INTRODUCTION

Control in process industries refers to the

regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, temperature,
pressure and flow is important in many
process applications. This module
introduces you to control in process
industries, explains why control is
important, and identifies different ways in
which precise control is ensured. The
following five sections are included module
❑ The importance of process control
❑ Control theory basics
❑ Components of control loops & symbols
❑ Controller algorithms and tuning
❑ Process control systems
As you proceed through the module,
answer the questions in the activities
column on the right side of each page. Also,
note the application boxes (double-
bordered boxes) located throughout the
module. Application boxes provide key
information about how you may use your
baseline knowledge in the field. When you
see the workbook exercise graphic at the
bottom of a page, go to the workbook to
complete the designated exercise before
moving on in the module. Workbook
exercises help you measure your progress
toward meeting each section’s learning
objectives.
Refining, combining, handling, and
otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably
produce end products can be a precise,
demanding, and potentially hazardous
process. Small changes in a process can
have a large impact on the end result.
Variations in proportions, temperature,
flow, turbulence, and many other factors
must be carefully and consistently
controlled to produce the desired end
product with a minimum of raw materials
and energy. Process control technology is
the tool that enables manufacturers to
keep their operations running within
specified limits and to set more precise
limits to maximize profitability, ensure
quality and safety.
Automatic Process Control Concept
1) Automatic Means :
*Operating with minimal human intervention;
independent of external control ,,without volition or
conscious control
"the automatic shrinking of the pupils of the eye in strong
light”- as an example.
*A car with automatic transmission = I never learned to
drive a stick. I can only drive an automatic
*Capable of operating without external control or
intervention. simply means that you shouldn’t repair it
yourself.

2) Process Control Means :

Process control is a statistics and engineering discipline
that deals with architectures, mechanisms and algorithms
for maintaining the output of a specific process within a
desired range.
Example of a continuous flow control loop. Signalling is
by industry standard 4-20 mA current loops, and a
"smart" the control valve operates correctly
Automatic process control:
That in continuous production processes is a combination
of control engineering and chemical
engineering disciplines that uses industrial control
systems to achieve a production level of consistency,
economy and safety which could not be achieved purely by
human manual control. It is implemented widely in
industries such as oil refining, pulp and paper
manufacturing, chemical processing and power generating
plants.
There is a wide range of size, type and complexity, but it
enables a small number of operators to manage complex
processes to a high degree of consistency. The
development of large automatic process control systems
was instrumental in enabling the design of large high
volume and complex processes, which could not be
otherwise economically or safely operated.
In process control, there is process gain. Process gain is
the relationship between the process control output and
the process control input, and is defined as the change in
input divided by the change in output. Positive gain is
when both the input and the output are increasing, while
negative gain is when the input increases, while the output
decreases.
The applications can range from controlling the
temperature and level of a single process vessel, to a
complete chemical processing plant with several thousand
control loops.
• Any processing program as a circle started by Input -
the information entered into a computer
system, examples include: typed text, mouse clicks,
etc. Processing - the process of
transforming input information into
and output. Output – the visual, auditory, or tactile
perceptions provided by the computer
after processing the provided information.
As an example to get job you have to provide your input
data )Curriculum vitae )
PROCESS CONTROL
Process control refers to the methods that are used to
control process variables to achieve required output.
Modules of course objective
1- Feedback control
2- Process control
3- Process characteristics
4- Process variable
5- Instrumentation symbols
6- Instrumentation loop diagram
7- Piping & instrumentation drawings
8- Controller tuning
9- Elements of process control system
10- Troubleshooting & Maintenance

Module 1 – Feedback Control

Such as Vehicle Driven

Bathroom toilet tank ( working as feedback control system)
STEAM BOILER

Consequently, there are two sensor’s element both in

linear characteristics (temperature and pressure), therefore
this process must contain root retractors before using
comparator selector switches
Module 2 – Process Control Modes
It explains the four modes of control action that are commonly used to
control industrial process operations (i.e., two-position, proportional,
integral, and derivative). Objectives: Identify the four types of process
control modes. Classify each of the four process control modes as either
discrete or continuous.

Control loops

Example Of A continuous flow control

loop. Signalling is by industry standard
4-20 mA current loops, and a "smart"
valve positioner ensures the control
valve operates correctly.

The fundamental building block of any

industrial control system is the control
loop, which controls just one process
variable. An example is shown in the
accompanying diagram, where the flow rate in a pipe is controlled by a
PID controller, assisted by what is effectively a cascaded loop in the form
of a valve servo-controller to ensure correct valve positioning.

Some large systems may have several hundreds or thousands of control

loops. In complex processes the loops are interactive, so that the
operation of one loop may affect the operation of another. The system
diagram for representing control loops is a P&I D

Example of level control system of a continuous stirred-tank reactor. The flow control
into the tank would be cascaded off the level control

A further example is shown. If a control valve were used to hold level in a

tank, the level controller would compare the equivalent reading of a level
sensor to the level setpoint and determine whether more or less valve
opening was necessary to keep the level constant. A cascaded flow
controller could then calculate the change in the valve Commonly used
controllers are programmable logic controller (PLC), Distributed Control
System (DCS) or SCADA. position. A programmable logic controller (PLC)
is a

specialized processor/ computer with all the hardware and software to

do a specific automation task, say running a plant/factory. This means
that all the Field/REL world Inputs are processed by the PLC (using Input
interface hardware )and the same then issues commands to various
devices and actuators(via Output interface).
Module 3 – Process Characteristics

Crude oil treatment:

Crude oil cannot be used directly for industrial purposes.
Thus, before being delivered to the users it must be
subjected to the process plant to reach the quality
standards defined in the specifications of sale.
The crude oil must therefore:
- Be stabilized to eliminate the volatile components such
as methane.
- The emulsified water content must be reduced.
- Be more or less free from the salts.

The important of the process plant:

* To separate formation water.
* To separate the salt from the crude oil.
* To separate the associated gas.

The procedures of crude oil treatment:

Movement: from wellhead to process area.
Separation: separation of water and associated gases.
Stabilization and treatment:
elimination of emulsified water.

Treatment of emulsions:
Emulsions are mixtures of two or more dissimilar fluids.
They are normally created by the individual components
being subjected to changes in pressure and agitation.
Such conditions arise when oil and water leave the
reservoir and move up the production string through the
choke and other items of equipment, end route – track - to
the separator.
Water is associated with the crude oil as following:

1- Free water:
This water is not intimately mixed in with the crude. It is
basically a volume of water that just happens to be
moving along with the crude, such as in a pipeline.
Free water should settle out the oil in any quiescent zone.
It should settle in separators, knockout separator and
storage tanks.
The rate of settling of an immiscible liquid (water) from
another liquid (oil) can be calculated from the following
equation:
K (ρw - ρo) gd2
Rate of settling =
μ
Where:
K = constant of system involved.
ρw = density of water.
ρo = density of oil.
g = gravity factor.
d = diameter of droplet.
μ = viscosity of oil.
2- Emulsified water:
If the water and crude oil have been intimately mixed due
to turbulent flow together or by the shearing action when
passing through pumps, orifices, valves, etc. Then an
emulsion is formed. Tiny droplets of water are scattered
through the continuous oil phase that called water-in-oil
emulsion.
The electrical, heating and chemical treatment are the
efficient way to separate the emulsified water from the
oil.
On the other hand, we deliberately inject wash water into
the crude to create an emulsion to wash out salts and
solids.

3- Soluble water:
The solubility of water in oil is to a great extent a
function of temperature but is also dependent upon the
type of hydrocarbon.
Soluble water will not settle out with time. In fact
lowering the temperature of the oil is really the only way
to remove at least some of the soluble water. Neither
electrical nor chemical dehydration will remove soluble
water.
API is the American petroleum institute.
API gravity is based on empirical scale gravities in
degrees.
API gravity and normal specific gravity are linked by the
formula:

API degree = (141.5/ sp. Gravity) - 131.5

Module 4 – Process Variables

Process variable is a condition of the process fluid
(a liquid or gas ) that can change the manufacturing
process in some way. The measured variable is the
condition of process fluid that must be kept at the
designated set point.
Module 5– Instrumentation Symbols

Flow Sensors Symbols Used in P&IDs:

flow sensors
Module 6– Instrument Loop Diagrams
There are different loops for instruments system depends
upon its function in electric, pneumatic, mechanic, etc.

The (4–20 Ma) convention was born in the 1950s out of the earlier highly
successful( 3–15 psi) pneumatic control signal standard, when electronics
became cheap and reliable enough to emulate the older standard
electrically. The( 3–15 psi) standard had the same features of being able to
power some remote devices, and have a "live" zero.
However the (4–20 Ma) standard was better suited to the electronic
controllers then being developed.

The transition was gradual and has extended into the 21st century, due to the huge
installed base of 3–15 psi devices. As the operation of pneumatic valves over motorised
valves has many cost and reliability advantages, pneumatic actuation is still an industry
standard.
BASIC OF FLAPPER / NOZZLE SYSTEM AS AN PNEUMATIC LOOP
To allow the construction of hybrid systems, where the 4–20 mA is
generated by the controller, but allows the use of pneumatic valves,
a range of current to pressure (I to P) converters are available from
manufacturers. These are usually located locally to the control
valve and convert 4–20 mA to 3–15 psi (or 0.2–1.0 bar). This signal
is then fed to the valve actuator or more commonly, a pneumatic
positioner.
 The positioner is a dedicated controller which has a mechanical linkage to the actuator
movement. This ensures that problems of friction are overcome and the valve control
element moves to the desired position. It also allows the use of higher air pressures for
valve actuation.
With the development of cheap industrial micro-processors, "smart" valve positioners
have become available since the mid-1980s and are very popular for new installations.
These include an I to P converter, plus valve position and condition monitoring. These
latter are fed back over the current loop to the controller, using such as
the HART protocol.
Module 7– Piping and Instrumentation Drawings

IP Code,
International Protection Marking, IEC standard 60529,
sometimes interpreted as Ingress Protection Marking, classifies
and rates the degree of protection provided against intrusion (body
parts such as hands and fingers), dust, accidental contact, and water
by mechanical casings and electrical enclosures. It is published by
the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The equivalent
European standard is EN 60529. The standard aims to provide users
more detailed information than vague marketing terms such
as waterproof. For example, a cellular phone rated at IP58 is "dust
resistant" and can be "immersed in 1.5 meters of freshwater for up
to 30 minutes". Similarly, an electrical socket rated IP22 is protected
against insertion of fingers and will not be damaged or become
unsafe during a specified test in which it is exposed to vertically or
nearly vertically dripping water. IP22 or IP2X are typical minimum
requirements for the design of electrical accessories for indoor use.
The digits indicate conformity with the conditions summarized in the
tables below. The digit 0 is used where no protection is provided.
The digit is replaced with the letter X when insufficient data has been
gathered to assign a protection level.
Further letters can be appended to provide additional
information related to the protection of the device:
Letter Meaning
f Oil resistant
H High voltage device
M Device moving during water test
S Device standing still during water test
W Weather conditions

Module 8- Controller Tuning

A control loop is a process management system designed to maintain a
process variable at a desired set point. Each step in the loop works in
conjunction with the others to manage the system. Once the set point has
been established, the control loop operates using a four-step process.
Control tuning
with the others to manage the system. Once the set point To tune the
control device then must refer to the set value in manual mode before
transfer to automatic mode.
PID controller theory
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate
parameters; the proportional, the integral and derivative values. The
proportional value determines the reaction to the current error, the
integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors,
and the derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at which
the error has been changing. The weighted sum of these three actions is
used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a
control valve or the power supply of a heating element.
By tuning the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the
controller can provide control action designed for specific process
requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of
the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the
controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation.
Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee
optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide
the appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of
undesired control outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD,
P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI
controllers are particularly common, since derivative action is very
sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence of an integral value may
prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.

Note: Due to the diversity of the field of control theory and application,
many naming conventions for the relevant variables are in common use
This section describes the parallel or non-interacting form of the PID
controller. For other forms please see the Section "Alternative notation
and PID forms".
The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose
sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). Hence
:

where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID
controller from each of the three terms, as defined below

Proportional term

The proportional term (sometimes called gain) makes a change to the

output that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional
response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called
the proportional gain
The proportional term is given by:
Where
• Pout: Proportional term of output
• Kp: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given
change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can
become unstable (See the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small gain
results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less
responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the
control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.
In the absence of disturbances, pure proportional control will not settle at
its target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the
proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset,
both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the
proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the output change.
Integral term

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)

The contribution from the integral term (sometimes called reset) is
proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the
error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error)
gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously.
The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to
the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral
term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki.
The integral term is given by:

Where
• Iout: Integral term of output
• Ki: Integral gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
• τ: A dummy integration variable
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the
movement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual
steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only controller.
However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors from
the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value
(cross over the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other direction).
For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller stability,
see the section on loop tuning

Derivative term

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Kd (Kp and Ki held constant)

The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the
slope of the error over time (i.e., its first derivative with respect to time)
and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The
magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term (sometimes called
rate) to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd
The derivative term is given by:

Where
• Dout: Derivative term of output
• Kd: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and
this effect is most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence,
derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot
produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-
process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and
thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error
term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the
derivative gain are sufficiently large
Summary
The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate
the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output, the
final form of the PID algorithm is:

The Tuning Parameters Are:

Proportional gain, Kp
larger values typically mean faster response since the larger the error, the
larger the Proportional term compensation. An excessively large
proportional gain will lead to process instability and oscillation.
Integral gain, Ki
larger values imply steady state errors are eliminated more quickly. The
trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient
response must be integrated away by positive error before we reach steady
state.
Derivative gain, Kd
larger values decrease overshoot, but slows down transient response and
may lead to instability due to signal noise amplification in the
differentiation of the error.

Manual tuning ‫الخالصة يا باشمهندس‬

One Tuning Method Is To First Set Ki And Kd Values To Zero.
Increase The Kp Until The Output Of The Loop Oscillates,
Then The Kp Should Be Left Set To Be Approximately
Half Of That Value For A "Quarter Amplitude Decay" Type Response.
Then Increase Ki Until Any Offset Is Correct For The Process.
However, Too Much Ki Will Cause Instability.
Finally, Increase Kd, If Required, Until The Loop Is Acceptably Quick To
Reach It’s Reference After A Load Disturbance. However, Too Much Kd
Will Cause Excessive Response And Overshoot.
A Fast PID Loop Tuning Usually Overshoots Slightly To Reach The
Setpoint More Quickly; However, Some Systems Cannot Accept
Overshoot, In Which Case An "Over-Damped" Closed-Loop System
Is Required, Which Will Require A Kp Setting Significantly
Less Than Half That Of The Kp Setting Causing Oscillation.
As per effective table under : -
Effects of increasing parameters

Settling Error at
Parameter Rise time Overshoot
time equilibrium

Small
Kp Decrease Increase Decrease
change

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Indefinite (small
Kd decrease or Decrease Decrease None
increase)

Why is electronic controller preferred to pneumatic controller?

*Electronic signals operate over great distance without time lags.
*Electronic signals can be made compatible with digital controllers
*Electronic devices can be designed to be maintenance free.
*Intrinsic safety techniques eliminate electrical hazards.
*Less expensive to install.

*More energy efficient.

Module 9 : Elements of a Process Control System

A) Sensing element C) Transmitting element B) Final element
-The term automatic process control came into wide use when people
learned to adapt automatic regulatory procedures to manufacture
products or process material more efficiently. Such procedures are called
automatic because no human (manual) intervention is required to
regulate them.
-All process systems consist of three main factors or terms: the

manipulated variables, disturbances, and the controlled variables.

Typical manipulated variables are valve position, motor speed, damper
position, or blade pitch. The controlled variables are those conditions,
such as temperature, level, position, pressure, pH, density, moisture
content, weight, and speed, that must be maintained at some desired
value. For each controlled variable there is an associated manipulated
variable. The control system must adjust the manipulated variables so
the desired value or “set point” of the controlled variable is maintained
despite any disturbances.

The following figure illustrates the essential elements of a process

control system. In the system shown, a level transmitter (LT), a level

controller (LC), and a control valve (LV) are used to control the liquid level
in a process tank. The purpose of this control system is to maintain the
liquid level at some prescribed height (H) above the bottom of the tank.
It is assumed that the rate of flow into the tank is random. The level
transmitter is a device that measures the fluid level in the tank and
converts it into a useful measurement signal, which is sent to a level
controller. The level controller evaluates the measurement, compares it
with a desired set point (SP), and produces a series of corrective actions
that are sent to the control valve. The valve controls the flow of fluid in
the outlet pipe to maintain a level in the tank.

-Thus, a process control system consists of four essential elements:

process, measurement, evaluation, and control. A block diagram of these
elements is shown in the following figure. The diagram also shows the
disturbances that enter or affect the process. If there were no upsets to
a process, there would be no need for the control system. The figure also
shows the input and output of the process and the set point used for
control.
PROCESS
In general, a process consists of an assembly of equipment and material
that is related to some manufacturing operation or sequence. In the
example presented, the process whose liquid level is placed under control
includes such components as a tank, the liquid in the tank, and the flow
of liquid into and out of the tank, and the inlet and outlet piping. Any
given process can involve many dynamic variables, and it may be
desirable to control all of them. In most cases, however, controlling only
one variable will be sufficient to control the process to within acceptable
limits. One occasionally encounters a multivariable process in which
many variables, some interrelated, require regulation.

MEASUREMENT
- To control a dynamic variable in a process, you must have information
about the entity or variable itself. This information is obtained by
measuring the variable.
- Measurement refers to the conversion of the process variable into an
analog or digital signal that can be used by the control system. The device
that performs the initial measurement is called a sensor or instrument.
Typical measurements are pressure, level, temperature, flow, position,
and speed. The result of any measurement is the conversion of a dynamic
variable into some proportional information that is required by the other
elements in the process control loop or sequence.
EVALUATION
- In the evaluation step of the process control sequence, the
measurement value is examined, compared with the desired value or set
point, and the amount of corrective action needed to maintain proper
control is determined. A device called a controller performs this
evaluation. The controller can be a pneumatic, electronic, or mechanical
device mounted in a control panel or on the process equipment. It can
also be part of a computer control system, in which case the control
function is performed by software.
CONTROL
The control element in a control loop is the device that exerts a direct
influence on the process or manufacturing sequence. This final control
element accepts an input from the controller and transforms it into some
proportional operation that is performed on the process. In most cases,
this final control element will be a control valve that adjusts the flow of
fluid in a process. Devices such as electrical motors, pumps, and dampers
are also used as control elements.
Process and Instrumentation Drawings
-In standard P&IDs, the process flow lines, such as process fluid and
steam, are indicated with heavier solid lines than the lines that are used
to represent the instrument. The instrument signal lines use special
markings to indicate whether the signal is pneumatic, electric, hydraulic,
and so on. two types of instrument signals are used: double cross-
hatched lines denote the pneumatic signals to the steam control valve
and the process outlet flow control valve, and a dashed line is used for
the electrical control lines between various instruments. In process
control applications, pneumatic signals are almost always 3 to 15 psig
(i.e., pounds per square inch, gauge pressure), and the electric signals are
normally 4 to 20 mA (milliamperes) DC (direct current).

- A balloon symbol with an enclosed letter and number code is used to

represent the instrumentation associated with the process control loop.
This letter and number combination is called an instrument identification
or instrument tag number.
- The first letter of the tag number is normally chosen so that it indicates
the measured variable of the control loop. In the sample P&ID shown, T
is the first letter in the tag number that is used for the instruments in the
temperature control loop. The succeeding letters are used to represent
readout or passive function or an output function, or the letter can be
used as a modifier. For example, the balloon in Figure marked TE
represents a temperature element and that marked TIC is a temperature-
indicating controller. The line across the center of the TIC balloon symbol
indicates that the controller is mounted on the front of a main control
panel. No line indicates a field-mounted instrument, and two lines means
that the instrument is mounted in a local or field-mounted panel. Dashed
lines indicate that the instrument is mounted inside the panel.
- Normally, sequences of three- or four-digit numbers are used to identify
each loop. In our process example, we used loop numbers 100 and 101.
Smaller processes use three-digit loop numbers; larger processes or
complex manufacturing plants may require four or more digits to identify
all the control loops.
- Special marks or graphics are used to represent process equipment and
instruments. For example, in our P&ID example in Figure two parallel
lines represent the orifice plate that is used to detect the discharge flow
from the process heater.
 The Final Control Element

Being The Final Control Element In A System Is Not An Easy

Job. To Start With, You Are Blamed For Any And All Problems
That Crop Up In The Process. You Are Subjected To Corrosion,
High Velocity, Cavitations, Flashing Liquids, Cryogenic
Temperatures, High Temperatures, Abrasion, And Thermal
Shock. You Are Expected Not Only To Throttle Along Through
All This, But Most Likely, You Are Also Being Asked To Act
As A Block Valve And Shut Off Tight.
As You Work With Control Valves Always Keep In Mind That

A Control Valve Only Does What It Is Told To Do.

A Control Valve Is A Power-Operated Device Used To

Modify The Fluid Flow Rate In A Process System. Well, What
Happens If The Power Is Cut Off? When A Control Valve Is
Sized Or Selected To Do A Particular Job, One Of The First
Questions You Should Consider Is How That Valve Will
Respond In The Event Of A Loss Of Signal Or Power. This Is
Called Its "Fail-Safe Mode" And Knowing The Fail-Safe Mode
Is The Key To Troubleshooting It.
In Most Applications (About 80%), It Is Desirable For
Valves To Fail Closed. In Other Applications, You Might Want
A Valve To Fail Open Or Fail In Place. Safety Concerns And
Process Requirements Will Mandate The Fall Mode Of The
Valve.

When A Valve Is Not Sitting In Its Fail Position, It Is

Being Told How And When To Move By Some
External Signal

By The Comments One Hears, You Would Be Led To

Believe That Control Valves Sit Around And Think Up Things
To Do On Their Own. Perhaps This Will Some Day Be True
When All Control Valves Are "Smart."
If A Control Valve Is Observed In An Unstable Condition Or
Appears To Not Be Responding Correctly To An Input Signal,
Remember That

Something Is Telling The Valve To Behave That Way.

A Control Valve Is Only As Strong As Its Weakest
Link.
When The 1965 Ford Mustang First Appeared, It Was Powered
By A 6-Cylinder Engine With A 3-Speed Transmission - But It
Had A 140 M.P.H.(225 K.P.H.) Speedometer. The Fact That It
Had A 140 M.P.H.(225 K.P.H.) Speedometer Did Not Mean It
Could Actually Travel That Fast. In The Same Way, A Control
Valve With A 600# Rated Valve Body Cannot Throttle And Shut
Off Against 1440 Pounds Of Pressure.
There Are Two Basic Types Of Control Valves: Rotary And
Linear. Linear-Motion Control Valves Commonly Have Globe,
Gate, Diaphragm, Or Pinch - Type Closures. Rotary-Motion
Valves Have Ball, Butterfly, Or Plug Closures. Each Type Of
Valve Has Its Special Generic Features, Which May, In A Given
Application, Be Either An Advantage Or A Disadvantage
 Linear Valve Features
• TORTUOUS FLOW PATH
• LOW RECOVERY
• CAN THROTTLE SMALL FLOW
RATES
• OFFERS VARIETY OF SPECIAL
TRIM DESIGNS
• SUITED TO HIGH-PRESSURE
APPLICATIONS
• USUALLY FLANGED OR
THREADED
• SEPARABLE BONNET

Rotary Valve Features

• STREAMLINED FLOW PATH
• HIGH RECOVERY
• MORE CAPACITY
• LESS PACKING WEAR
• CAN HANDLE SLURRY AND
ABRASIVES
• FLANGELESS
• INTEGRAL BONNET
• HIGH RANGEABILITY

In Addition To Linear And Rotary, Control Valves Are Also

Classified According To Their Guiding Systems And The Types
Of Services They Are Used In.
 Control Valve Classification

Cv is the flow coefficient in imperial units. It is defined as

the flow rate in US Gallons per minute [gpm] of water at a
temperature of 60º Fahrenheit with a pressure drop across
the valve of 1 psi.
Kv is the flow coefficient in metric units. It is defined as
the flow rate in cubic meters per hour [m3/h] of water at a
temperature of 16º Celsius with a pressure drop across the
valve of 1 bar.

Kv = 0.865 · Cv & Cv = 1,156 · Kv

At valves which discharge the flow directly into the environment it

is used the non-dimensional Discharge Coefficient(C).
Each property is used for the appropriate medium

• A quick opening to the frantic flow like GAS

• A linear flow is as calm as WATER
• Equals percentage rich flow like OIL
Final Control Elements - Control Valves
Process control engineers treat final control elements in the same way they
treat measurement devices - with absolute indifference. To most of them,
a valve is a valve is a valve. It's job is to open and close according to what
the controller tells them and they do just that. The problem is, in a
shocking number of cases, they don't.

Control valves and dampers, being mechanical devices are subjected to a

lot of mechanical issues like wear and tear, deterioration with
time. Measurement devices these days are very robust and most would
not deteriorate drastically with time. When they fail, they just go. The
controller running inside the modern distributed control system (DCS) is
even more reliable with a hot standby ready to take over in case of
failure. The same cannot be said about final control elements. Therefore
the weakest link in the process control loop is frequently the final control
element.
Oil Quality: API Gravity
A crude oil's density is an important measure of its overall quality. This is because lighter oils
are generally easier to produce and refine than heavy oils, and therefore tend to have higher
value.
Oil density is sometimes expressed in terms of its specific gravity, but more often is given
as API gravity.
The specific gravity (S.G.) of a liquid is defined as the density of that liquid divided by the
density of fresh water. Fresh water has a density of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. An oil with a
density of 53 pounds per cubic foot, therefore, would have a specific gravity of (53/62.4), or
0.85. Fresh water, by definition, has a specific gravity of 1.0.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has developed a special measure that expresses oil
density in terms of API gravity, or ºAPI. It is related to the specific gravity as follows:
S.G. = 141.5/(131.5+ºAPI)
or
ºAPI = (141.5/S.G.) - 131.5
From these relationships, we can determine that fresh water, with a specific gravity of 1.0, has
an API gravity of 10 degrees, while our 0.85 S.G. oil above has an API gravity of 35 degrees;
almost all crude oils are lighter than water and so they will have higher API gravities. Figure
16 shows the correlation between specific gravity and API gravity for various crude oil and
condensate samples.

Natural Gas Measurement

Natural gas is typically measured in terms of its volume at surface conditions and in thermal
energy units. It is measured by weight only when it is in the liquid state (LNG).
Because gas is compressible, its volume varies significantly with changes in temperature and
pressure. In order for gas volume measurements to have any meaning, they have to have some
standard frame of reference. For this reason, the industry has established standard
conditions for referring to all gas volumes - Table .

Unit of Gas Volume

Standard Conditions Area of Common Usage
Measurement

Standard Cubic 14.696 psi (1 USA, Latin America,

Foot (SCF) atmosphere) and 60°F Africa, Middle East.

Standard Cubic 100 kPa (0.987

Europe, Canada, Russia.
Meter (Sm3) atmosphere) and 15°C

Conversions: 1 m3 = 35.315 ft3; 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3

The standard cubic foot and the standard cubic meter are the most widely
used (1 m3=35.31 SCF). Some European countries use conditions called
"Normal" which are for pressure 760 mmHg (14.696 psia or 1
atmosphere) and temperature 0 °C. It is important that these conditions are
clearly defined at the time of signing any gas contract.

Pressure or mechanical stress[edit]

Pressure

Symb
Name of unit Definition Relation to SI units
ol

atmosphere (stand
atm ≡ 101325 Pa[34]
ard)

atmosphere (techn
at ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.80665×104 Pa[34]
ical)

bar bar ≡ 105 Pa

barye (cgs unit) ≡ 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa

centimetre of ≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×

cmHg ≈ 1.33322×103 Pa[34]
mercury 1 cm × ɡ0

centimetre cmH2 ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 ×

≈ 98.0638 Pa[34]
of water (4 °C) O 1 cm × ɡ0
foot of mercury ≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
ftHg ≈ 4.063666×104 Pa[34]
(conventional) 1 ft × ɡ0

foot of water (39.2 ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 ×

ftH2O ≈ 2.98898×103 Pa[34]
°F) 1 ft × ɡ0

inch of
≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
mercury (conventi inHg ≈ 3.386389×103 Pa[34]
1 in × ɡ0
onal)

inch of water (39.2 ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 ×

inH2O ≈ 249.082 Pa[34]
°F) 1 in × ɡ0

kilogram-force per kgf/m

≡ 1 kgf/mm2 = 9.80665×106 Pa[34]
square millimetre m2

kip per
ksi ≡ 1 kipf/sq in ≈ 6.894757×106 Pa[34]
square inch

long ton per ≡ 1 long ton × ɡ0 / ≈ 1.0725178011595×

square foot 1 sq ft 105 Pa

≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
micrometre of
1 m × ɡ0 ≈ ≈ 0.1333224 Pa[34]
mercury mHg
0.001 torr

millimetre of ≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×

mmHg ≈ 133.3224 Pa[34]
mercury 1 mm × ɡ0 ≈ 1 torr

≈ 999.972 kg/m3 ×
millimetre mmH2 1 mm
= 9.80638 Pa
of water (3.98 °C) O × ɡ0 = 0.999972 k
gf/m2

≡ N/m2 =
pascal (SI unit) Pa = 1 Pa[35]
kg/(m·s2)

pièze (mts unit) pz ≡ 1000 kg/m·s2 = 103 Pa = 1 kPa

pound per
psf ≡ 1 lbf/ft2 ≈ 47.88026 Pa[34]
square foot
pound per square
psi ≡ 1 lbf/in2 ≈ 6.894757×103 Pa[34]
inch

poundal per pdl/sq

≡ 1 pdl/sq ft ≈ 1.488164 Pa[34]
square foot ft

short ton per ≡ 1 short ton × ɡ0 /

≈ 9.5760518×104 Pa
square foot 1 sq ft

torr torr ≡ 101325⁄760 Pa ≈ 133.3224 Pa[34]

Temperature[edit]
Further information: Conversion of units of temperature
Temperature

Relation to
Name of unit Symbol Definition
SI units

[K] ≡ [°C] +
degree Celsius °C [°C] ≡ [K] − 273.15
273.15

[K] = 373.15
degree Delisle °De
− [°De] × 2⁄3

[K] ≡ ([°F] +
degree Fahrenheit °F [°F] ≡ [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32
459.67) × 5⁄9

[K] = [°N] ×
degree Newton °N 100
⁄33 +
273.15

[K] ≡ [°R] ×
degree Rankine °R; [°R] ≡ [K] × 9⁄5
5/9

[K] = [°Ré]
degree Réaumur °Ré × 5⁄4 +
273.15
 [K] = ([°Rø]
degree Rømer °Rø − 7.5) ×
40
⁄21 + 273.15

[K] ≡ [GM]
Regulo Gas Mark GM; [°F] ≡ [GM] × 25 + 300 × 125⁄9 +
422.038

≡ 1⁄273.16 of
kelvin (SI base the thermodynamic
K ≡1K
unit) temperature of the triple
point of water.[10]

Density[edit]
Density

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

gram per millilitre g/mL ≡ g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

kilogram per cubic

kg/m3 ≡ kg/m3 = 1 kg/m3
metre (SI unit)

kilogram per litre kg/L ≡ kg/L = 1000 kg/m3

ounce (avoirdupois)
oz/ft3 ≡ oz/ft3 ≈ 1.001153961 kg/m3
per cubic foot

ounce (avoirdupois)
oz/in3 ≡ oz/in3 ≈ 1.729994044×103 kg/m3
per cubic inch

ounce (avoirdupois)
oz/gal ≡ oz/gal ≈ 6.236023291 kg/m3
per gallon (imperial)

ounce (avoirdupois)
oz/gal ≡ oz/gal ≈ 7.489151707 kg/m3
per gallon (US fluid)
pound (avoirdupois)
lb/ft3 ≡ lb/ft3 ≈ 16.01846337 kg/m3
per cubic foot

pound (avoirdupois)
lb/in3 ≡ lb/in3 ≈ 2.767990471×104 kg/m3
per cubic inch

pound (avoirdupois)
lb/gal ≡ lb/gal ≈ 99.77637266 kg/m3
per gallon (imperial)

pound (avoirdupois)
lb/gal ≡ lb/gal ≈ 119.8264273 kg/m3
per gallon (US fluid)

slug per cubic foot slug/ft3 ≡ slug/ft3 ≈ 515.3788184 kg/m3

Frequency[edit]
Frequency

Name of Relation to SI
Symbol Definition
unit units

hertz (SI ≡ Number of cycles per

Hz = 1 Hz = 1/s
unit) second

≡ One unit rpm equals

revolutions one rotation completed
rpm ≈ 0.104719755 rad/s
per minute around a fixed axis in
one minute of time.
 Greek-based
American European SI
n= 103n = name
name name prefix
(proposed)

3 109 billion milliard giga- gillion

4 1012 trillion billion tera- tetrillion

5 1015 quadrillion billiard peta- pentillion

6 1018 quintillion trillion exa- hexillion

7 1021 sextillion trilliard zetta- heptillion

8 1024 septillion quadrillion yotta- oktillion

9 1027 octillion quadrilliard ennillion

10 1030 nonillion quintillion dekillion

11 1033 decillion quintilliard hendekillion

12 1036 undecillion sextillion dodekillion

13 1039 duodecillion sextilliard trisdekillion

14 1042 tredecillion septillion tetradekillion

15 1045 quattuordecillion septilliard pentadekillion

16 1048 quindecillion octillion Hexadekillion

17 1051 sexdecillion octilliard Heptadekillion

18 1054 septendecillion nonillion Oktadekillion

19 1057 octodecillion nonilliard Enneadekillion

20 1060 novemdecillion decillion Icosillion

Module 10 : PROCESS OPERATIONS
TROUBLESHOOTING & Maintenance

Maintenance is any action carried out on any asset in order to ensure

that asset continues to perform its intended function during its
proposed life span or equipment needs repair. The main purpose of
maintenance is to make available for production purposes, machinery
and equipment to fulfill their technological functions as specified and
economically which means that out put quality and quantity from
each equipment will confirm to specified purposes. Although all
machines are thoroughly tested under strict quality control methods
at manufactures works before supply to the user, and also the user
tests these before finally putting them into operation, after some use
of the machine it is subjected to wear for contacts parts so to reduce
wear proper lubrication, cleaning, timely inspection are requested,
even the machine that under repair, changing parts with new parts
reduce the opportunity for defects and damages so it works as new
one. In this way maintenance is responsible for smooth and efficient
working of any plant or industry and helps in improving this
productivity.With growing of the complexity of process, equipment
and magnitude of potential losses suffered in production due to
breakdown, modern management can no longer look upon the
maintenance function as subsidiary of production but as one of the
main tool of plant productivity which must be effectively used to
obtain the highest availability of production equipment
commensurate with total maintenance cost, therefore maintenance
engineers has been responsible for number of modern techniques
being developed to improve the performance of the maintenance
function itself, also top management should realize that maintenance
engineer is very important support of the primary function of
production and successful production.

2- Types of Maintenance

Maintenance can be grouped into 5 main groups;

2-1- Operator Maintenance

This type of maintenance systems is largely confined to a small

engineering industries where the supervisors and employs possess the
qualifications necessary to control and perform maintenance of their
own machines, this type of maintenance causes lack of control of
maintenance records and costs wouldn’t reveal the real size of
maintenance problem after years.

2-2- Breakdown / Corrective / Unscheduled Maintenance

This is intended to imply that an independently organized

maintenance section acts only as emergency repair service summoned
by production staff when interruption or restriction of production has
actually occurred. So breakdown maintenance sometimes called as
corrective maintenance, which is to perform actions to repair and
modify the equipment that breakdown. Some companies use the
concept of breakdown maintenance to allow machines to run till
complete failure, inefficiency, or product spoilage forces a shutdown.

The concept of breakdown maintenance has several disadvantages;

1- Failures can be most untimely and there is little one can do

beforehand to anticipated tool, manpower and replacement
part requirement.

2- Machines that run till failure often require more extensive

repair than would have been required if the problem has
detected early and corrected.

3- Some failures happened may be catastrophic, requiring

total replacement of the machine.

4- The added cost of the of lost production while the unit

breakdown can be staggering.

5- Give lower overall mechanical efficiency for production.

So the concept of breakdown maintenance can be applied in very

special conditions and for limited period, this method will generally
be found over the long term to reduce the machine availability
2-3- Scheduled Maintenance
Compared to breakdown maintenance, a program of periodic
disassembly and inception has the distinct advantage of lessening the
frequency of breakdown repairs and permitting scheduled shutdown.
Under this program each critical machine is shutdown after specified
period of operation and partially or completely dismantled for a
through inspection and replacement of worn parts if any.

The concept of Scheduled maintenance has also disadvantages;

1- Periodically dismantle every critical piece of equipment in

the plant is expensive and time consuming.
2- The interval between periodic inspections is difficult to be
predicted. (N.B. to apply the concept of Scheduled
maintenance successfully the period between inspections
is to be too short and this wastes a lot money)
3- A machine which is operating satisfactory may actually
be degraded by frequent disassembly (i.e. the bolts may
not fastened well, balancing of the machine is not
accurate)

2-4- Preventive Maintenance

This technique involves carrying out maintenance based on calendar

base (Monthly, 3 monthly, annually…etc.) or on meter base (500hrs,
1000hrs…etc.) or both calendar and meter and which is nearest, these
intervals which are recommended from the manufacture of the
equipment or determined through maintenance studies on the
equipment carried out by experts, indicates the type of maintenance
that will be carried out on the equipment.
It involves the policy of upkeep, replacement, and carries out
modifications rather than repair and has invariables to incorporate
periodical inspections of the plant in order to diagnoses the trouble if
any,
Therefore, it is necessary more and more sophisticated preventive
maintenance systems being enforced to minimize the breakdown
maintenance in the plant, since no piece of equipment will breakdown
until show certain signs of alfunctioning earlier. Preventive
maintenance policy determines the required resources to execute the
maintenance tasks and dates of requirements, also the equipment
card which is very essential to keep history of the equipment enable to
make modifications in the planned man hours required, spar parts
stock required.

Main objectives of Preventive Maintenance;

1- To ensure optimum equipment performance during

equipment life span.
2- Minimizing the values of wear and tear in the plant so
minimize the breakdowns.
3- To safe grad the investment, by planning the required
resources, and dates of requirements.
4- To ensure safety of the personal and equipment.
5- Keep the productive assets in good working conditions.

Primary tasks of preventive maintenance;

1- Inspection, lubrication, repairs, and maintain of all equipment.

2- Maintain of existing building structure.
3- Operation and maintenance of utilities.
4- Alteration to existing equipment and buildings.
5- Installation of new equipments and new constructions.

In order to fulfill these primary tasks Secondary tasks of preventive

maintenance are called to be performed ;
 1- Store keeping.
2- Plant protection including fire protection.
3- Wastage disposable.
4- Salvage.
5- Pollution and noise control.
6- House keeping in the plant.

Elements of preventative maintenance

Following are some elements, which are to be taken care in
preventive maintenance;

1- Inspection / Check up.

2- Planning and scheduling
3- Lubrication.
4- Training of maintenance personal.
5- Motivation techniques.
6- Material management for maintenance.

2-5- Predictive Maintenance

Predictive Maintenance concept involves that on-line detection or

equipment condition mentoring and diagnosis of machinery problems
is obviously the most desirable way to maintain machinery This can
be carried out by measurement of vibration, temperature, pressure,
oil viscosity, so this enable to define the equipment condition, and if
problem can be detected in early stages when defects are minor and
don’t affect machine operation, and if we can diagnose the nature of
the problem as machine runs;thin prepare in sdvance

1- Shutdown for repairs can be scheduled for a convenient time.

2- A work schedule, together with requirements for manpower,
tools, spars can be prepared before scheduled shutdown.
3- Extensive damage to the machine resulting from forced failure
can be minimized.
4- Repair time can kept min, resulting in less machinery down time

Of course, machines in good operating conditions can continue to run

as long as no problem developed, so time and money are not wasted
dismantling machines which are already operating smoothly.

The effective Predictive Maintenance Program

Detection / Analysis / Corrections

** Detection

This is the first step id predictive maintenance program, this means

keeping track of machine level of certain measurement as vibration
measurement and noting any increase because this is a sign of mechanical
trouble.

For all machines that are maintained based on condition mentoring, there
must be a prescribed schedule, may it be on line measurements, or ever
certain period.

Data gathered from detection are located on a data sheet that keeps all
values reading taken on the equipment verses the reading date of
equipment meter reading, this data sheet may be used to forecast when the
problem will happen, and to detect the machine condition at each point.

** Analysis

After detection of the machine condition, once a problem has been

detected, the next step is to determine the nature of the problem.

The analysis of the problem can be identified by using special measuring

instrument to detect the problem, then these values are compared with
standard values that are identified in the machine manual, or some special
advanced instruments makes this comparison automatically, then give the
results.

Once the cause of problem is detected corrective actions are taken towards
the machine.

** Corrections

After detection of the machine condition, then the problem found has
being analyzed, correction actions taken by following the procedure of
maintenance that are known by the maintenance engineers.

3- Modern Concepts of Maintenance

According to the developments occurred in the technology of

equipment manufacturing, which leads also to developments in the
concepts of the maintenance, following a brief hints about modern
concepts of maintenance AS
(CBM / RBI / RCM / TPM)

3-1- Condition Based Maintenance (CBM)

In this technique it is necessary to identify the machine condition that will

be most useful, and cost effective in achieving the required objectives.

There are several available techniques for applying CBM, the great and
rapid development in the field of testing and inspection of equipment
provides effective tools for particular application of CBM.

Short-term benefits of CBM

1- Identifying and troubleshooting problems on particular

machines.
2- Early detection of problems which makes it less critical and less
expensive to repair.
3- Enable to plan repairs in advance.
4- Avoid unscheduled equipment downtimes.
5- Give good chance for accounting the maintenance costs in
advance, also the actual costs of last repairs.

Long-term benefits of CBM

1- Improve the personal skills to be able to perform their

works.
2- Improve rotor balancing
 3- Better installation of bearings, gears, and couplings.
4- Improve electric motor repair and installation.
5- Improve oil handling and filtration.
6- Improve seals and packing performance.
7- Improve steam system performance.
8- Better operation of steam traps.
9- Help to identify equipment that requires excessive
maintenance due to operation outside design conditions.
10- Identify the spar-parts that are not efficient in design or
qualification.

Machine condition mentoring technique

1- Vibration analysis.
2- Motor current signature analysis.
3- Ultrasonic analysis.
4- Thermo graphical analysis.
5- Oil analysis.
6- Wear particle analysis.
7- Performance trending.
8- Visual, listing, and touching observations.

3-2- Risk Based Inspection (RBI)

All static plant will require the appropriate maintenance and inspection
regime to be developed through its life cycle, and RBI seeks to optimize
the management and inspection programs for static equipment.

Essential the RBI process can be considered to consist of four main steps;
 1- An assessment of risk, initially by way of a screening
process, for each item of equipment.
2- An inspection program is developed to select the most
appropriate inspection tasks and frequencies with respect
to cost and risk distribution criteria.
3- Optimizing the inspection program with respect to
aligning frequency, location, and inspection techniques.
4- Inspection assessments and decision process reviews
results for inspection, improving the knowledge of an item
condition. This provides information for planning the next
inspection or deciding on repair, replace or modification
actions.
3-3- Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)

The RCM is doing the right maintenance work at right time to provide
maximum reliability and minimum cost, by focusing on specific probable
failure modes. It relies heavily on condition mentoring and diagnostics /
prognostic (trend analysis) approach. The approach follows the following
steps;
1- Select critical equipment to be covered by the RCM.
2- Define equipment performance standards.
3- Define probable failure modes and root causes.
4- Assess failure effects and consequences.
5- Define maintenance strategy for the selected equipment.
6- Implement and refine maintenance policies.

The RCM concept is a method by which a company can develop a flexible

maintenance strategy by using the following:

1- Failure data.
 2- System design redundancies
3- Operating experiences.

RCM is method for developing and scheduling maintenance design

alternatives, based on safety, operational, and economic criteria.

The RCM, maintenance tasks and task frequencies are developed

recognizing how each piece of equipment contributes to maintaining
system’s function. Then, the maintenance will be developed according to
the importance of the equipment to maintaining system function.

RCM provides a mechanism for people to decide what maintenance

should be done and what maintenance should not be done.

The success of the RCM systems depends on the following:

1- The support of management.

2- The creativity of the RCM team.
3- The degree of co-operation between the maintenance department
and production department.

The advantages of the RCM systems;

1- Building sufficient knowledge of system performance by using

suitable measures.
2- Measurements tools provides the mean to reduce the results of
failure by catching harmful characteristics and conditions early,
before the sever problem can happen.
3-4- Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
A plant improvement methodology that enables continues and fast
improvement of the production process through maximized staff
involvement, and continues measurement and evaluation of results, TPM
counts for production losses due to unplanned outages and targets to
minimize such outages,The concepts of TPM are;

1- Production operators carry out certain maintenance

tasks on their equipment such as cleaning,
lubrication…etc.
2- Maintenance personnel perform operations oriented
functions.
3- Operation personnel assist mechanics in equipment
repair.
4- Maintenance personnel assist in operation activities,
such as equipment shutdown, equipment operation.
5- Inter-operation group interaction is required

Objectives of TPM:

1- Maximize equipment effectiveness and productivity.

2- Eliminate machine losses and defects.
3- Create a sense of ownership in equipment operators through a
program of training and involvement.
4- Developing continues improvement through small group of
employee activities involving production, engineering, and
maintenance personnel.

4- Equipment Performance Calculations

The equipment performance is being calculated according to three
parameters;

1- Reliability.
2- Availability.
3- Utilization.
The three parameters are described as following;

Reliability

The capability of equipment to continue to perform its intended function.

normally measured by mean time between failures and expressed as
percentage.

Installed
time - Breakdown time
Reliability % =

Installed time
Availability

Is the proportion of total time that equipment is capable of performing its

specified function, normally expressed as a percentage.

Installed time - Downtime

Availability % =

Installed time
Where the downtime = Preventive maintenance time + Breakdown time

Utilization

The proportion of the available time that an equipment is operating.

Installed time -
Stoppage time
Utilization % =

Installed time

Stoppage time = Preventive maintenance time + breakdown time + stand

bye time

Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)

The average run time between equipment (or component) failures. It

indicates the reliability level and depends on many factors including
original design and material selection, fabrication and installation quality
standards, operational procedures and operators training and commitment,
condition monitoring and the quality of maintenance practices (manpower,
spares used.

Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)

The average net time of repair for a specific failure (of equipment or
component).
Both the MTBF and MTTR parameters are useful in establishing the
maintenance plan and updating the task frequencies.

5- Critically Assessment

The first step in criticality assessment is to rank order all equipment

according to their failure impact on plant operation, so after
criticality assessment is done; maintenance mangers can apply the
suitable maintenance concept on each equipment.

There are many way ways of conducting criticality assessments, using

equipment spread sheets, or any software package that keeps the
equipment history, but anyway during criticality assessment of
equipment, it should be considered the combined effects of both the
consequences, and probability of loss equipment function.

Consequences of failure consider the impact of equipment failure on the

following;
1- Safety.
2- Environment.
3- Production.
4- Potential repair costs.
Probability of failure should consider the influence of the following;
1- Equipment design.
2- Equipment loading, stress level.
3- Operating regimes (intermittent, continuous)
4- Service condition.