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Universitext

Mark J.D. Hamilton

Mathematical
Gauge Theory
With Applications to the Standard
Model of Particle Physics
Universitext
Universitext

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Sheldon Axler
San Francisco State University
Carles Casacuberta
Universitat de Barcelona
Angus MacIntyre
Queen Mary, University of London
Kenneth Ribet
University of California, Berkeley
Claude Sabbah
École polytechnique, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau
Endre Süli
University of Oxford
Wojbor A. Woyczyński
Case Western Reserve University

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Mark J.D. Hamilton

Mathematical Gauge Theory

With Applications to the Standard Model
of Particle Physics

123
Mark J.D. Hamilton
Department of Mathematics
Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich
Munich, Germany

ISSN 0172-5939 ISSN 2191-6675 (electronic)

Universitext
ISBN 978-3-319-68438-3 ISBN 978-3-319-68439-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68439-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017957556

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 55R10, 53C05, 22E70, 15A66, 53C27, 57S15, 22E60,
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© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

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Dedicated to my father and my mother
Preface

With the discovery of a new particle, announced on 4 July 2012 at CERN,

whose properties are “consistent with the long-sought Higgs boson” [31], the final
elementary particle predicted by the classical Standard Model of particle physics
has been found. The aim of this book is to explain the mathematical background as
well as some of the details of the Standard Model. It is directed both at students of
mathematics, who are interested in applications of gauge theory in physics, and at
students of physics, who would like to understand more of the mathematics behind
the Standard Model.
The book is based on my lecture notes for graduate courses held at the University
of Stuttgart and the LMU Munich in Germany. A selection of the material can be
covered in one semester. Prerequisites are an introductory course on manifolds and
differential geometry as well as some basic knowledge of special relativity, sum-
marized in the appendix. The first six chapters of the book treat the mathematical
framework of gauge theories, in particular Lie groups, Lie algebras, representations,
group actions, fibre bundles, connections and curvature, and spinors. The following
three chapters discuss applications in physics: the Lagrangians and interactions in
the Standard Model, spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Higgs mechanism of mass
generation, and some more advanced and modern topics like neutrino masses, CP
violation and Grand Unification.
The background in mathematics covered in the first six chapters of the book
is much more extensive than strictly needed to understand the Standard Model. For
example, the Standard Model is formulated on 4-dimensional Minkowski spacetime,
over which all fibre bundles can be trivialized and spinors have a simple explicit
description. However, this book is also intended as an introduction to modern
theoretical physics as a whole, and some of the topics (for instance, on spinors or
non-trivial fibre bundles) may be useful to students who plan to study topics such as
supersymmetry or superstring theory. Depending on the time, the interests and the
prior knowledge of the reader, he or she can take a shortcut and immediately start
at the chapters on connections, spinors or Lagrangians, and then go back if more
detailed mathematical knowledge is required at some point.

vii
viii Preface

Since we focus on the Standard Model, several topics related to gauge theory and
fibre bundles could not be covered, such as characteristic classes, holonomy theory,
index theorems, monopoles and instantons as well as applications of gauge theory
in pure mathematics, like Donaldson and Seiberg–Witten theory. For those topics a
number of textbooks exist, some of which can be found in the bibliography.
An interesting and perhaps underappreciated fact is that a substantial number
of phenomena in particle physics can be understood by analysing representations
of Lie groups and by rewriting or rearranging Lagrangians. Examples of such
phenomena, which we are going to study, are:
• symmetries of Lagrangians
• interactions between fields corresponding to elementary particles (quarks, lep-
tons, gauge bosons, Higgs boson), determined by the Lagrangian
• the Higgs mechanism of mass generation for gauge bosons as well as the mass
generation for fermions via Yukawa couplings
• quark and neutrino mixing
• neutrino masses and the seesaw mechanism
• CP violation
• Grand Unification
On the other hand, if precise predictions about scattering or decay of particles should
be made or if explicit formulas for quantum effects, such as anomalies and running
couplings, should be derived, then quantum field calculations involving Green’s
functions, perturbation theory and renormalization are necessary. These calculations
are beyond the scope of this book, but a number of textbooks covering these topics
can be found in the physics literature.
The references I used during the preparation of the book are listed in each chapter
and may be useful to the reader for further studies (this is only a selection of
references that I came across over the past several years, sometimes by chance,
and there are many other valuable books and articles in this field).
It is not easy to make a recommendation on how to fit the chapters of the book
into a lecture course, because it depends on the prior knowledge of the audience. A
rough guideline could be as follows:
• One-semester course: Often lecture courses on differentiable manifolds contain
sections on Lie groups, Lie algebras and group actions. If these topics can be
assumed as prior knowledge, then one could cover in gauge theory the unstarred
sections of Chaps. 4 to 7 and as much as possible of Chap. 8, perhaps going back
to Chaps. 1 to 3 if specific results are needed.
• Two-semester course: Depending on the prior knowledge of the audience, one
could cover in the first semester Chaps. 4 to 6 in more detail and in the second
semester Chaps. 7 to 9. Or one could cover in the first semester Chaps. 1 to 5 and
in the second semester Chaps. 6 to 8 (and as much as possible of Chap. 9).

Munich, Germany Mark J.D. Hamilton

July 2017
Acknowledgements

There are several people and institutions I would like to thank. First, I am grateful to
Dieter Kotschick and Uwe Semmelmann for their academic and scientific support
since my time as a student. I want to thank Tian-Jun Li for our mathematical
discussions and the invitation to conferences in Minneapolis, and the Simons Center
for Geometry and Physics for the invitation to a workshop in Stony Brook. I
would also like to take the opportunity to thank (belatedly) the German Academic
Scholarship Foundation (Studienstiftung) for their generous financial support during
my years of study.
I am grateful to the LMU Munich and the University of Stuttgart for the
opportunity to give lecture courses on mathematical gauge theory, which formed
the basis for this book. I want to thank the students who attended the lectures, in
particular, Ismail Achmed-Zade, Anthony Britto, Simon-Raphael Fischer, Simon
Hirscher, Martin Peev, Alexander Tabler, Danu Thung, Juraj Vrábel and David
Wierichs, as well as my course assistants Nicola Pia and Giovanni Placini for
reading the lecture notes and commenting on the manuscript. Furthermore, I would
like to thank Bobby Acharya for his excellent lectures on the Standard Model and
Robert Helling and Ronen Plesser for our interesting discussions about physics.
Special thanks to Catriona Byrne, my first contact at Springer, to Rémi Lodh for
his excellent editorial support and suggestions while I was writing the manuscript,
to the anonymous referees, the editors and the copyeditor for a number of comments
and corrections, and to Anne-Kathrin Birchley-Brun for assistance in the production
and publication of the book.
Finally, I am grateful to John, Barbara and Patrick Hamilton, Gisela Saalfeld
and Inge Schmidbauer for their encouragement and support over the years, and to
Guoshu Wang for her friendship.

ix
Conventions

We collect some conventions that are used throughout the book.

General

• Sections and subsections marked with a  in front of the title contain additional
or advanced material and can be skipped on a first reading. Occasionally these
sections are used in later chapters.
• A word in italics is sometimes used for emphasis, but more often to denote terms
that have not been defined so far in the text, like gauge boson, or to denote
standard terms, like skew field, whose definition can be found in many textbooks.
A word in boldface is usually used for definitions.
• Diffeomorphisms of manifolds and isomorphisms of vector spaces, groups, Lie
groups, algebras and bundles are denoted by Š.
• We often use the Einstein summation convention byPsumming over the same
indices in an expression, without writing the symbol (we also sum over two
lower or two upper indices).
• If A is a set, then IdA W A ! A denotes the identity
S map.
• A disjoint union of sets is denoted by [ P or P .
• The symbols Re and Im denote the real and imaginary part of a complex number
(and sometimes of a quaternion).

Linear Algebra

• We denote by Mat.n  m; R/ the set of n  m-matrices with entries in a ring R.

xi
xii Conventions

• n  n-unit matrices
0 1
1
B 1 C
B C
B :: C
@ : A
1

are denoted by In or I.
• The conjugate of a complex number or quaternion q is denoted by qN and
occasionally by q . The conjugate AN of a complex or quaternionic matrix A is
N ij D Aij .
defined by conjugating each entry: .A/
• The transpose of a matrix A is denoted by AT . A matrix is called symmetric if
AT D A and skew-symmetric or antisymmetric if AT D A. For a complex or
quaternionic matrix A we set A D .A/N T . A complex or quaternionic matrix A is
called Hermitian if A D A and skew-Hermitian if A D A.


Note that the Dirac conjugate of a spinor , defined in Definition 6.7.15,

has a special meaning and is in general not equal to  or  .
• For a matrix A we denote by det.A/ the determinant and by tr.A/ the trace.
• In Kn , where K D R; C; H, we denote by e1 ; e2 : : : ; en the standard basis vectors
with n entries
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0
B0C B1C B0C
B C B C B C
B C B C B C
e1 D B 0 C ; e2 D B 0 C ; :::; en D B 0 C :
B:C B:C B:C
@ :: A @ :: A @ :: A
0 0 1

• If f W V ! W is a linear map between vector spaces, we sometimes write f v

instead of f .v/ for a vector v 2 V to reduce the number of brackets in formulas.

Groups

• The neutral element of a group G is usually denoted by e 2 G (if it is not a matrix

group, where the neutral element is usually denoted by I).
• By a group without preceding words like “topological” or “Lie” we mean a group
in the algebraic sense, without the additional structure of a topological space or
smooth manifold.
• We usually write the group operation as  (multiplication). Occasionally, we write
the operation for abelian groups as C (addition). The neutral element is then
sometimes denoted by 1 or 0, respectively.
Conventions xiii

Manifolds

• All manifolds in this book are smooth (C 1 ), unless stated otherwise.

• On a manifold M we denote by C 1 .M/ the set of smooth functions on M with
values in R and by C 1 .M; W/ the set of smooth functions with values in a vector
space W.
• The differential of a smooth map f W M ! N between manifolds M and N at a
point p 2 M is denoted by Dp f or f (push forward). If gW N ! Q is another
smooth map, then the chain rule in p 2 M is

Dp .g ı f / D Df .p/ g ı Dp f

or simply

.g ı f / D g ı f :

• If X is a vector field on a manifold M and p 2 M a point, then we denote by Xp

or X.p/ the value of X in p.
• By a curve  through a point p in a manifold M tangent to a vector X 2 Tp M we
mean a smooth curve  W Iˇ ! M, defined on an open interval I around 0, such that
.0/ D p and P .0/ D dtd ˇtD0 .t/ D X.
• Suppose f is a real or complex-valued function on a manifold M, p 2 M a point
and X 2 Tp M a tangent vector. Then we denote the directional derivative of
f along X by .LX f /.p/, df .X/ or Dp f .X/. The same notation is used if f takes
values in a real or complex vector space.

Diagrams

Feynman diagrams can be read with time increasing from left to right. Arrows
on fermion lines indicate particle-flow and point in the direction of momentum-
flow for particles, but opposite to the direction of momentum-flow for antiparticles
[125, Sect. 9.2]. The Feynman diagrams in this book have been prepared with
feynMF/feynMP. Commutative diagrams have been prepared with TikZ and func-
tion plots with MATLAB.
Contents

Part I Mathematical Foundations

1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Linear Groups and Symmetry Groups of Vector Spaces.. . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Homomorphisms of Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4 Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.5 From Lie Groups to Lie Algebras.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6  From Lie Subalgebras to Lie Subgroups . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.7 The Exponential Map.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.8  Cartan’s Theorem on Closed Subgroups . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.9 Exercises for Chap. 1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Representations
and Structure Theory.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.2 Invariant Metrics on Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.3 The Killing Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.4  Semisimple and Compact Lie Algebras .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.5  Ad-Invariant Scalar Products on Compact Lie Groups .. . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.6  Homotopy Groups of Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.7 Exercises for Chap. 2 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3 Group Actions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.1 Transformation Groups .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2 Definition and First Properties of Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.3 Examples of Group Actions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.4 Fundamental Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.5 The Maurer–Cartan Form and the Differential of a Smooth
Group Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.6 Left or Right Actions? .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.7  Quotient Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

xv
xvi Contents


3.8 Homogeneous Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

3.9 Stiefel and Grassmann Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

3.10 The Exceptional Lie Group G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

3.11 Godement’s Theorem on the Manifold Structure of Quotient
Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.12 Exercises for Chap. 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4 Fibre Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.1 General Fibre Bundles .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.2 Principal Fibre Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.3  Formal Bundle Atlases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.4  Frame Bundles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.5 Vector Bundles .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.6  The Clutching Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.7 Associated Vector Bundles .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.8 Exercises for Chap. 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5 Connections and Curvature.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.1 Distributions and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.2 Connection 1-Forms .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.3 Gauge Transformations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.4 Local Connection 1-Forms and Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.5 Curvature .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
5.6 Local Curvature 2-Forms .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.7  Generalized Electric and Magnetic Fields on Minkowski
Spacetime of Dimension 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.8 Parallel Transport .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.9 The Covariant Derivative on Associated Vector Bundles .. . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.10  Parallel Transport and Path-Ordered Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.11  Holonomy and Wilson Loops .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.12 The Exterior Covariant Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.13 Forms with Values in Ad.P/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.14  A Second and Third Version of the Bianchi Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.15 Exercises for Chap. 5 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6 Spinors . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
6.1 The Pseudo-Orthogonal Group O.s; t/ of Indefinite
Scalar Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.2 Clifford Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.3 The Clifford Algebras for the Standard Symmetric
Bilinear Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
6.4 The Spinor Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.5 The Spin Groups .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.6  Majorana Spinors.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
6.7  Spin Invariant Scalar Products .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.8 Explicit Formulas for Minkowski Spacetime of Dimension 4.. . . . . . 373
Contents xvii

6.9 Spin Structures and Spinor Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

6.10 The Spin Covariant Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
6.11 Twisted Spinor Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
6.12 Twisted Chiral Spinors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
6.13 Exercises for Chap. 6 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

Part II The Standard Model of Elementary Particle Physics

7 The Classical Lagrangians of Gauge Theories. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
7.1 Restrictions on the Set of Lagrangians . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
7.2 The Hodge Star and the Codifferential . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.3 The Yang–Mills Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
7.4 Mathematical and Physical Conventions for Gauge Theories . . . . . . . 421
7.5 The Klein–Gordon and Higgs Lagrangians . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
7.6 The Dirac Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
7.7 Yukawa Couplings .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
7.8 Dirac and Majorana Mass Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
7.9 Exercises for Chap. 7 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8 The Higgs Mechanism and the Standard Model . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
8.1 The Higgs Field and Symmetry Breaking . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
8.2 Mass Generation for Gauge Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
8.3 Massive Gauge Bosons in the SU.2/  U.1/-Theory
of the Electroweak Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
8.4 The SU.3/-Theory of the Strong Interaction (QCD).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
8.5 The Particle Content of the Standard Model . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
8.6 Interactions Between Fermions and Gauge Bosons .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
8.7 Interactions Between Higgs Bosons and Gauge Bosons .. . . . . . . . . . . . 505
8.8 Mass Generation for Fermions in the Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
8.9 The Complete Lagrangian of the Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
8.10 Lepton and Baryon Numbers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
8.11 Exercises for Chap. 8 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
9 Modern Developments and Topics Beyond the Standard Model . . . . . . . 527
9.1 Flavour and Chiral Symmetry .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
9.2 Massive Neutrinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
9.3 C, P and CP Violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.4 Vacuum Polarization and Running Coupling Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
9.5 Grand Unified Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
9.6 A Short Introduction to the Minimal Supersymmetric
Standard Model (MSSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
9.7 Exercises for Chap. 9 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
xviii Contents

Part III Appendix

A Background on Differentiable Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
A.1 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
A.2 Tensors and Forms .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
B Background on Special Relativity and Quantum Field Theory.. . . . . . . . 625
B.1 Basics of Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
B.2 A Short Introduction to Quantum Field Theory ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

References .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
 Part I
Mathematical Foundations
Chapter 1
Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

Gauge theories are field theories of physics involving symmetry groups. Symmetry
groups are groups of transformations that act on something and leave something
(possibly something else) invariant. For example, symmetry groups can act on
geometric objects (by rotation, translation, etc.) and leave those objects invariant.
For the symmetries relevant in field theories, the groups act on fields and leave the
Lagrangian or the action (the spacetime integral over the Lagrangian) invariant.
Concerning symmetry groups or groups in general we can make a basic
distinction, without being mathematically precise for the moment: groups can be
discrete or continuous. Both types of symmetry groups already occur for elementary
geometric objects. Equilateral triangles and squares, for example, appear to have
discrete symmetry groups, while other objects, such as the circle S1 , the 2-sphere
S2 or the plane R2 with a Euclidean metric, have continuous symmetry groups. A
deep and less obvious fact, that we want to understand over the course of this book,
is that similar symmetry groups play a prominent role in the classical and quantum
field theories describing nature.
From a mathematical point of view, continuous symmetry groups can be concep-
tualised as Lie groups. By definition, Lie groups are groups in an algebraic sense
which are at the same time smooth manifolds, so that both structures – algebraic
and differentiable – are compatible. As a mathematical object, Lie groups capture
the idea of a continuous group that can be parametrized locally by coordinates, so
that the group operations (multiplication and inversion) are smooth maps in those
coordinates. Lie groups also cover the case of discrete, i.e. 0-dimensional groups,
consisting of a set of isolated points.
In theoretical physics, Lie groups like the Lorentz and Poincaré groups, which are
related to spacetime symmetries, and gauge groups, defining internal symmetries,
are important cornerstones. The currently accepted Standard Model of elementary
particles, for instance, is a gauge theory with Lie group

SU.3/  SU.2/  U.1/:

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3

M.J.D. Hamilton, Mathematical Gauge Theory, Universitext,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68439-0_1
4 1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

There are also Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) based on Lie groups like SU.5/. We
shall see in later chapters that the specific kind of Lie group in a gauge theory (its
dimension, whether it is abelian or not, whether it is simple or splits as a product
of several factors, and so on) is reflected in interesting ways in the physics. For
example, in the case of the Standard Model, it turns out that:
• The fact that there are 8 gluons, 3 weak gauge bosons and 1 photon is related
to the dimensions of the Lie groups SU.3/ and SU.2/  U.1/ (the SU.5/ Grand
Unified Theory has 12 additional gauge bosons).
• The fact that the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions have different
strengths (coupling constants) is related to the product structure of the gauge
group SU.3/  SU.2/  U.1/ (GUTs built on simple Lie groups like SU.5/ have
only a single coupling constant).
• The fact that gluons interact directly with each other while photons do not is
related to the fact that SU.3/ is non-abelian while U.1/ is abelian.
Our main mathematical tool to construct non-trivial Lie groups will be Cartan’s
Theorem, which shows that any subgroup (in the algebraic sense) of a Lie group,
which is a closed set in the topology, is already an embedded Lie subgroup.
Besides Lie groups, Lie algebras play an important role in the theory of
symmetries. Lie algebras are vector spaces with a bilinear, antisymmetric product,
denoted by a bracket Π; , satisfying the Jacobi identity. As an algebraic object, Lie
algebras can be defined independently of Lie groups, even though Lie groups and
Lie algebras are closely related: the tangent space to the neutral element e 2 G of a
Lie group G has a canonical structure of a Lie algebra. This means that Lie algebras
are in some sense an infinitesimal, algebraic description of Lie groups. Depending
on the situation, it is often easier to work with linear objects, such as Lie algebras,
than with non-linear objects like Lie groups. Lie algebras are also important in gauge
theories: connections on principal bundles, also known as gauge boson fields, are
(locally) 1-forms on spacetime with values in the Lie algebra of the gauge group.
In this chapter we define Lie groups and Lie algebras and describe the relations
between them. In the following chapter we will study some associated concepts,
like representations (which are used to define the actions of Lie groups on fields)
and invariant metrics (which are important in the construction of the gauge invariant
Yang–Mills Lagrangian). We will also briefly discuss the structure of simple and
semisimple Lie algebras.
Concerning symmetries, we will study in this chapter Lie groups as symmetry
groups of vector spaces and certain structures (scalar products and volume forms)
defined on vector spaces (in Chap. 3 on group actions we will study Lie groups
as symmetry groups of manifolds). Symmetry groups of vector spaces are more
generic than it may seem: it can be shown as a consequence of the Peter–Weyl
Theorem that any compact Lie group can be realized as a group of rotations of some
finite-dimensional Euclidean vector space Rm (i.e. as an embedded Lie subgroup of
SO.m/).
1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 5

We can only cover a selection of topics on Lie groups. The main references for
this and the following chapter are [24, 83, 142] and [153], where more extensive
discussions of Lie groups and Lie algebras can be found. Additional references are
[14, 34, 70, 77] and [129].

1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups

We begin with a first elementary mathematical concept that makes the idea of a
continuous group precise.
Definition 1.1.1 A topological group G is a group which is at the same time a
topological space so that the map

G  G ! G
.g; h/ 7! g  h1

is continuous, where G  G has the canonical product topology determined by the

topology of G.
Remark 1.1.2 Here and in the following we shall mean by a group just a group in
the algebraic sense, without the additional structure of a topological space or smooth
manifold.
We usually set e for the neutral element in G. An equivalent description of
topological groups is the following.
Lemma 1.1.3 A group G is a topological group if and only if it is at the same time
a topological space so that both of the maps

G  G ! G
.g; h/ 7! g  h
G ! G
g 7! g1 ;

called multiplication and inversion, are continuous.

Proof Suppose that multiplication and inversion are continuous maps. Then the map

G  G ! G  G
 
.g; h/ 7! g; h1
6 1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

is continuous and hence also the composition of this map followed by multiplication.
This shows that

G  G ! G
.g; h/ 7! g  h1

is continuous, hence the group G is a topological group.

Conversely, assume that G is a topological group. Then the map

G ! G  G ! G
g 7! .e; g/ 7! e  g1 D g1

is continuous and hence the map

G  G ! G  G ! G
   1
.g; h/ 7! g; h1 7! g  h1 D gh

is also continuous. This proves the claim. t

u
The concept of topological groups is a bit too general to be useful for our purposes.
In particular, general topological spaces can be very complicated and do not have
to be, for example, locally Euclidean, like topological manifolds. We now turn to
the definition of Lie groups, which is the type of continuous groups we are most
interested in.

Definition 1.1.4 A Lie group G is a group which is at the same time a

manifold so that the map

G  G ! G
.g; h/ 7! g  h1

is smooth, where G  G has the canonical structure of a product manifold

determined by the smooth structure of G.

Remark 1.1.5 Note that we only consider Lie groups of finite dimension.
Remark 1.1.6 Here and in the following we mean by a manifold a smooth
manifold, unless stated otherwise.
Of course, every Lie group is also a topological group. We could define Lie groups
equivalently as follows.
1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 7

Lemma 1.1.7 A group G is a Lie group if and only if it is at the same time a
manifold so that both of the maps

G  G ! G
.g; h/ 7! g  h
G ! G
g 7! g1

are smooth.
Proof The proof is very similar to the proof of Lemma 1.1.3. t
u
A Lie group is thus a second countable, Hausdorff, topological group that can be
parametrized locally by finitely many coordinates in a smoothly compatible way, so
that multiplication and inversion depend smoothly on the coordinates.
Remark 1.1.8 (Redundancy in the Definition of Lie Groups) A curious fact about
Lie groups is that it suffices to check that multiplication is smooth, because then
inversion is automatically smooth (see Exercise 1.9.5).
Remark 1.1.9 (Hilbert’s Fifth Problem) It was shown by Gleason [65], Mont-
gomery and Zippin [97] in 1952 that a topological group, which is also a topological
manifold, has the structure of a Lie group. This is the solution to one interpretation
of Hilbert’s fifth problem (see [135] for more details). We will not prove this theorem
(the existence of a smooth structure), but we will show in Corollary 1.8.17 that on
a topological group, which is a topological manifold, there is at most one smooth
structure that turns it into a Lie group.

We will see in Sect. 1.5 that there is a deeper reason why we want symmetry
groups to be smooth manifolds: only in this situation can we canonically
associate to a group a Lie algebra, which consists of certain left-invariant
smooth vector fields on the group. Vector fields are only defined on smooth
manifolds (they need tangent spaces and a tangent bundle to be defined).
This explains why we are particularly interested in groups having a smooth
structure.

We consider some simple examples of Lie groups (more examples will follow later,
in particular, in Sect. 1.2.2).
Example 1.1.10 Euclidean space Rn with vector addition is an n-dimensional Lie
group, since addition

.x; y/ 7! x C y
8 1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

and inversion

x 7! x

for x; y 2 Rn are linear and hence smooth. The Lie group Rn is connected, non-
compact and abelian.
Remark 1.1.11 Euclidean spaces Rn can also carry other (non-abelian) Lie group
structures besides the abelian structure coming from vector addition. For example,
80 1 ˇ 9
< 1xy ˇ =
ˇ
Nil3 D @ 0 1 z A 2 Mat.3  3; R/ ˇ x; y; z 2 R
: ˇ ;
001

with matrix multiplication is an example of a (so-called nilpotent), non-abelian Lie

group structure on R3 , also known as the Heisenberg group.
Example 1.1.12 Every countable group G with the manifold structure as a discrete
space, i.e. a countable union of isolated points, is a 0-dimensional Lie group,
because every map G  G ! G is smooth (locally constant). A discrete group
is compact if and only if it is finite. In particular, the integers Z and the finite cyclic
groups Zk D Z=kZ for k 2 N are discrete, abelian Lie groups. The Lie group Z2
can be identified with the 0-sphere

S0 D fx 2 R j jxj D 1g D f˙1g

with multiplication induced from R.

Example 1.1.13 The circle

S1 D fz 2 C j jzj D 1g

is a 1-dimensional Lie group with multiplication induced from C: multiplication on

C is quadratic and inversion on C D C n f0g is a rational function in real and
imaginary parts, thus smooth. Both maps restrict to smooth maps on the embedded
submanifold S1  C. The Lie group S1 is connected, compact and abelian.
Example 1.1.14 The following set of matrices together with matrix multiplication
is a Lie group:
(  ˇ )
ˇ
cos ˛  sin ˛ ˇ
SO.2/ D 2 Mat.2  2; R/ ˇ ˛ 2 R :
sin ˛ cos ˛ ˇ
1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 9

As a manifold SO.2/ Š R=2Z Š S1 . We have

     
cos ˛  sin ˛ cos ˇ  sin ˇ cos.˛ C ˇ/  sin.˛ C ˇ/
 D
sin ˛ cos ˛ sin ˇ cos ˇ sin.˛ C ˇ/ cos.˛ C ˇ/

and
 1  
cos ˛  sin ˛ cos.˛/  sin.˛/
D ;
sin ˛ cos ˛ sin.˛/ cos.˛/

showing that multiplication and inversion are smooth maps and that SO.2/ is closed
under these operations. The Lie group SO.2/ is one of the simplest examples of a
whole class of Lie groups, known as matrix or linear Lie groups (the Heisenberg
group is another example). The Lie group SO.2/ is isomorphic to S1 .
We want to generalize the examples of the Lie groups S0 and S1 and show that the
3-sphere S3 also has the structure of a Lie group. This is a good opportunity to
introduce (or recall) in a short detour the skew field of quaternions H.

1.1.1 Normed Division Algebras and the Quaternions

The real and complex numbers are known from high school and the first mathemat-
ics courses at university. There are, however, other types of “higher-dimensional”
numbers, which are less familiar, but still occur in mathematics and physics. It is
useful to consider the following, general, algebraic notions (a nice reference is [8]):
Definition 1.1.15
1. A real algebra is a finite-dimensional real vector space A with a bilinear map

A  A ! A
.a; b/ 7! a  b

and a unit element 1 2 A such that 1  a D a D a  1 for all a 2 A. In particular,

the multiplication on A is distributive, but in general not associative.
2. We call the algebra A normed if there is a norm jj  jj on the vector space A such
that jjabjj D jjajj  jjbjj.
3. We call the algebra A a division algebra if ab D 0 implies that either a D 0 or
b D 0.
4. The algebra has multiplicative inverses if for any non-zero a 2 A there is an
a1 2 A such that aa1 D a1 a D 1.
It follows that every normed algebra is a division algebra and every associative
division algebra has multiplicative inverses (this is not true in general for non-
associative division algebras).
10 1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

The following is a classical theorem due to Hurwitz.

Theorem 1.1.16 (Hurwitz’s Theorem on Normed Division Algebras) There are
only four normed real division algebras:
1. The real numbers R of dimension 1.
2. The complex numbers C of dimension 2.
3. The quaternions H of dimension 4.
4. The octonions O of dimension 8.
We want to describe the quaternions in this section and leave the (non-associative)
octonions to Exercise 3.12.15.
Recall that there is an algebra structure on the vector space R2 , so that this
vector space becomes a field, called the complex numbers C: the multiplication
is associative and commutative. Furthermore, every non-zero element of C has a
multiplicative inverse.
The complex plane is spanned as a real vector space by the basis vectors 1 and
i, with i2 D 1. By distributivity this determines the product of any two complex
numbers. We define the conjugate of a complex number z D a C ib as zN D a  ib
and the norm squared as jjzjj2 D zNz D a2 C b2 . The multiplicative inverse of a
non-zero complex number is then

zN
z1 D :
jjzjj2

We also have

jjuvjj D jjujj  jjvjj

for all complex numbers u; v 2 C, so that C is a normed division algebra.

There is a similar construction of an algebra structure on the vector space R4 ,
so that this vector space becomes a skew field, called the quaternions H: the
multiplication is associative and every non-zero element of H has a multiplicative
inverse. However, the multiplication is not commutative. As a real vector space H is
spanned by the basis vectors 1, i, j and k. The product satisfies

i2 D j2 D k2 D ijk D 1:

Using associativity of multiplication this determines all possible products among the
basis elements i; j; k and thus by distributivity the product of any two quaternions.
We have

ij D ji D k;
jk D kj D i;
ki D ik D j;
1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 11

showing in particular that the product is not commutative. The products among i, j
and k can be memorized with the following diagram:

k j

We define the real quaternions by

Re H D fa D a1 2 H j a 2 Rg

and the imaginary quaternions by

Im H D fbi C cj C dk 2 H j b; c; d 2 Rg:

We also define the conjugate of a quaternion w D a C bi C cj C dk as

wN D a  bi  cj  dk

and the norm squared as

jjwjj2 D a2 C b2 C c2 C d 2 D wwN D ww:

N

The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero quaternion is then

wN
w1 D :
jjwjj2

We also have

jjwzjj D jjwjj  jjzjj

for all w; z 2 H, so that H is a normed division algebra.

Remark 1.1.17 One has to be careful with division of quaternions: the expression
w for z; w 2 H is not well-defined, even for w ¤ 0, since multiplication is not
z

commutative. One rather has to write zw1 or w1 z.

Multiplication of quaternions defines a group structure on the 3-sphere:
Example 1.1.18 The 3-sphere

S3 D fw 2 H j jjwjj D 1g

of unit quaternions is a 3-dimensional embedded submanifold of H Š R4 and a Lie

group with multiplication induced from H. As a Lie group S3 is connected, compact
12 1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

and non-abelian (it contains, in particular, the elements 1; i; j; k 2 H). The 3-sphere
and thus the quaternions have an interesting relation to the rotation group SO.3/
of R3 , to be discussed in Example 1.3.8.
Remark 1.1.19 We shall see in Exercise 3.12.15 that there is an algebra structure
on the vector space R8 , so that this vector space becomes a normed division
algebra, called the octonions O. This multiplication induces a multiplication on
S7 . However, the multiplication does not define a group structure on S7 , because it
is not associative.


1.1.2 Quaternionic Matrices

Certain properties of matrices with quaternionic entries cannot be proved in the

same way as for matrices with real or complex entries, because the quaternions are
only a skew field. In particular, it is not immediately clear how to make sense of the
inverse and a determinant for quaternionic square matrices. Even if this is possible,
it is not clear that such a determinant would have the nice properties we expect of it,
like multiplicativity and the characterization of invertible matrices as those of non-
zero determinant. Since we are going to consider groups of quaternionic matrices
as examples of Lie groups, like the so-called compact symplectic group Sp.n/, we
would like to fill in some of the details in this section (we follow the exposition in
[83, Sect. I.8] and [152]). Like any section with a star  this section can be skipped
on a first reading.
Definition 1.1.20 We denote by Mat.m  n; H/ the set of all m  n-matrices with
entries in H.
The set Mat.m  n; H/ is an abelian group with the standard addition of matrices.
We can also define right and left multiplication with elements q 2 H:

Mat.m  n; H/  H ! Mat.m  n; H/
.A; q/ 7! Aq

and

H  Mat.m  n; H/ ! Mat.m  n; H/
.q; A/ 7! qA:

This gives Mat.m  n; H/ the structure of a right or left module over the quaternions
H; we call this a right or left quaternionic vector space (since H is not
commutative, left and right multiplication differ). In particular, the spaces of row
and column vectors, denoted by Hn , each have the structure of a right and left
quaternionic vector space.
1.1 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 13

We can define matrix multiplication

Mat.m  n; H/  Mat.n  p; H/ ! Mat.m  p; H/

.A; B/ 7! A  B

in the standard way, where we have to be careful to preserve the ordering in the
products of the entries. All of the constructions so far work in exactly the same way
for matrices over any ring.
We now restrict to quaternionic square matrices Mat.n  n; H/. It is sometimes
useful to have a different description of such matrices. The following is easy to see:
Lemma 1.1.21 Let q 2 H be a quaternion. Then there exist unique complex
numbers q1 ; q2 2 C such that

q D q1 C jq2 :

Let A 2 Mat.n  n; H/ be a quaternionic square matrix. Then there exist unique

complex square matrices A1 ; A2 2 Mat.n  n; C/ such that

A D A1 C jA2 :

Definition 1.1.22 For a matrix A D A1 CjA2 2 Mat.nn; H/, with A1 ; A2 complex,

we define the adjoint to be the complex square matrix
 
A1 A2
A D 2 Mat.2n  2n; C/:
A2 A1

Example 1.1.23 For the special case of a quaternion q D q1 Cjq2 2 H with q1 ; q2 2

C, considered as a 1  1-matrix, we get
 
q1 q2
q D :
q2 q1

The quaternions H are sometimes defined as the subset of Mat.2  2; C/ consisting

of matrices of this form.
Remark 1.1.24 Another definition of the adjoint, used in [152], is to write A D
A1 C A2 j with A1 ; A2 complex and define
 
A1 A2
A D :
A2 A1

We continue to use our Definition 1.1.22, which seems to be more standard.

Using the adjoint we get the following identification of Mat.n  n; H/ with a subset
of Mat.2n  2n; C/.
14 1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Basic Concepts

Proposition 1.1.25 (Quaternionic Matrices as a Subspace of Complex Matrices)

We define an element J 2 Mat.2n  2n; C/ by
 
0 In
JD :
In 0

Then J 1 D J and the image of the injective map

W Mat.n  n; H/ ! Mat.2n  2n; C/

A 7! A

consists of the set

˚ 
im  D X 2 Mat.2n  2n; C/ j JXJ 1 D X :

The proof is a simple calculation. The following proposition can also be verified
by a direct calculation, where for the second property we use that Cj D jC for a
complex matrix C:
Proposition 1.1.26 (Properties of the Adjoint) The adjoints of quaternionic nn-
matrices A; B satisfy

ACB D A C B
AB D A B
tr.A / D 2Re.tr.A//:

Corollary 1.1.27 If quaternionic n  n-matrices A; B satisfy AB D I, then BA D I.

Proof If AB D In , then

A B D AB D I2n :

Hence by a property of the inverse of complex matrices

BA D B A D I2n

and thus BA D In . t
u
We can therefore define:
Definition 1.1.28 A matrix A 2 Mat.n  n; H/ is called invertible if there exists a
matrix B 2 Mat.n  n; H/ with AB D I D BA. The matrix B is called the inverse
of A.
Corollary 1.1.29 A matrix A 2 Mat.n  n; H/ is invertible if and only if its adjoint
A is invertible.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Timotheus; or,
the future of the theatre
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Title: Timotheus; or, the future of the theatre

Author: Bonamy Dobrée

Release date: March 25, 2024 [eBook #73264]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1925

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIMOTHEUS;

OR, THE FUTURE OF THE THEATRE ***
TIMOTHEUS
 TIMOTHEUS
OR
The Future of the
Theatre
BONAMY DOBREE
Author of “Restoration Comedy 1660–1720,”
“Histriophone,” “Essays in Biography”

“Even the powerful mind of Dr. Johnson seemed foiled by

futurity.”—Boswell.

New York
E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY
681 Fifth Avenue
 Copyright, 1925
By E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY

All Rights Reserved

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 To

RICHARDSON KING WOOD

 PREFATORY NOTICE
This booklet is Chapter Twenty-three of a work already largely in
being, but of which very little will be published in the reader’s lifetime;
for though the author has none of that false respect for the wishes of
the dead and the privacies of contemporaries which still causes so
much avoidable inconvenience in social life, that feeling of delicacy
towards posterity, now so active an influence as sometimes to shrink
from exposing its members even to existence, hinders his speaking
fully.
Being obnoxious to the sufferings of others, he had, in 1915, the
good fortune to acquire Mr H. G. Wells’ Time Machine. Choosing a
remote corner of our island, and building due safeguards against
possible bumps in time—I will not forestall the account given in
Chapter Two of his work—he arrived at the year 2,100 (O.S.[1]) with
no further damage than a slight bruise on his knee caused by the
shovel of an archaeologist in search of human remains thought to be
of the same period as the Cro-Magnon man.
[1] Our Style.
The details of how the author was greeted, conducted, honoured,
and spied upon are not here to be told—much is left to the reader to
infer; verb. sap., as we say. But there are two points the latter must
bear in mind: the first that there are things the author has bound
himself not to divulge, and which will never be known until they
occur; the second, that he has had to rely on his memory alone. A
little thought will make the reason plain: although he took copious
notes, and these are in existence, they are so only in future time,
and will not become available until the year 2,100. This last
statement, I fear, bristles with issues, and opens up deep scientific
and philosophical questions, involving on the one hand relativity and
on the other vitalism, which I have neither the space nor the ability to
dispose of. But very vivid in the author’s mind is the remembrance of
his emotion on first seeing the writing fade backwards out of his
notebooks, and becoming bitterly aware that time was a reversible
flux. He returned to 1920, a study of history having informed him, as
far as he could unravel the evidence, that his feelings would be less
lacerated in that year than seemed likely in 1915. He then settled
down to write his great work, which he will give to the world
piecemeal as discretion permits: (the reader has only to glance at
our law reports to see that were futurity displayed, the enjoyment of
life and that nice adjustment of personal desires to social duties
which our time has perfected, could not exist), and I have persuaded
him to allow me to make known this chapter on the theatre, which
can break no bones, or even abrade the most delicate skin.
I have, indeed, taken the liberty of making some omissions in
order to brevity, and, I freely admit, for decency’s sake; for I do not
hold with the modern fashion of protesting that nothing is withheld,
and forthwith teasing the reader with a series of dots or stars.
Why the book is called ‘Timotheus’ will be evident to those who
bear in mind the name of the ‘Mighty Master,’ the Wagner of
Alexander the Great’s day, who

“Cou’d swell the Soul to Rage, or kindle soft Desire.”

 CONTENTS
PAGE

PREFATORY NOTICE vii

I. THE NATIONAL THEATRE 1
II. THE DRAMATIC ACADEMY 21
III. OTHER THEATRES 45
TIMOTHEUS
 I
THE NATIONAL THEATRE

Our air-taxi landed us at what I took to be the nineteenth floor, and

we walked almost at once into a huge hyperboloid pit, the walls of
which consisted of tiers of seats. It would hold, I gathered, some
twenty thousand people, and much resembled a Roman theatre,
except for the peculiar curve of the walls, and the seats continuing to
the very bottom of the funnel. There was no sign of any stage, and
on my questioning Fabian,[2] he pointed to the saucer-like dome
which formed the roof, or lid of the building. I was afraid that to keep
my eyes fixed upon this airy stage would mean ricking my neck, but I
was reassured on being shown the shape of our seats. Not only
were they well slanted back, but they were also provided with rests
for the head, such as we are familiar with at our barbers’ and
dentists’; and I was told that with the body in the position proper to
the chairs, our emotional apparatus lent itself most readily to
suggestion.
[2] The author’s general guide—Vergil to his Dante.
I then asked him if the performance was to be a good one, and he
replied that “The clutch was officially ranked as A2 for efficiency, but
that he did not know what it was for.” I was much puzzled as to his
meaning until I learnt that ‘clutch’ was the name given to a drama of
the kind about to take place, where everything was under the control
of one man, the ‘fairfusser’ as he is called, who designs the
movement, the emotional sequences, the voices, and whatever else
is needed. I laid myself open to much banter on the part of Ierne[3] by
asking whether it was to be a tragedy or a comedy: such a crude
distinction, she said, was typical of the muddle-headedness of our
age, on a level with the antitheses classical-romantic, conservative-
liberal, matter-mind, and even intellect-emotion we were so fond of
making, and which for absurdity were only equalled by our craze for
dressing men and women in different sorts of clothes. The object of
a drama, Fabian enlightened me, was to summon up a given state of
being, pure or complex; and once the fairfusser knew what the clutch
was for, it was his business to produce the right emotion. I began to
speak of emotion for its own sake, but Ierne hurriedly checked me,
saying that I would shock anyone who might overhear, for there was
no biological value in emotion for its own sake. This made me think
less agreeably of her kindness to me on the last evening.
[3] The author’s guide in the more intimate social relationships.
I was therefore still confused by their speaking of what a clutch
was ‘for,’ as though it might be a sort of charity matinée, and was
about to put the question, when the theatre became pitch dark: the
clutch was beginning.
At first I was aware only that the roof, or ‘stage’ had become
luminous, the light varying in strength, as it does on the ceiling of a
room when clouds travel across the sun. Soon it became more
steadily bright, and vague human figures began to take shape on it,
shadows at first, some of enormous size, advancing and retreating,
making wide gestures of an import I could not grasp. Sometimes the
shadows would assume solid shape and stand up as live beings,
seeming to detach themselves from the dome so as not to appear in
the least like those extravagant persons who populate the ceilings of
many of our own theatres: and among them was one singularly
graceful form which seemed to dominate the rest, and whose
motions I could not help following, so great was the pleasure they
gave me.
Soon I became conscious that the air of the theatre was pulsating
in a manner which never quite became sound, and in a definite
rhythm, which varied occasionally, but yet seemed to conform to the
original beat, much as a poet will modulate his verse. Now a faint
perfume hit the sense, while an uneasy feeling stole over me, as if
something had been done I did not want. Then, from the body of the
theatre, as from a member of the audience, a voice spoke, in the
tones of a man resigned to grief:

No means at all to hide

Man from himself can find:
No way to start aside.
Out of the hell of mind.

and I felt myself sinking into such an agony of despair as I can

remember having gone through only in dreams, or under the
influence of supernatural fear. Struggle as I might against the weight
of oppression, I was forced to abandon myself to the flow of dire
tribulation, in which remorse succeeded terror, and all the passions
of the world were black. And from all around the theatre, now from
here, now from there, above me and below me, sometimes in front
and sometimes at my back, I could hear voices and the noise of
approaching events. Once I thought a voice cried out:

Desolate, as she is desolate, in ruined cities, and

when the sun has gone down to his rest.

and in the midst of a tumult of pulsations and perfumes and shadowy

occurrences, a woman whispered, it seemed close by my ear:

And Pity, like a naked, new-born babe.

At that the sense of intolerable woe lightened; the rhythm changed,

the figures appeared human and brave, while joy seemed to issue
from the very walls of the theatre with the words:

Love’s banners on the battlements of song,

which trickled from every side. At last, without warning, in a

triumphant burst of sudden glory such as makes us laugh with active
lungs, a loud but harmonious cry resounded from the very middle of
the theatre, where there was nothing visible but empty air, calling:

Where are the eagles and the trumpets?

and I remembered no more till we found ourselves perched on the

outer landing of the theatre waiting for our taxi to take us home.
 It was then that I found myself prey to strange and mingled, but
insistent emotions, partly of kindly generosity, and partly of self-
sacrifice. Looking at the men and women around me I could see that
they too were strongly moved, making gestures foreign to the
occasion, such as taking out their pocket-books, searching in them
feverishly, and doing sums on slips of paper. Some whom I could
see were giving themselves up to despair, and others were arguing
with their wives. Fabian then pointed out to me that most of the
carriages taking people away from the theatre, instead of flying in all
directions, made for a building upon which was written large

SUBSCRIBE HERE FOR THE EURBANK LOAN.

OFFICES OPEN.

That, he said, accounted for the clutch. There was a crisis, he

continued, in the bank upon which the credit of the League of Europe
was founded, and the governments were anxious to sell the scrip of
the new loan. The clutch we had seen had, no doubt, been
performed that afternoon in the larger towns all over the continent,
the language alone being suitably varied; and by this means the
bank would be placed on a firm footing once more. My emotion was
damped on learning this, for after all, I could have little interest in the
finances of a country in which I had no stake: but enough of my
feeling was left to make me give a foolishly large tip to the driver of
our machine.
I was naturally curious to know by what means the frame of mind
had been aroused, and in the evening Fabian was kind enough to
enlighten me, going very learnedly into the origins of the form which
met with such success. I was very surprised, and not a little proud, to
find that a large part of the science had had its starting point in our
own day, as he showed from several old books: but he on his part
seemed inclined to think we had been wanting in genius to have had
so much knowledge to hand, and yet not have been able to use it.
The shape of the theatre had been chosen for acoustic reasons,
on account of certain properties of the hyperbola, which I had not the
mathematics to understand, but which, Fabian said, had been
utilised in the third (1914–1918) of the five great wars of European
settlement, for finding out by their report, the exact post of hidden
guns. It was this which had enabled the fairfusser to make the last
cry seem to come from the void; the other speeches had merely
been delivered by variously placed loud-speakers, connected in due
turn with a wireless gramophone. I may here say that the phrases I
have remembered and written down are only a very small number of
those used in the performance, and which, for some reason, seemed
familiar. The other words spoken in the clutch were of like great
emotive power, chosen or invented by the fairfusser for this reason
alone: and though they may seem to have no logical thread, or
connection in real life, their place in the scheme was very carefully
thought out. The reasons, and the terminology, for all this were too
far advanced for me to be able to hold them in my head, but I have
since traced some passages Fabian showed me as early sources of
the form, and which will give the reader some idea of the great
cleverness of the design.

“Thus the indirect methods of hypnotising, like many

of the technical procedures used in making jokes, have
the effect of checking certain distributions of mental
energy which would interfere with the course of events
in the unconscious, and they lead eventually to the
same result as the direct methods of influence by
means of staring or stroking.”[4]
[4] Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, page
97.
From there the high road is plain to see; the phrases of the clutch
check or loosen ‘certain distributions of mental energy,’ for art is only
a kind of hypnotism: but the perfection which I had ‘felt’ had not been
arrived at without much arduous trial. At one time jumbled up words
had been tried, or single ones, but even the most striking, such as
death, or beauty, or ruin, had not had an effect at all to be put beside
that of the shortest sentence. Familiar quotations had also been
made use of, but they were put by for two reasons. The first was that
all men did not respond in the same way, since all men are not
equally noble, some even finding risible “Tears, idle tears, I know not
what they mean.” The second was that hardly any quotations were
familiar enough to be known by everybody: for example, the words
“Till the conversion of the Jews” moved people quite unevenly, some
connecting them with religion, others with their pass-books, and a
few with an old obscure poem. This, besides preventing many from
entering into the proper mood, destroyed that singleness in the
audience without which the highest suggestible state cannot be
reached: for an emotion is infectious only if the units of the crowd are
ready to agree together, as I have often noticed on first nights when
the friends of an author try to sweep the critics away on a tide of
noisy enthusiasm. And further, emotion caught on the wing is always
stronger than when it is the result of deliberate thought.
As to the shadows on the ‘stage,’ these were for fixing the
attention of all upon the same thing; and I discovered that every
member of the audience had been greatly drawn towards the figure
which had seized upon my imagination, and had to some extent
made himself one with it, as we now do sometimes with the hero of a
play. This had served to transform the loose ‘herd’ into a unified and
thus suggestible ‘horde,’ if I do not mistake the terms.
The air being made to throb was merely to create a rhythm, the
effects of which had been keenly studied. Again to copy a passage I
have traced:

“Among the results of rhythm susceptibility and

vivacity of emotion, limitations of the field of attention,
marked differences in the incidence of belief feelings
closely analogous to those which alcohol and nitrous
oxide can induce ... may be noted.”[5]

and I can willingly believe this, for I have myself often felt very
curiously stirred when listening to the jazz-band at young people’s
parties.
[5] I. A. Richards, The Principles of Literary Criticism, page 143.
The naming of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas as it used to be
called, brings me to the perfumes, which, I learnt, were led along
each row of seats by what I had taken for hot-water pipes. This
again, Fabian said, was a legacy of the third (1914–1918) Great War
of European Settlement, and he gave me to read an account I have
since recovered of a gas which caused “the most appalling mental
distress and misery.”[6] Of course the means had been much refined,
and the fairfusser could at will set free gases which brought about
sorrow, fear, joy, shame, the love of glory or of animals, and indeed
any emotion, all without the least risk of harm; though it is true that
some serious mishaps, especially in the early stages, had unluckily
happened.
[6] J. B. S. Haldane, Callinicus.
The combined result was that almost any feeling, and any required
degree of that feeling, could be produced by the fairfusser, and this
the government found of the greatest use at times of political or
European crisis, when wars were to be declared or averted, or any
controversial measure passed.
I was bound to utter my high admiration of the lengths to which the
art of the drama had been carried, and made so salutary an
influence, though I could not help doubting whether such a tool in the
hands of rulers might not be a little dangerous: but I was assured
that this had already been foreseen, and that the national theatres
were closed during the period of a general election, and of debates
of high moment, such as those on the budget.
I asked if there were no theatres in which human beings came
upon the stage and strutted and talked after the manner of common
life, as they do to-day, and I was told that there were many kinds: but
that before going to see them I would be taken to the Dramatic
Academy, which had been handsomely endowed by an Anglo-
Caucasian millionaire. I thought I should learn more of the trend of
the art by going there than by attendance at a number of theatres,
and gladly consented to the proposal.
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