Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons

Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure (21CV72)

MODULE 5

1. What are the primary types of cofferdams used in construction?

Cofferdams are temporary structures built to keep water or soil out of an excavation, allowing for a dry
work environment in areas like bridge piers or marine structures. The primary types of cofferdams are:

 Single-wall cofferdams: These are typically used in shallow water conditions. They consist of a
single row of vertical piles driven into the ground, supported by wales and struts. They are simple
and cost-effective for smaller projects.
 Double-wall cofferdams: These cofferdams have two parallel rows of piles connected by
horizontal tie rods. The space between the walls is usually filled with earth or gravel for stability.
They are used for deeper excavations where higher stability is needed.
 Sheet pile cofferdams: Made of steel sheet piles driven into the ground, these cofferdams are
watertight and effective in deep water or soft soils. They are quick to install and can be used in
irregularly shaped excavations.
 Movable cofferdams: These are constructed of concrete or other materials that can be dismantled
and reused. They are ideal for temporary works where the cofferdam must be moved to different
locations.
 Land cofferdams: These cofferdams are built on land to protect construction areas from soil
erosion or water seepage, often used in riverbank or shoreline construction.
 Cellular cofferdams: These consist of interlocking steel sheet piles forming a circular or
diaphragm-shaped structure. The cells are filled with soil for stability and are used in large, deep
water projects like docks or locks.

2. How does a single-wall cofferdam differ from a double-wall cofferdam?

A single-wall cofferdam is a simple structure made of a single row of vertical piles driven into the
ground. This type of cofferdam is typically used in shallow waters or small construction sites where the
water pressure is not too high. The piles are often made of wood, steel, or concrete and are supported by
horizontal members called wales. Bracing may be added for additional stability. Single-wall cofferdams
are economical and easy to construct but have limited resistance to high water pressure.

In contrast, a double-wall cofferdam consists of two parallel walls of piles that are tied together with
horizontal tie rods. The space between the two walls is usually filled with earth, sand, or gravel, which
provides additional stability and weight to resist water pressure. Double-wall cofferdams are used in
deeper water or more challenging conditions where the forces exerted by water or soil are higher. This
design provides better resistance to water pressure but is more expensive and complex to construct
compared to a single-wall cofferdam.

The main differences include:

 Depth of use: Single-wall cofferdams are used in shallower water, while double-wall cofferdams
are suitable for deeper and more challenging conditions.
 Structural stability: Double-wall cofferdams offer greater resistance to water pressure due to the
filled space between the walls, whereas single-wall cofferdams rely on bracing and wales for
stability.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
 Cost: Single-wall cofferdams are more cost-effective for smaller projects, whereas double-wall
cofferdams are more expensive due to the additional materials and complexity.

3. What are the main features of a sheet pile cofferdam?

A sheet pile cofferdam is a widely used type of cofferdam constructed using interlocking steel sheets
driven into the ground to form a watertight barrier. The main features of sheet pile cofferdams include:

 Steel sheet piles: These piles are typically made of steel and have interlocking edges that allow
them to be connected together to form a continuous wall. They are driven into the ground using
pile drivers or vibratory hammers, creating a watertight barrier.
 Interlocking system: The interlocking edges ensure that the sheets are tightly connected,
preventing water seepage through the gaps. This makes sheet pile cofferdams highly effective in
controlling water ingress in deep excavations or marine environments.
 Versatility: Sheet pile cofferdams can be used in a variety of soil conditions, including soft soils,
sandy soils, and clay. They can also be adapted to different excavation shapes, making them
suitable for irregularly shaped projects.
 Reusable: The steel sheet piles can be removed and reused in other projects, making this type of
cofferdam more economical for temporary works.
 Structural strength: Steel sheet piles are strong enough to withstand significant lateral pressure
from water or soil, making them suitable for deep excavations or high-pressure environments.
 Bracing systems: To increase stability, sheet pile cofferdams are often supported by internal
bracing systems such as struts, wales, and tiebacks. These support systems help distribute the
loads and prevent deformation of the cofferdam wall.
 Environmental impact: Sheet pile cofferdams are often used in environmentally sensitive areas
because they minimize water flow into the excavation area, protecting the surrounding
environment.

4. How is a concrete wall movable cofferdam constructed?

A concrete wall movable cofferdam is designed for temporary use and can be dismantled and reused in
different locations. The construction process involves several key steps:

1. Design and planning: The cofferdam is designed to meet the specific requirements of the project,
including water depth, soil conditions, and the size of the excavation. The materials and
dimensions are chosen based on these factors.
2. Fabrication of components: Precast concrete panels or blocks are fabricated off-site, which
allows for faster assembly on-site. These components are designed to be easily dismantled and
moved to other locations after the project is completed.
3. Foundation preparation: The site is prepared by leveling the ground and driving piles or other
supports into the ground to provide a stable foundation for the cofferdam. The foundation ensures
that the cofferdam remains stable and prevents movement during construction.
4. Installation of concrete panels: The precast concrete panels are assembled on-site, forming the
walls of the cofferdam. The panels are connected using joints or other fastening methods that
allow for easy disassembly later. The walls are designed to be watertight, preventing water ingress
into the excavation area.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
5. Sealing and dewatering: Once the concrete panels are in place, any gaps between the panels are
sealed to prevent water from entering the excavation. Pumps are then used to dewater the area,
creating a dry work environment for construction.
6. Bracing and support: The cofferdam is reinforced with internal bracing, such as steel struts or
tiebacks, to resist the lateral pressure of water and soil. This ensures the structural stability of the
cofferdam during construction activities.
7. Dismantling and relocation: After the construction work is completed, the concrete panels are
dismantled and transported to another location for reuse. This makes the concrete wall movable
cofferdam a cost-effective solution for temporary projects.

5. What is the purpose of land cofferdams?

Land cofferdams are used to control water and soil conditions in construction sites that are located on
land, typically near rivers, lakes, or other bodies of water. The primary purposes of land cofferdams are:

 Water control: Land cofferdams prevent water from flooding the construction site, creating a dry
working area. This is essential in areas where the groundwater level is high or where the
construction site is adjacent to a riverbank or shoreline.
 Soil retention: In addition to controlling water, land cofferdams provide stability by retaining soil
and preventing erosion or collapse of the excavation area. This is particularly important in soft
soils or loose ground, where there is a risk of soil sliding into the excavation.
 Environmental protection: By controlling water flow and minimizing soil disturbance, land
cofferdams help protect the surrounding environment. This is especially important in ecologically
sensitive areas where water contamination or soil erosion could have negative environmental
impacts.
 Access to the construction site: Land cofferdams create a stable and dry platform for workers
and equipment to access the construction area. This improves safety and efficiency by ensuring
that the work can proceed without interruptions due to flooding or unstable ground conditions.
 Temporary nature: Like other types of cofferdams, land cofferdams are temporary structures.
They are designed to be removed once the construction work is completed, allowing the site to
return to its natural state.

Land cofferdams are commonly used in projects like bridge abutments, riverbank stabilization, and flood
control structures, where controlling water and soil conditions is critical to the success of the project.

6. What is the soldier construction method used in cofferdam construction?

The soldier construction method is a technique used in the construction of cofferdams, especially when
dealing with deep excavations or sites with unstable soils. In this method, vertical steel members, known
as "soldiers" or "soldier piles," are driven into the ground to form the primary support system. These
soldiers are then connected horizontally using lagging or sheet materials to create a stable, reinforced
cofferdam structure.

Key features of the soldier construction method include:

1. Soldier piles: These are vertical steel H or I-beams that are driven deep into the ground at regular
intervals around the excavation perimeter. The depth to which the piles are driven depends on the
soil conditions and the depth of the excavation.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
2. Lagging: Horizontal timber, steel, or precast concrete members are placed between the soldier
piles to create the cofferdam walls. These lagging materials support the soil between the piles and
prevent it from collapsing into the excavation area.
3. Bracing: Internal bracing such as wales, struts, or tiebacks is often added to stabilize the soldier
piles and prevent lateral movement due to soil or water pressure. In some cases, ground anchors
may be used to secure the cofferdam walls further.
4. Excavation: Once the soldier piles and lagging are in place, excavation within the cofferdam can
proceed safely. The walls prevent soil and water from entering the excavation area, creating a
stable environment for construction activities.
5. Versatility: The soldier construction method is versatile and can be used in various soil types and
excavation depths. It is particularly effective in urban areas where space is limited, and large
equipment cannot be used.
6. Reusability: Like sheet piles, soldier piles can often be reused in other projects, making this
method economically viable for temporary works.

7. Can you explain the ICOS method for constructing cofferdam walls?

The ICOS (Impregilo Concrete System) method is a specialized technique used for the construction of
watertight cofferdam walls and deep foundation walls. This method involves the construction of
reinforced concrete walls in a sequence that allows for the excavation of the surrounding soil or water in a
controlled manner. The key steps in the ICOS method include:

1. Trench excavation: A trench is first excavated along the perimeter of the area where the
cofferdam or foundation wall will be constructed. The trench is typically filled with bentonite
slurry to prevent collapse of the walls during excavation.
2. Reinforcement cage placement: Once the trench is excavated, a reinforcement cage is lowered
into the trench. This cage is made of steel bars (rebar) and provides structural strength to the
concrete wall that will be poured later.
3. Concrete pouring: Concrete is poured into the trench, displacing the bentonite slurry. As the
concrete fills the trench, it creates a solid, reinforced concrete wall that will form the cofferdam or
foundation structure.
4. Sequential construction: The ICOS method involves constructing the wall in sections, one after
the other. As each section is completed, the adjacent soil is excavated, and the process is repeated
until the entire wall is built.
5. Waterproofing: The concrete walls constructed using the ICOS method are watertight, which
makes this technique particularly useful in marine environments or areas with high groundwater
levels. The walls prevent water ingress into the excavation area, allowing construction to proceed
in dry conditions.
6. Flexibility in shape: The ICOS method allows for the construction of walls in irregular or curved
shapes, making it versatile for projects with unique design requirements.
7. Application: The ICOS method is widely used in large-scale infrastructure projects such as
tunnels, basements, and deep foundations. It is also used in the construction of cofferdams for
marine structures like docks and bridge piers.

The ICOS method is favored for its ability to create durable, watertight walls that can withstand high
water pressure and challenging soil conditions.

8. What are the differences between cofferdams with touching piles and interlocking piles?

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
Cofferdams constructed with touching piles and those with interlocking piles differ primarily in their
method of construction and watertightness. Here's a detailed comparison:

 Touching piles:
o In a cofferdam with touching piles, individual piles are driven into the ground in close
proximity, so they are either slightly touching or have minimal gaps between them.
o These piles do not have interlocking mechanisms, so gaps between the piles may allow
some water or soil to seep through, especially under high pressure.
o This type of cofferdam is less watertight compared to interlocking piles and is generally
used in projects where complete water exclusion is not critical.
o Touching piles are faster and simpler to install, and they are typically used in shallow or
low-water-pressure conditions.
o These cofferdams may require additional sealing measures, such as filling gaps with grout
or clay, to reduce water seepage.
 Interlocking piles:
o Interlocking piles are designed with special edges or connectors that allow the piles to lock
together tightly, forming a continuous, watertight wall.
o The interlocking mechanism ensures that there are no gaps between the piles, making these
cofferdams more effective at keeping water and soil out of the excavation area.
o Steel sheet piles are the most common type of interlocking piles used in cofferdam
construction. They are widely used in deep-water or high-water-pressure environments.
o Cofferdams with interlocking piles provide greater structural stability and can withstand
higher lateral pressures from water and soil.
o The construction of interlocking pile cofferdams is more complex and requires specialized
equipment, making it more expensive compared to touching pile cofferdams.

9. How is a diaphragm wall incorporated into cofferdam construction?

A diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete wall used in deep excavations and is commonly incorporated
into cofferdam construction to provide watertight barriers and structural support. The construction process
for incorporating a diaphragm wall into a cofferdam involves several steps:

1. Trench excavation: A narrow, deep trench is excavated along the perimeter of the area to be
enclosed by the cofferdam. Bentonite slurry is used to support the trench walls and prevent
collapse during excavation.
2. Reinforcement cage installation: A steel reinforcement cage is lowered into the excavated
trench. The cage provides the structural strength necessary to support the lateral pressures from
soil and water.
3. Concrete pouring: Concrete is poured into the trench, displacing the bentonite slurry. As the
concrete hardens, it forms a continuous, reinforced concrete wall that is strong enough to resist the
forces exerted by surrounding water or soil.
4. Sequential construction: Diaphragm walls are typically constructed in sections. Once one section
of the wall is completed, the adjacent soil is excavated, and the process is repeated to complete the
wall around the entire perimeter of the cofferdam.
5. Watertightness: Diaphragm walls are highly watertight, making them ideal for cofferdam
applications in deep water or areas with high groundwater levels. They prevent water ingress into
the excavation area, creating a dry environment for construction activities.
6. Support and bracing: In some cases, additional internal bracing, such as struts or tiebacks, is
installed to support the diaphragm wall and prevent movement due to lateral soil and water
pressure.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
7. Use in permanent structures: Diaphragm walls can serve both as temporary cofferdam walls and
as permanent structural elements for basements, tunnels, or foundations once the cofferdam is
removed. This dual-purpose feature makes them a cost-effective solution for long-term projects.

10. What are the main types of caissons used in foundation construction?

Caissons are large, watertight structures used in the construction of foundations, especially for underwater
or deep foundations. The main types of caissons used in foundation construction are:

1. Open caisson:
o Open caissons are large, box-like structures with an open bottom and top. They are
constructed on land and then sunk into place by excavating soil from within the caisson,
allowing it to sink under its own weight.
o These caissons are typically used in shallow water or soil conditions where groundwater is
not a significant issue.
o Once the caisson reaches the desired depth, the open bottom is sealed with concrete,
forming a stable foundation.
2. Pneumatic caisson:
o Pneumatic caissons are similar to open caissons, but they are designed with an airtight
working chamber at the bottom, which is pressurized to keep water out.
o Workers enter the pressurized chamber to excavate the soil, and the caisson is gradually
sunk into place as excavation proceeds.
o Pneumatic caissons are used in deep water or areas with high groundwater levels where the
soil must be excavated under dry conditions.
o These caissons require special safety measures due to the pressurized working
environment, and they are more complex and expensive to construct than open

11. How is a box caisson constructed and used in foundation work?

A box caisson is a prefabricated, watertight structure with a closed bottom and open top, typically made
of reinforced concrete or steel. It is constructed on land and then floated to the construction site, where it
is sunk to its final position to serve as a foundation. The construction and use of a box caisson involve the
following steps:

1. Design and fabrication: The box caisson is designed according to the project’s requirements,
including the load it will bear and the depth to which it must be sunk. The caisson is usually made
of reinforced concrete, which is cast in a dry dock or on land, making it easier to control the
quality of the structure.
2. Flotation and transport: Once the box caisson is completed, it is floated to the construction site,
typically with the help of tugboats or other marine equipment. Because it is closed at the bottom, it
remains buoyant while being transported.
3. Sinking into place: At the construction site, the box caisson is gradually sunk by allowing water
to enter the structure, increasing its weight. The process is carefully controlled to ensure that the
caisson settles evenly into the seabed or riverbed.
4. Excavation and settlement: If necessary, dredging or excavation is carried out beneath the
caisson to ensure it reaches the desired depth. In some cases, ballast materials, such as sand or
gravel, are placed inside the caisson to help it sink and achieve the required stability.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
5. Filling and sealing: Once the caisson is in its final position, the open top is filled with concrete,
which seals the structure and provides a solid foundation for the construction of piers, bridges, or
other structures.
6. Usage: Box caissons are used in underwater foundation work, such as the construction of bridge
piers, docks, and marine structures. They provide a stable and solid foundation in areas where
traditional foundation techniques are not feasible due to the presence of water.

12. What is the difference between a pneumatic caisson and an open caisson?

The primary difference between a pneumatic caisson and an open caisson lies in the method of
construction and the conditions under which they are used. Here’s a comparison:

 Pneumatic caisson:
o A pneumatic caisson has an airtight working chamber at the bottom, which is pressurized
with air to prevent water from entering the caisson during excavation.
o Workers enter the pressurized chamber to excavate the soil, which allows for dry working
conditions in underwater or waterlogged areas.
o Pneumatic caissons are used in deeper water or areas with high groundwater levels, where
excavation needs to occur in dry conditions to ensure precision and safety.
o This type of caisson requires specialized equipment to maintain the air pressure and safety
protocols due to the risk of decompression sickness (commonly known as "the bends").
o Pneumatic caissons are more complex and costly to construct compared to open caissons,
but they are essential in deep-water or high-pressure environments.
 Open caisson:
o Open caissons are box-like structures with an open top and bottom. The caisson is sunk by
excavating soil from within, allowing it to settle into the ground under its own weight.
o The bottom remains open during the sinking process, and excavation is done in wet
conditions (underwater), typically in shallow waters or areas where water pressure is not
too high.
o Open caissons are used in projects where complete exclusion of water is not necessary, and
the work can proceed in a submerged environment.
o They are simpler to construct and less expensive than pneumatic caissons, but they are
limited in terms of depth and the ability to control water ingress.

13. What are the key design considerations for constructing well foundations?

Well foundations are commonly used for bridge piers, towers, and other structures in rivers or coastal
areas. The key design considerations for constructing well foundations include:

1. Soil and subsurface conditions: The soil type, bearing capacity, and subsurface geology play a
crucial role in determining the depth and size of the well foundation. The design must ensure that
the foundation can bear the load of the structure without excessive settlement or instability.
2. Load-bearing capacity: The well foundation must be designed to support both the vertical loads
(due to the weight of the structure) and lateral loads (due to wind, water currents, or seismic
activity). The size and shape of the well should be proportionate to the loads it will bear.
3. Scour depth: In river or coastal environments, the potential for scour (the removal of sediment
around the foundation due to water flow) must be considered. The foundation must be placed deep
enough to prevent instability caused by scouring action.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
4. Depth of penetration: The well foundation must penetrate the soil or bedrock deep enough to
provide stability. The required depth depends on the type of structure and the geotechnical
properties of the site.
5. Shape and size: The cross-sectional shape of the well (circular, rectangular, or octagonal) is
chosen based on the ease of sinking, stability, and structural requirements. Circular wells are most
commonly used due to their ability to distribute loads evenly and sink uniformly.
6. Buoyancy and stability during sinking: The well must be stable during the sinking process,
ensuring that it does not tilt or shift. Buoyancy control, ballast, and excavation methods are critical
for maintaining stability during construction.
7. Dewatering and drainage: If the well is being constructed in waterlogged or submerged areas,
dewatering systems must be in place to remove water from inside the well during excavation.
Proper drainage must also be considered to avoid water buildup inside the foundation.
8. Sealing and base plug construction: Once the well reaches the desired depth, the bottom of the
well is sealed with a concrete base plug to prevent water ingress and provide a stable foundation.
The base plug must be designed to resist uplift forces and ensure the well’s integrity.
9. Material selection: The materials used for constructing the well, such as concrete or steel, must
be durable and resistant to environmental factors such as corrosion or water damage.
Reinforcement may be required to increase the structural strength of the well.
10. Construction methods: The method of sinking the well (such as dredging, pumping, or
excavation) must be carefully chosen to ensure that the well is placed accurately and without
damage to the structure or surrounding environment.

These design considerations ensure that well foundations provide long-term stability, particularly in
challenging environments like rivers or coastal areas.

14. How are pneumatic caissons constructed for underwater projects?

Pneumatic caissons are constructed in stages for underwater projects, involving careful planning and
specialized equipment. The steps involved are:

1. Design and fabrication: The pneumatic caisson is designed based on the project’s requirements,
including depth, water pressure, and soil conditions. The caisson is typically a large, box-like
structure made of steel or reinforced concrete, with an airtight working chamber at the bottom and
an open top.
2. Transport to site: The caisson is constructed on land and then transported to the site, usually by
floating it to the desired location. It is kept buoyant until it is ready to be sunk.
3. Sinking process: Once at the site, the caisson is sunk by gradually allowing water to enter its
upper sections. This increases its weight and causes it to sink. To ensure that the caisson remains
level during sinking, ballast material may be added.
4. Pressurization of the working chamber: The bottom chamber of the caisson is pressurized with
compressed air to keep water out. The pressurization allows workers to enter the chamber and
excavate the soil under dry conditions.
5. Excavation: Workers enter the pressurized chamber and remove soil from beneath the caisson. As
the soil is removed, the caisson continues to sink under its own weight. This process is repeated
until the caisson reaches the desired depth.
6. Air locks and worker safety: Special air locks are installed to allow workers to enter and exit the
pressurized working chamber without losing air pressure. Safety protocols are strictly followed to
protect workers from decompression sickness, which can occur due to the high-pressure
environment.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
7. Sealing and construction completion: Once the caisson reaches the required depth, the bottom is
sealed with a concrete plug to prevent water ingress. The caisson is then filled with concrete,
creating a solid foundation. The top is typically capped with a slab that connects to the structure
being built.

15. What materials are commonly used in precast caissons?

Precast caissons are typically made from durable materials that can withstand the environmental
conditions they will face, including water pressure, soil movement, and corrosion. The most common
materials used in precast caissons are:

1. Reinforced concrete: Concrete is the most common material used for precast caissons due to its
strength, durability, and resistance to water and corrosion. Reinforced concrete, which includes
steel reinforcement bars (rebar), provides additional strength to resist tensile forces and bending
moments.

1. Steel: In some cases, caissons are made from steel, particularly when they need to be transported
over long distances or when a lighter structure is required. Steel caissons are prefabricated and
assembled on-site. They are often used in marine environments where corrosion resistance is
critical, so they may be coated with protective layers or treated to resist rust.
2. Precast concrete segments: Large precast concrete segments are sometimes used to assemble
caissons on-site. These segments are prefabricated in a controlled environment, ensuring high-
quality construction. They are then transported to the site and assembled into the final caisson
structure.

16. What are the key steps involved in constructing an open caisson?

The construction of an open caisson involves several key steps that are carried out in a sequential manner
to ensure stability and proper placement. The steps are:

1. Design and preparation: The caisson is designed based on the project’s requirements, including
load-bearing capacity, depth, and environmental conditions. It is typically constructed using
reinforced concrete or steel. The open caisson has an open bottom and top, allowing excavation to
occur within the structure.
2. Excavation and base preparation: A shallow excavation may be carried out at the construction
site to provide a level surface for placing the caisson. The caisson is then placed at the desired
location for sinking.
3. Sinking the caisson: The caisson is sunk by removing soil from within the structure. Excavation
is carried out inside the caisson to lower it into the ground under its own weight. The caisson sinks
progressively as the soil beneath it is excavated, while the external walls prevent soil collapse
from the sides.
4. Dredging or excavation: As the caisson sinks, continuous excavation inside the caisson is done
using dredging or mechanical excavation techniques. The sinking must be controlled to prevent
tilting or instability. In some cases, water pressure may assist in the sinking process, particularly if
the caisson is being constructed in waterlogged areas.
5. Bracing and stabilization: Internal bracing, such as steel struts or ties, is sometimes added to the
caisson to provide additional support and prevent deformation due to lateral soil pressure.
6. Sealing the bottom: Once the caisson reaches the required depth, the bottom of the caisson is
sealed with concrete to prevent water ingress. The sealing process is known as "plugging" and
ensures that the structure remains stable after the excavation is completed.

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
7. Filling and construction completion: The open caisson may be filled with concrete or other
materials to provide additional weight and stability. After the caisson is in place, the top is
finished, and the structure is ready for further construction, such as the installation of bridge piers
or foundations.

17. How do well foundations differ from caissons in terms of design and application?

While both well foundations and caissons serve as deep foundations, they differ in terms of design,
construction method, and application. Here's how they compare:

 Well foundations:
o Well foundations are typically circular or rectangular structures that are sunk into the
ground to provide a stable base for structures like bridge piers and towers.
o The foundation consists of a well curb and well steining (walls) made of concrete or
masonry. The well is sunk by excavating soil from inside the structure.
o Well foundations are more common in riverbeds, where they are used to provide stability
against lateral water forces and scouring.
o Once the well reaches the desired depth, the bottom is plugged with concrete, and the well
is filled with sand, gravel, or concrete to provide additional support.
o They are preferred in riverine and coastal areas because of their ability to withstand lateral
forces and shifting soils.
o They are often used in situations where the structure must resist scour and uplift forces
from flowing water.
 Caissons:
o Caissons are large, prefabricated watertight structures made of reinforced concrete or steel.
They are typically used in deep water or high groundwater areas.
o The main types of caissons are open, pneumatic, and box caissons, each designed for
different conditions.
o Caissons are sunk into place by either excavation within the caisson (open or pneumatic
caisson) or by allowing it to sink under its own weight (box caisson).
o They are used for underwater foundations, such as bridge piers, marine structures, and
large infrastructure projects.
o Caissons provide watertight and stable foundations in deep water environments, where
controlling water ingress is critical.
o They are more versatile and can be used in deeper water conditions compared to well
foundations.

18. What are the challenges involved in constructing pneumatic caissons?

The construction of pneumatic caissons involves several challenges, primarily due to the complexity of
working in a pressurized environment. Some of the key challenges include:

1. Pressurization and airlocks: Pneumatic caissons require the working chamber at the bottom to
be pressurized with air to keep water out. Maintaining the correct air pressure is critical to prevent
water ingress while allowing safe excavation. Airlocks are used to allow workers and equipment
to enter and exit the pressurized chamber without causing a loss of pressure.
2. Worker safety: Working in a pressurized environment poses health risks to workers, primarily
the risk of decompression sickness (also known as "the bends"). This condition occurs when

21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas

Module 5 Coffer Dams and Caissons
workers move from high-pressure environments to normal pressure too quickly, causing nitrogen
bubbles to form in the bloodstream. Strict safety protocols, including gradual decompression and
the use of decompression chambers, are required to minimize this risk.
3. Control of water and soil ingress: Although the pressurized chamber keeps water out, there is
always a risk of water or soil ingress if the air pressure drops or if the caisson structure is
compromised. Continuous monitoring is required to maintain the integrity of the working chamber
and prevent leaks.
4. Excavation in confined spaces: The excavation work inside a pneumatic caisson is carried out in
a confined space under pressurized conditions, making it more challenging than typical
excavation. Workers must use specialized equipment and techniques to excavate the soil safely
and efficiently.
5. Sinking control: As excavation progresses, the pneumatic caisson sinks into the ground.
Controlling the rate and evenness of the sinking process is crucial to prevent tilting or uneven
settlement of the caisson. Any tilt or misalignment during sinking can lead to structural issues and
may require corrective measures.
6. Depth limitations: The depth to which a pneumatic caisson can be used is limited by the ability to
maintain safe air pressure levels and working conditions for laborers. Deeper excavations require
higher air pressures, which can pose additional risks to worker safety and increase the complexity
of maintaining pressurization.
7. Cost and time: The construction of pneumatic caissons is more expensive and time-consuming
compared to other foundation methods due to the need for specialized equipment, pressurization
systems, and worker safety measures. This makes pneumatic caissons a less common choice for
projects unless they are required by specific site conditions, such as deep underwater foundations
or high groundwater tables.
8. Environmental conditions: Pneumatic caisson construction must account for environmental
conditions, such as groundwater levels, soil type, and water currents. Adverse conditions can
increase the complexity of the project and the risk of structural or safety issues.

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain with a diagram the construction of a single-wall cofferdam.

2. Describe with the help of a diagram the structure of a double-wall cofferdam.
3. Explain the sheet pile cofferdam method with a clear diagram.
4. With a diagram, explain the design and construction of a concrete wall movable cofferdam.
5. Illustrate with a diagram the ICOS method of constructing cofferdam walls.
6. Explain with a diagram how diaphragm walls are constructed in a cofferdam.
7. Describe with a diagram the construction process of a caisson foundation.
8. Explain with the help of a diagram the working of a pneumatic caisson.
9. Illustrate with a diagram the design and construction of a box caisson.
10. With a diagram, explain the process of sinking an open caisson into position.

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21CV72 (Construction Technology for Sub-Structure and Super-structure) Dr. S K Srinivas