by multiplying the function 𝑓, or the
independent variable 𝑥, by an appropriate constant 𝑐.
 Reflections across the coordinate axes are special cases where 𝑐 =
−1.

Example 11

Here we scale and reflect the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥.

Solution

(a) Vertical: Multiplying the right-hand side of 𝑦 = √𝑥 by 3 to get 𝑦 = 3√𝑥

stretches the graph vertically by a factor of 3 , whereas multiplying by 1/3

compresses the graph by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.32).

Page 27 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(b) Horizontal: The graph of 𝑦 = √3𝑥 is a horizontal compression of the

graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 by a factor of 3 , and 𝑦 = 𝑥/3 is a horizontal stretching

by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.33). Note that 𝑦 = √3𝑥 = √3√𝑥 so a horizontal

compression may correspond to a vertical stretching by a different

scaling factor. Likewise, a horizontal stretching may correspond to a

vertical compression by a different scaling factor.

(c) Reflection: The graph of 𝑦 = −√𝑥 is a reflection of 𝑦 = √𝑥 across the

𝑥-axis, and 𝑦 = √−𝑥 is a reflection across the 𝑦-axis (Figure 1.34).

Page 28 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 12

Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 10 (the Figure (a)), find formulas to

(a) compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a

reflection across the 𝑦-axis (the Figure (b)).

(b) compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection

across the 𝑥-axis (the Figure (c)).
Solution

We multiply 𝑥 by 2 to get the horizontal compression, and by −1 to give

reflection across the 𝑦-axis.

The formula is obtained by substituting −2𝑥 for 𝑥 in the right-hand side of

the equation for 𝑓 :

𝑦 = 𝑓(−2𝑥) = (−2𝑥) − 4(−2𝑥) + 10

= 16𝑥 + 32𝑥 + 10

(b) The formula is

1 1
𝑦 = − 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5
2 2

Page 29 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus (1) (Math 105)

1.3 Trigonometric Functions

Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Page 1 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Chapter 1: Functions
1.3 Trigonometric Functions

1.3.1 Angle

1.3.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry

1.3.2 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

1.3.3 Periodic Functions

1.3.4 Trigonometric Identities

1.3.5 Appendix

Page 2 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3 Trigonometric Functions
This section reviews radian measure and the basic trigonometric
functions.

1.3.1 Angle
 An angle consists of two rays in a plane with a common
endpoint.
 The two rays are the sides of the angle.
 The common endpoint is called the vertex of the angle.

 The ray in its initial position is called the initial side of the angle.
 The ray in its location after the rotation is the terminal side of the
angle.

Standard Position

An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and its initial
side lies along the positive 𝑥-axis.

Page 3 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Positive angle
The rotation of the terminal side of an angle is counterclockwise.

Negative angle
The rotation of the terminal side is clockwise.

Measuring Angles Using Degrees

 Angles are measured by determining the amount of rotation from the

initial side to the terminal side.
 One way to measure angles is in degrees, symbolized by a small,
raised circle ∘ .
 A complete rotation is 360∘ .

Page 4 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Measuring Angles Using Radians

 Another commonly used angle measurement is the radian.

 To define a radian, first consider a circle of radius 𝑟 and two radii
𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵.
 The angle 𝜃 formed by the two radii is a central angle.
 The portion of the circle between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is an arc of the circle and
is written 𝐴𝐵 .
 We say that 𝐴𝐵 subtends the angle 𝜃. The length of 𝐴𝐵 is 𝑠 (see the
Figure below).

Definition 1: Definition of a Radian

One radian is the measure of the central angle of a circle that intercepts
an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.

Central angle 𝜃 has a measure of 1 radian.

Page 5 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 2: Definition of Radian Measure
Given an arc of length 𝑠 on a circle of radius 𝑟, the measure of the central
angle subtended by the arc is

𝜃 = radians.

 In Figure (a) below, the length of the arc intercepted by angle 𝛽 is

double the radius, 𝑟.
 We find the measure of angle 𝛽 in radians by dividing the length of
the intercepted arc by the radius.

length of the intercepted arc 2𝑟

𝛽= = =2
radius 𝑟

 Thus, angle 𝛽 measures 2 radians.

Page 6 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Relationship between Degrees and Radians

To Convert between degrees and radians, use the following formula

Where 𝐷∘ represents the measurement in degrees, and 𝑅 represents the

measurement in radians.

 To convert from radians to degrees,

180∘
𝐷∘ = 𝑅
𝜋
 To convert from degrees to radians,

𝜋
𝑅= 𝐷∘
180∘

 In this course it is assumed that all angles are measured in radians

unless degrees or some other unit is stated explicitly.

 When we talk about the angle , we mean radians (which is 60∘ ),

not degrees.

 We use radians because it simplifies many of the operations in

calculus, and some results we will obtain involving the trigonometric
functions are not true when angles are measured in degrees.

Page 7 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry
The Six Trigonometric Functions

The study of trigonometry, which means "triangle measurement," began

more than 2000 years ago, partially as a means of solving surveying
problems.

Early trigonometry used the length of a line segment between two points of
a circle as the value of a trigonometric function.

In the sixteenth century, right triangles were used to define a trigonometric

function. We will use a modification of this approach.

 When working with right triangles, it is convenient to refer to the

side opposite an angle or the side adjacent to (next to) an angle.
 Figure 5.29 shows the sides opposite and adjacent to the angle 𝜃.
 Figure 5.30 shows the sides opposite and adjacent to the angle 𝛽.
 In both cases, the hypotenuse remains the same.

Page 8 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Six ratios can be formed by using two lengths of the three sides of a
right triangle.
 Each ratio defines a value of a trigonometric function of a given
acute angle 𝜃.
 The functions are
1. sine (sin),
2. cosine (cos),
3. tangent (tan),
4. cotangent (cot),
5. secant (sec),
6. and cosecant (csc).

Page 9 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Find the values of the six trigonometric functions

Example 1

Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of 𝜃 for the triangle
given in the Figure below.

Solution

Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.

hyp = 3 + 4 = √25 = 5

From the definitions of the trigonometric functions,

opp hyp
sin 𝜃 = = csc 𝜃 = =
hyp opp

adj hyp
cos 𝜃 = = sec 𝜃 = =
hyp adj

opp adj
tan 𝜃 = = cot 𝜃 = =
adj opp

Checkpoint 1

find the values of the six trigonometric functions of 𝜃 for the right triangle
with the given sides.

Page 10 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Find the Value of a Trigonometric Function

Example 2

Given that 𝜃 is an acute angle in a right triangle and cos 𝜃 = , find tan 𝜃.

Solution

Sketch a right triangle with one leg of length 5 units and a hypotenuse of

length 8 units Label as 𝜃 the acute angle that has the leg of length 5 units

as its adjacent side (see the Figure above). Use the Pythagorean

Theorem to find the length of the opposite side.

opp + 5 = 8

opp + 25 = 64

opp = 39

opp = √39

opp √
Therefore, tan 𝜃 = = .

Page 11 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3.2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles

30∘ = , 45∘ = , 60∘ = and 90∘ =

𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝜽 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽

0 0 1 0 Undefined 1 Undefined

𝜋 1 √3 √3 2√3
2 √3
6 2 2 3 3
𝜋 √2 √2
1 √2 √2 1
4 2 2
𝜋 √3 1 2√3 √3
√3 2
3 2 2 3 3
𝜋
1 0 Undefined 1 Undefined 0
3

Note that:
sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃)(sin 𝜃) = (sin 𝜃)
cos 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃)(cos 𝜃) = (cos 𝜃) .
but
sin 𝜃 = sin(𝜃 )

Page 12 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 3

Find the exact value of sin + cos .

Solution

Substitute the values of sin and cos and simplify.

𝜋 1 √2
sin = = .
4 √2 2

𝜋 1
cos = .
3 2

𝜋 𝜋 √2 1 2 1 3
⇒ sin + cos = + = + = .
4 3 2 2 4 4 4

Checkpoint 2

Find the exact value of each expression.

csc sec + .

Solution

Page 13 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
 The applications of trigonometry would be quite limited if all angles
had to be acute angles.
 Fortunately, this is not the case. In this section we extend the
definition of a trigonometric function to include any angle.
 Consider angle 𝜃 in Figure 5.41 in standard position and a point
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on the terminal side of the angle.
 We define the trigonometric functions of any angle according to the
following definitions.

Page 14 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Any point in a rectangular coordinate system (except the origin)
can determine an angle in standard position.

 For example, 𝑃(−4,3) in the Figure below is a point in the

second quadrant and determines an angle 𝜃 in standard
position with 𝑟 = (−4) + 3 = 5.

The values of the trigonometric functions of 𝜃 as shown in the Figure

above are

sin 𝜃 = , csc 𝜃 = ,

cos 𝜃 = − = , sec 𝜃 = =− ,

tan 𝜃 = =− , cot 𝜃 = =− .

Page 15 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Evaluate Trigonometric Functions

Example 4

Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of an angle
𝜃 in standard position whose terminal side contains the point 𝑃(−3, −2).
Solution

The angle is sketched in the Figure below.

Find 𝑟 by using the equation 𝑟 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 , where 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑦 = −2.

𝑟= (−3) + (−2) = √9 + 4 = √13

Now use the definitions of the trigonometric functions.

−2 2√13 −3 3√13 −2 2
sin 𝜃 = =− , cos 𝜃 = =− , tan 𝜃 = =
√13 13 √13 13 −3 3
√13 √13 √13 √13 −3 3
csc 𝜃 = =− , sec 𝜃 = =− , cot 𝜃 = =
−2 2 −3 3 −2 2

Page 16 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 3

Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of an angle
𝜃 in standard position whose terminal side contains the point 𝑃(−2,3).
Solution

Page 17 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Signs of Trigonometric Functions

 The sign of a trigonometric function depends on the quadrant in which

the terminal side of the angle lies.
 For example, if 𝜃 is an angle whose terminal side lies in Quadrant III
and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is on the terminal side of 𝜃, then both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are
negative, and therefore and are positive. See Figure 5.46.

 Because tan 𝜃 = and cot 𝜃 = , the values of the tan 𝜃 and cot 𝜃 are

positive for any Quadrant III angle.

 The values of the other four trigonometric functions of any
Quadrant III angle are all negative.

Page 18 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

You can remember Signs of the Trigonometric Functions using the
letters of STC .

means that the sign of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ⬚ and its reciprocal 𝐜𝐬𝐜 ⬚ is +.

T means that the sign of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ⬚ and its reciprocal 𝐜𝐨𝐭 ⬚ is +.

means that the sign of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ⬚ and its reciprocal 𝐬𝐞𝐜 ⬚ is +.

Example 5

Determine the signs of the trigonometric functions of an angle in standard

position with the given measure.
(a) (b) (c) (d) − 𝜋

Solution

Page 19 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 6

Determine the quadrant (if possible) in which 𝜃 lies if

(a) cos 𝜃 > 0 and sin 𝜃 > 0. (b) sin 𝜃 > 0, tan 𝜃 < 0.
(c) sec 𝜃 < 0 and cot 𝜃 > 0.

Solution

(a) cos 𝜃 > 0 and sin 𝜃 > 0 in the quadrant I.

(b) sin 𝜃 > 0 and tan 𝜃 < 0 in the quadrant II.

(c) ∵ sec 𝜃 < 0 ⇒ cos 𝜃 < 0

and

∵ cot 𝜃 > 0 ⇒ tan 𝜃 > 0

Therefore;

cos 𝜃 < 0 and tan 𝜃 > 0 in the quadrant III.

Page 20 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3.4 Periodic Functions
Definition 3:

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is periodic if there is a positive number 𝑝 such that

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥)

for every value of 𝑥. The smallest such value of 𝑝 is the period of 𝑓.

Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

Page 21 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3.5 Trigonometric Identities
 Cofunction Identities
Any pair of trigonometric functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 for which
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑔 − 𝜃 and 𝑔(𝜃) = 𝑓 −𝜃
2 2

are called cofunctions.

The value of a trigonometric function of 𝜃 is equal to the cofunction of

the complement of 𝜃. Cofunctions of complementary angles are equal.

𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝜃 = cos −𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin −𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
tan 𝜃 = cot −𝜃 cot 𝜃 = tan −𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
sec 𝜃 = csc −𝜃 csc 𝜃 = sec −𝜃
2 2

For Example,

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 √3
sin = cos − = cos = .
3 2 3 6 2

Page 22 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Reciprocal Identities

Example 7

√
Find the Value of a Trigonometric Function if cos 𝜃 = . Find sec 𝜃.

Solution

We have

cos 𝜃 = ⇒ sec 𝜃 = = = √3.

√

 Quotient Identities

sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃
cot 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃

Example 8

√
Given sin 𝑡 = and cos 𝑡 = , find the value of each of the four
remaining trigonometric functions.
Solution

1 5
∵ csc 𝑡 = ⇒ csc 𝑡 =
sin 𝑡 2

Page 23 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 1 5 5√21
∵ sec 𝑡 = = =
cos 𝑡 √21 21

2
sin 𝑡 2 2√21
tan 𝑡 = = 5 = =
cos 𝑡 √21 √21 21
5

√21
cot 𝑡 =
2

Checkpoint 4

√
Given sin 𝑡 = and cos 𝑡 = , find the value of each of the four
remaining trigonometric functions.

Solution

Page 24 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Pythagorean Identities

Pythagorean Identities

 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 1 ----- (*)

 1 + tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃

 1 + cot 𝜃 = csc 𝜃

Example 9

Given that sin 𝑡 = and 0 ≤ 𝑡 < , find the value of cos 𝑡 using a
trigonometric identity.
Solution

We can find the value of cos 𝑡 by using the Pythagorean identity:

sin 𝑡 + cos 𝑡 = 1

3
+ cos 𝑡 = 1
5

9
+ cos 𝑡 = 1
25

cos 𝑡 = 1 − ⇒ cos 𝑡 =

∵ 0 ≤ 𝑡 < , ⇒ cos 𝑡 > 0.

Thus, cos 𝑡 = = .

Page 25 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 5

Given that sin 𝑡 = and 0 ≤ 𝑡 < , find the value of cos 𝑡 using a
trigonometric identity.
Solution

Example 10

Find the exact value of each of the remaining trigonometric functions of

𝜃.

(a) cos 𝜃 = − , 𝜃 in Quadrant III (b) tan 𝜃 = − , sin 𝜃 > 0

(c) sec 𝜃 = −3, tan 𝜃 > 0
Solution

∵ cos 𝜃 = − ⇒ sec 𝜃 = = .

Now we can find sin 𝜃 using the identity

sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 1

−3 16
sin 𝜃 + = 1 ⇒ sin 𝜃 =
5 25

∵ 𝜃 in Quadrant III ⇒ sin 𝜃 < 0.

⇒ sin 𝜃 = − ⇒ csc 𝜃 =

and

tan 𝜃 = = = ⇒ cot 𝜃 = = .

Page 26 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Addition Formulas

sin (𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴sin 𝐵

------- (**)
cos (𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴sin 𝐵

 There are similar formulas for cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) and sin (𝐴 − 𝐵)

(Exercises).

All the trigonometric identities needed in this course derive from

Equations (*) and (**).

 For example, substituting 𝜃 for both 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the addition formulas

gives Double-Angle Formulas.

 Double-Angle Formulas

cos 2𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃

sin 2𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃cos 𝜃

 Additional formulas come from combining the equations

cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 1, cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = cos 2𝜃

 We add the two equations to get

2cos 𝜃 = 1 + cos 2𝜃

 and subtract the second from the first to get

2sin 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2𝜃.
 This results in the following identities, which are useful in integral
calculus.

Page 27 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Half-Angle Formulas

1 + cos 2𝜃
cos 𝜃 =
2
1 − cos 2𝜃
sin 𝜃 =
2

 The Law of Cosines

If 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are sides of a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and if 𝜃 is the angle opposite 𝑐,

then

𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏cos 𝜃

This equation is called the law of cosines.

Page 28 of 33 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus 1 (Math 105)

1.4 Inverse Functions

Page 1 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Outline:

Chapter 5: Inverse Functions, Exponential, and Logarithmic

Functions
5.1 Inverse Functions

5.1.1 One-To-One Function

5.1.2 Inverse Functions

5.1.3 Finding an Inverse Function

Page 2 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

5.1.1 One-To-One Function
 Recall that a function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs
that have the same first coordinate have different second
coordinates.

Definition 1: One-to-One Function

A function is one-to-one if no two ordered pairs in the function have the

same second component and different first components.

Example 1

Determine whether the following functions are one-to-one.

(a)

(b) {(−2,6), (−1,3), (0,2), (1,5), (2,8)}

Page 3 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Solution

(a)

The function is not one-to-one because there are two different inputs,

55 and 61, that correspond to the same output, 38.

(b)

The function is one-to-one because no two different inputs correspond

to the same output.

Definition 2: Horizontal Line Test for a One-To-One Function

If every horizontal line intersects the graph of a function at most once,

then the graph is the graph of a one-to-one function.

Left Graph: Some horizontal lines intersect this graph at more than one

point. This is NOT a graph of a one-to-one function.

Right Graph: Every horizontal line intersects this graph at most once.

This is the graph of a one-to-one function.

Page 4 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 3: One-to-One (Injection)

A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅 is said to be one-to-one if

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 (1)
for all elements 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷.
Equivalently,
A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅 is said to be one-to-one if
𝑥 ≠ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥 ) (2)
for all elements 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷.

Note that:

• A one-to-one function is also called an injection, and we call a function

injective if it is one-to-one.

• A function that is not one-to one is referred to as many-to-one.

• Let A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅.

There exists 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥 in 𝐷 such that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ).

Then 𝑓 is not one-to-one.

Page 5 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

To prove a function is One-to-One

To prove 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅 is one-to-one:

 Assume 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 )

 Show it must be true that 𝑥 = 𝑥

Example 2

Prove the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 is one-to-one.

Solution

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 )

⇒ 3𝑥 + 2 = 3𝑥 + 2.

⇒ 3𝑥 = 3𝑥

⇒𝑥 =𝑥 .

We have shown if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) then 𝑥 = 𝑥 .

Therefore 𝑓 is one-to-one, by definition of one-to-one.

Checkpoint 1

Prove the function 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = 5 − 7𝑥 is one-to-one.

Solution

Page 6 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 4: Increasing and Decreasing Functions

 A function that is increasing on an interval 𝐼 is a one-to-one function

on 𝐼.
 A function that is decreasing on an interval 𝐼 is a one-to-one
function on 𝐼.

Page 7 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 5.1.2 Inverse Functions
 Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one function with domain 𝐷 and range 𝑅.
 Thus, for each number 𝑦 in 𝑅, there is exactly one number 𝑥 in 𝐷
such that

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),

as illustrated by the arrow in the Figure below.

 We may, therefore, define a function 𝑔 from 𝑅 to 𝐷 by means of the

following rule:

𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)

 As in the Figure below, 𝑔 reverses the correspondence given by 𝑓.

We call 𝑔 the inverse function of 𝑓, as in the next definition.

Page 8 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 5: Definition of an Inverse Function

If the ordered pairs of a function 𝑔 are the ordered pairs of a function 𝑓

with the order of the coordinates reversed, then 𝑔 is the inverse function
of 𝑓.
For example,

If an ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏) is in 𝑓, then (𝑏, 𝑎) is in 𝑔.

Example 3

Find the inverse of the following one-to-one function:

{(−3, −27), (−2, −8), (−1, −1), (0,0), (1,1), (2,8), (3,27)}

State the domain and the range of the function and its inverse.

Solution

The inverse of the given function is found by interchanging the entries in

each ordered pair and so is given by

{(−27, −3), (−8, −2), (−1, −1), (0,0), (1,1), (8,2), (27,3)}

The domain of the function is {−3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3}.

The range of the function is {−27, −8, −1,0,1,8,27}.

The domain of the inverse function is {−27, −8, −1,0,1,8,27}.

The range of the inverse function is {−3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3}.

Page 9 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 6: Condition for an Inverse Function

Let 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅 be a function with domain 𝐷 and range 𝑅. A function 𝑓 has

an inverse function, denoted 𝑓 , if and only if 𝑓 is a one-to-one
function.

Definition 7: Alternative Condition for an Inverse Function

Let 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅 be a function with domain 𝐷 and range 𝑅. If 𝑓 is an

increasing function or a decreasing function on it’s domain, then 𝑓 has
an inverse function.

 If 𝑓 is NOT one-to-one, then 𝑓 have NOT an inverse and 𝑓

does not exist.

Example 4

Which of the functions graphed below has an inverse function

 If 𝑓 is a one-to-one function, then

Page 10 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 𝟏
Definition 8: Graphs of 𝒇 and 𝒇

 There is a relationship between the graph of a one-to-one

function, 𝑓, and its inverse, 𝑓 .
 Because inverse functions have ordered pairs with the
coordinates interchanged, if the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is on the graph of 𝑓,
then the point (𝑏, 𝑎) is on the graph of 𝑓 . The points (𝑎, 𝑏) and
(𝑏, 𝑎) are symmetric with respect to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
 Thus, the graph of 𝑓 is a reflection of the graph of 𝑓 about the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥. This is illustrated in the Figure below.

Page 11 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 5

Sketch the graph of 𝑓 given that 𝑓 is the function shown in the Figure
below.

Solution

Because the graph of 𝑓 passes through (−1,0.5), (0,1), (1,2), and (2,4),

the graph of 𝑓 must pass through (0.5, −1), (1,0), (2,1), and (4,2). Plot

the points and then draw a smooth curve through the points, as shown in

the Figure below.

Page 12 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 2

If 𝑓 is a one-to-one function and 𝑓(4) = 5, what is 𝑓 (5) ?

Example 6

Does the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 5 have an inverse?

Solution

Note that 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ (Domain = ℝ , Range = ℝ).

𝑓 has an inverse iff 𝑓 is one-to-one. So, we need to prove that

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 , where 𝑥 and 𝑥 in domain of 𝑓.

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 )

⇒𝑥 +5=𝑥 +5

⇒𝑥 =𝑥

𝑥 =𝑥

⇒ 𝑓 is one-to-one.

Therefore, 𝑓 has an inverse.

We see later, how to find this function.

Page 13 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Composition of a Function and Its Inverse

Definition 9: Composition of Inverse Functions Property

Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one function. Then g is the inverse function of 𝑓 if

and only if

 (𝑓 ∘ g)(𝑥) = 𝑓[g(𝑥)] = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of g ,

and

 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = g[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

Therefore 𝑔 = 𝑓 .

CAUTION:

 Be careful not to confuse inverse notation and reciprocal

notation. For numbers, a superscript of −1 means reciprocal:
2 = .

 For functions, a superscript of −1 means inverse: 𝑓 (𝑥) is the

inverse of 𝑓(𝑥), which is not the same as .
( )

Page 14 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 7

Use composition of functions to show that

g(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 6 is the inverse function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2.

Solution

We must show that 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥 and 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥.

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 6

* 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥 )] = [3𝑥 − 6] + 2

𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔.

*𝑔[𝑓 (𝑥 )] = 3 𝑥+2 −6

𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

⇒ 𝑔 is the inverse 𝑓 and 𝑔 = 𝑓 .

Checkpoint 3

Use composition of functions to determine whether 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses

of one another.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥; 𝑔(𝑥) = (b) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − ; 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3

Solution

Page 15 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 5.1.3 Finding an Inverse Function
If a one-to-one function 𝑓 is defined by an equation, then we can use the
following method to find the equation for 𝑓 .

Steps for Finding the Inverse of a Function

To find the equation of the inverse 𝑓 of the one-to-one function 𝑓,

follow these steps.

 Substitute 𝑦 for 𝑓(𝑥).

 Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦.
 Solve, if possible, for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.
 Substitute 𝑓 (𝑥) for 𝑦.

Example 8

Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 8.

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 8

𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 8 (Replace 𝑓(𝑥 ) with 𝑦.)

𝑥 = 3𝑦 + 8 Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Page 16 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3𝑦 + 8 = 𝑥

3𝑦 = 𝑥 − 8 Solve for 𝑦

𝑥−8
𝑦=
3

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = − Replace 𝑦 with 𝑓 .

The inverse function is given by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − .

Checkpoint 4

Find 𝑓 (𝑥). State any restrictions on the domain of 𝑓 (𝑥).

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 8

Solution

Page 17 of 25 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus 1 (Math 105)

1.5 Exponential Functions

Page 1 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Outline:

Chapter 1: Exponential Functions

1.5 Exponential Functions

1.5.1 Review: Laws of Exponents

1.5.2 Exponential Functions

Page 2 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2 Exponential Functions
Definition 1: Laws of Exponents

 If 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑎, and 𝑏 are real numbers with 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0, then

 𝑎 ⋅𝑎 =𝑎

 =𝑎

 (𝑎 ) = 𝑎
 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏
 1 =1

 𝑎 = =

 𝑎 =1

Page 3 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Defining Exponential Functions
 Let's start by noting that the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 given by

𝑓(𝑥) = 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥

are NOT the same function.

 Whether a variable appears as an exponent with a constant base

or as a base with a constant exponent makes a big difference.
 The function 𝑔 is a quadratic function, which we have already
discussed.

 The function 𝑓 is an exponential function.

 Let’s find some values of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 and compare that with values
of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 for the same inputs.
 The graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are shown in the two Figures below.

𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦)

−3 𝑔(−3) = (−3) = 9 (−3,9)

−2 𝑔(−2) = (−2) = 4 (−2,4)

−1 𝑔(−1) = (−1) = 1 (−1,1)

0 𝑔(0) = 0 = 1 (0,0)

1 𝑔(1) = 1 = 1 (1,1)

2 𝑔(2) = 2 = 4 (2,4)

3 𝑓(3) = 3 = 9 (3,9)

Page 4 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 (𝑥, 𝑦)

1 1
−3 𝑓(−3) = 2 = 3,
8 8

1 1
−2 𝑓(−2) = 2 = −2,
4 4

1 1
−1 𝑓(−1) = 2 = −1,
2 2

0 𝑓(0) = 2 = 1 (0,1)

1 𝑓(1) = 2 = 2 (1,2)

2 𝑓(2) = 2 = 4 (2,4)

3 𝑓(3) = 2 = 8 (3,8)

As expected, they are very different.

Page 5 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 2: Definition of Exponential Function

The equation

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1

defines an exponential function for each different constant 𝑏, called the

base. The independent variable 𝑥 can assume any real value.

 The domain of 𝑓 is the set of all real numbers, and it can be shown
that the range of 𝑓 is the set of all positive real numbers.
 We require the base 𝑏 to be positive to avoid imaginary numbers
/
such as (−2) .
 Explore why 𝑏 = 0 and 𝑏 = 1 are excluded?

Page 6 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Graphs of Exponential Functions:

Definition 3: Exponential functions as a Parent Function

The parent function of Exponential Functions can be expressed as

𝑦=𝑏 ,

where 𝑏 can be any nonzero constant, and the graph of Exponential

Functions will never cross the 𝑥 axes because 𝑏 > 0 , ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

We have two cases:

Case 1: Graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑏 , 𝑏 > 1:

We have already graphed the function 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥) = 2 .
Let’s draw this function with the function 𝑦 = 𝐺(𝑥) = 5 in the same
coordinate plane.

 The Figure above shows that both graphs are increasing.

 Moreover, the graph of 𝐺(𝑥) = 5 is increasing more rapidly than
the graph of 𝐹(𝑥) = 2 .

Page 7 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Case 2: Graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑏 , 0 < 𝑏 < 1:
Let’s draw the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = with the function

𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) = in the same coordinate plane.

 The Figure above shows that both graphs are decreasing.

 Moreover, the graph of 𝑔(𝑥 ) = is decreasing more rapidly
than the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
 Note that the functions given by 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = can be

rewritten with negative exponents as follow:

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = =2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = = =5 .

Page 8 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 and passes the point −1, and (1, 𝑎).

and one-to-one function.

𝑥 → ∞, 𝑎 → ∞
𝑎 → ∞ as 𝑥 → ∞

Equivalently, 𝑦 = 𝑎 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1

and passes the point 1, , (−1, 𝑎 ).

and one-to-one function.

𝑎 → ∞ as 𝑥 → −∞

𝑎 → 0 as 𝑥 → ∞

Page 9 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 1

(a) Draw the graph of each function in the same coordinate plane (Plot
some Points on each graph). Hint: Use the reflection property to draw
𝑔(𝑥).

(b) Find the domain and the range each function.

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 (ii) 𝑔(𝑥) =

Solution

Page 10 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar

Alsuhaimi
 The Natural Base 𝒆:

 An irrational number, symbolized by the letter 𝑒, appears as the

base in many applied exponential functions.

 The number 𝑒 is defined as the value that 1 + approaches as 𝑛

gets larger and larger.

 Table Below shows values of 1 + for increasingly large values

of 𝑛.
 As 𝑛 → ∞, the approximate value of 𝑒 to nine decimal places is
 𝑒 ≈ 2.718281827.
 The irrational number 𝑒, approximately 2.72, is called the natural
base.

Page 11 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar

Alsuhaimi
 The Natural Exponential Function

 The base of an exponential function can be any positive real

number other than 1.
 The number 10 is a convenient base to use for some situations, but
the number 𝑒 is often the best base to use in real-life applications.
 The exponential function with 𝑒 as the base is known as the natural
exponential function.

Definition 4: Definition of the Natural Exponential Function

For all real numbers 𝑥, the function defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒

is called the natural exponential function.

The graph of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 :

 Plot the points given in the Table below, and then connect the points
with a smooth curve.

 Because 𝑒 > 1, we know that the graph is an increasing function.

 To the far left, the graph will approach the 𝑥-axis.
 The 𝑦-intercept is (0,1).

Page 12 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar

Alsuhaimi
  We start with the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 and reflect in the 𝑦-axis to obtain
the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 as in the Figure below.
 From the graph we see that
 the domain of 𝑓 is the set ℝ of all real numbers,
 the range is the interval (0, ∞),
 and the line 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Page 13 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar

Alsuhaimi
Arithmetic Properties of the Natural Exponential Function

For each pair of real numbers 𝑥 , 𝑥 we have

 𝑒 ⋅𝑒 =𝑒 ,

 =𝑒 ,

 (𝑒 ) =𝑒 .

Page 14 of 26 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar

Alsuhaimi
 Calculus 1 (Math 101)

1.6 Logarithmic Functions

Page 1 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Outline:

Chapter 1: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1.6 Logarithmic Functions

1.6.1 Logarithms

1.6.2 Logarithmic Functions

1.6.3 Properties of Logarithms

Page 2 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3 Logarithmic Functions

1.3.1 Logarithms
 Every exponential function of the form 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 is a one-to-one
function and therefore has an inverse function.
 Sometimes we can determine the inverse of a function represented
by an equation by interchanging the variables of its equation and
then solving for the dependent variable.
 If we attempt to use this procedure for 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑏 , we obtain
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑏
𝑦 =𝑏
𝑥=𝑏 Interchange the variables.
(Note that 𝑏 > 0 , ∀ 𝑦 ∈ ℝ ⇒ 𝑥 > 0. )
 None of our previous methods can be used to solve the equation
𝑥 = 𝑏 for the exponent 𝑦.
 Thus, we need to develop a new procedure. One method would be
to merely write

𝑦 = the power of 𝑏 that produces 𝑥

 We need a compact notation to represent " 𝑦 is the power of 𝑏 that

produces 𝑥."
 This more compact notation is given in the following definition.

Page 3 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 1: Definition of a Logarithm and a Logarithmic Function

 If 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑏 is a positive constant (𝑏 ≠ 1), then

𝑦 = log 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑏 = 𝑥

 The notation log 𝑥 is read "the logarithm (or log ) base 𝑏 of 𝑥."
 The function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥 is a logarithmic function with
base 𝑏.
 This function is the inverse of the exponential function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 .

 It is essential to remember that 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥 is the inverse

function of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 .
 Because these functions are inverses and because functions that
are inverses have the property that
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥,
we have the following important relationships.

Definition 2: Composition of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log 𝑥 , 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1.

Then

𝑔 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏 = 𝑥, 𝑥 > 0,
and

𝑓 𝑔(𝑥 ) = log 𝑏 = 𝑥, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

Page 4 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  As an example of these relationships,
let 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2 and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log 𝑥.
Then
2 = 𝑥 and log 2 = 𝑥

 The equations
𝑦 = log 𝑥 and 𝑏 = 𝑥
are different ways of expressing the same concept.

Change from Logarithmic to Exponential Form

Evaluating Logarithms:
Example 1

Evaluate:
(a) log 16 (b) log 5

Solution

(a) log 16

“Question Needed for Evaluation”

2 to what power gives 16?

2? = 16 ∴ log 16 = 4 because 2 = 16

Page 5 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(b) log 5

Let log 5 = 𝑥 ⇔ 25 = 5

⇒ (5 ) = 5
⇒5 =5
1
⇒ 2𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 =
2

1
∴ log 5= .
2

Basic Logarithmic Properties:

Definition 3: Basic Logarithmic Properties Involving One

(1) log 𝑏 = 1 because (𝑏 = 𝑏).

(2) log 1 = 0 because (𝑏 = 1)

Example 2

Using Properties of Logarithms Evaluate:

(a) log 7 (b) log 1.

Solution

(a) log 7 = 1 (Using property (1))

(b) log 1 = 0 (Using property (2))

Page 6 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  We have discussed if 𝑓 is one-to- one and 𝑓 is its inverse then:

𝑓 (𝑓 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 and 𝑓 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥.

 Applying these relationships to exponential and logarithmic

functions, we obtain the following inverse properties of
logarithms:

Definition 4: Inverse Properties of Logarithms

For 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1,

(3) log 𝑏 = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ .
(4) 𝑏 = 𝑥, 𝑥 > 0.

Example 3

Using Inverse Properties of Logarithms, evaluate:

(a) log 4 , (b) 6 .

Solution

(a) log 4 = 5 (Using property (3)).

(b) 6 =9 (Using property (4)).

Definition 5: One-to-One Property

If 𝑥 > 0 , 𝑦 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, then log 𝑥 = log 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦.

Note that for 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1,

log 𝑥 = −log 𝑥

Page 7 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions:

 Because 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥 is the inverse function of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 , the graph

of 𝑓 is a reflection of the graph of 𝑔 across the line given by 𝑦 = 𝑥.
 The graph of 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 is shown in the Figure below.
 The Table below shows some of the ordered pairs of the graph of 𝑔.

 The graph of the inverse of 𝑔, which is 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥 , is also shown in

the Figure below.
 Some of the ordered pairs of 𝑓 are shown in the Table below.

 Note that if (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the graph of 𝑔, then (𝑦, 𝑥) is a point on

the graph of 𝑓.
 Also notice that the graph of 𝑓 is a
reflection of the graph of 𝑔 across
the line given by 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Page 8 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  Case 1: Graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑥 , 𝑏 > 1:

 The Figure above shows the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2

and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑥.
 We can see that both graphs are increasing.

Characteristics of Logarithmic Function

 Domain: (0, ∞)

 Range: (−∞, ∞)

 Intercept: (1,0) and passes the point (𝑏, 1) and , −1 .

 Increasing.

 𝒚-axis (𝑥 = 0) is a vertical asymptote (log 𝑥 → −∞ as 𝑥 → 0).

 Continuous and one-to-one function.

 Case 2: Graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑏 < 1.

Let’s graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑥 in the
same coordinate plane.

Page 9 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

  The Figure above shows that both graphs are decreasing.

 Domain: (0, ∞)

 Range: (−∞, ∞)

 Intercept: (1,0) and passes the point (𝑏, 1) and , −1 .

 Decreasing

 𝑦-axis is a vertical asymptote ( log 𝑥 → ∞ as 𝑥 → 0).

 Continuous and one-to-one function

We can also graph the function 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑥 by rewriting 𝑔(𝑥) in the

form 𝑔(𝑥) = −log 𝑥.

Then, we graph the function ℎ(𝑥) = log 𝑥 first and reflect its graph about
𝑥-axis to get the graph 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log 𝑥.

Page 10 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.3.3 Properties of Logarithms
Expanding Logarithmic Expressions:

Definition 6: Properties of Logarithms

For 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦 > 0:

Product rule: log (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑥 + log 𝑦

Example: log (7𝑥) = log 7 + log 𝑥 .

Quotient rule: log = log 𝑥 − log 𝑦

Example: log = log 𝑥 − log 2.

Power rule: log 𝑥 = 𝑝 log 𝑥

Example: log 𝑥 = 2log 𝑥.

Example 4

Use the Properties of Logarithms rules to expand each logarithmic

expression:
√
(a) log (4𝑥) (b) log 𝑥 𝑦 (c) log .

Solution

(a) log (4𝑥) = 5 log 4𝑥 = 5(log 4 + log 𝑥 ) = 5 log 4 + 5 log 𝑥.

(b)

log 𝑥 𝑦 = log 𝑥 + log 𝑦

= 2 log 𝑥 + log 𝑦

1
= 2 log 𝑥 + log 𝑦
2

Page 11 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c)

√𝑥
log = log √𝑥 − log (36𝑦 )
36𝑦

1
= log 𝑥 − [log 36 + log 𝑦 ]
3
1
= log 𝑥 − log 6 − 4 log 𝑦
3

1
= log 𝑥 − 2 log 6 − 4 log 𝑦
3
1
= log 𝑥 − 2(1) − 4 log 𝑦
3
1
= log 𝑥 − 4 log 𝑦 − 2
3

Checkpoint 1

Use the Properties of Logarithms rules to expand each logarithmic

expression:

(a) log (100𝑥) (b) log

√
(c) log 𝑥 𝑦 (d) log .

Solution

Page 12 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Page 13 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
Condensing Logarithmic Expressions
To condense a logarithmic expression, we write the sum or difference
of two or more logarithmic expressions as a single logarithmic
expression. We use the properties of logarithms to do so.

Coefficients of logarithms must be 1 before you can condense them

using the product and quotient rules.

Example 5

Write as a single logarithm:

(a) log 2 + log 3 (b) log (4𝑥 − 3) − log 𝑥.
(c) log 𝑥 + 4 log (𝑥 − 1) (d) 4log 𝑥 − 2log 6 − log 𝑦

Solution

(a) log 2 + log 3 = log (2 × 3) = log 6.

(b) log (4𝑥 − 3) − log 𝑥 = log .

(c)

log 𝑥 + 4 log (𝑥 − 1) = log 𝑥 + log (𝑥 − 1) = log √𝑥(𝑥 − 1)

(d) 4 log 𝑥 − 2 log 6 − log 𝑦

= log 𝑥 − log 6 − log 𝑦

𝑥
= log
36 𝑦

Page 14 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 2

Write as a single logarithm:

(a) log 25 + log 4 (b) log (7𝑥 + 6) − log 𝑥.
(c) 2log (𝑥 − 3) − log 𝑥 (d) log 𝑦 − 2 log 5 − 10 log 𝑦.

Solution

Page 15 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Natural Logarithms
Of all possible bases 𝑏 for logarithms, it turns out that the most
convenient choice for the purposes of calculus is the number 𝑒.

Definition 7: Natural Logarithms

The logarithm with base 𝑒 is called the natural logarithm and is

denoted by ln :

ln 𝑥 = log 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0.

 The natural logarithmic function 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 is the inverse function of

the natural exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 .
 Both functions are graphed in the Figure
below.
By the definition of inverse functions, we
have
ln 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑒 = 𝑥 .

Properties of Natural Logarithms

 ln 1 = 0
 ln 𝑒 = 1
 ln 𝑒 = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
 𝑒 = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 > 0.

Example 6

Evaluate (a) ln (b) ln 𝑒

Page 16 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Solution

(a) ln = ln 𝑒 = −2 ln 𝑒 = −2(1) = −2

(b) ln 𝑒 = 8 ln 𝑒 = 8(1) = 8

Example 7

Use the properties of logarithms to expand the following logarithmic

expressions.
Assume all variable expressions represent positive real numbers.
√
(a) log (𝑥𝑦 ) (b) ln

Solution

(a) log 𝑥 + 2 log 𝑦

√
(b) ln = ln 𝑒 𝑦 − ln 𝑧

= ln 𝑒 + ln 𝑦 − 3 ln 𝑧

= 1 + ln 𝑦 − 3ln 𝑧

Example 8

Use the properties of logarithms to rewrite each expression as a single

logarithm with a coefficient of 1.
Assume all variable expressions represent positive real numbers.
(a) 2ln 𝑥 + ln (𝑥 + 4) (b) 2ln (𝑥 + 4) − ln 𝑥 − ln (𝑥 − 3)
(c) ln(3𝑥 ) −(2 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦)

Solution

(a) 2ln 𝑥 + ln (𝑥 + 4)

= ln 𝑥 + ln √𝑥 + 4 = ln 𝑥 √𝑥 + 4
Page 17 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
(b) 2 ln(𝑥 + 4) − ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 − 3)

= ln (𝑥 + 4) − ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 − 3)

( ) ( )
= ln ( )
= ln

(c) ln(3𝑥 ) −(2 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦)

= ln 3𝑥 − 2 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦

= ln 3𝑥 − ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦

= ln = ln

Change-of-Base Formula
Definition 8: Change-of-Base Formula

If 𝑥, 𝑎, and 𝑏 are positive real numbers with 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑏 ≠ 1, then

log 𝑥
log 𝑥 =
log 𝑏

Because most calculators use only common logarithms (𝑎 = 10) or

natural logarithms (𝑎 = 𝑒), the change-of-base formula is used most often
in the following form.
If 𝑥 and 𝑏 are positive real numbers and 𝑏 ≠ 1, then

log 𝑥 ln 𝑥
log 𝑥 = =
log 𝑏 ln 𝑏

Example 9

Use common logarithms to evaluate log 140.

Solution

Page 18 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 log 𝑀
log 𝑀 =
log 𝑏

log 140
log 140 =
log 5

≈ 3.07. Use a calculator

Page 19 of 31 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi