Structural Analysis of Mobility

Department of International Studies

Topic: Structural Element Basics

Course ID: ISE2134

Lecturer
Pruthvi Loy Serrao | 세라오
Department of Mechanical Engineering
INHA University
Contents
● Introduction
● Basic Structural Principles
● Structural members / Structural Element Types
● Type of Structures
● Concept of Beams, Supports and Loads
● Axial loading of members
● Numerical Problems
● References

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Introduction
Structure
The term ‘structure’ refers to anything that is constructed or
built from different interrelated parts that are joined together
as a single system.
A combination of members connected together in such a way
to serve a useful purpose is called structure.
The structure is responsible for maintaining the shape and
form under the influence of subjected forces.

Bicycle Frame is a Structure

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Basic Structural Principles
Forces
It is important that the strength and stability of a structure and its
individual components must be considered. Structural analysis is used
to calculate the effects of the forces acting on any component and on
the overall structure.

Three properties of forces that should be considered are:

● Magnitude: The size of the force.
● Direction: The direction in which the force is acting.
● Position: The position on which the force acts.

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Basic Structural Principles
Loads
Another principle is that the structure should be capable of withstanding
the most severe combination of forces that are likely to be applied.

The main types of load which a structure must be able to resist are:
● Dead loads (static load): Such as the fixtures and structural elements.
● Live loads (temporary, changeable and dynamic): Such as
occupants, traffic.
● Environmental loads: Such as wind.

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Basic Structural Principles
Static Load
The study of the causes and effects of stationary forces acting on rigid
objects is statics. When a structure is stationary or in equilibrium, it is a
‘static body’.

For a structure to remain static, three basic equations must hold true:
● Sum of all vertical forces must be zero.
● Sum of all horizontal forces must be zero.
● Sum of all bending forces, or moments, must be zero.

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Basic Structural Principles
One of the main structural principles is that elements under static load
must remain stationary. For this to happen, there needs to be an
equilibrium of forces – when the forces acting on them are equal and
opposite. Under loading, some deflection and deformation – in the form
of bending and buckling – may occur, and if this movement is not
allowed for then structural failure may be the result.

Therefore, a principle of structures is that they be designed to maintain a

state of equilibrium; resisting external loads without moving.

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Basic Structural Principles
Dynamic Load
The behavior of materials under dynamic loads is obviously
of considerable interest in most mechanical analyses of
design problems where dynamic loads are present.

The complex nature of the dynamic behavior

problem can be seen from the figure, which depicts
the whole range of interaction of dynamic loads
with various materials. Ideally, it will be desirable to
know the mechanical response to the full range of
dynamic loads for each material.
Load material interaction
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Basic Structural Principles
Material Behavior- Load Environment
The mechanical response of various
materials may be classified in several
types, as shown in figure below. For
each type of behavior there is a primary
load environment.

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Basic Structural Principles
Load vs Response of Structures

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Basic Structural Principles
Rigid body vs Deformable body
A rigid body is defined as a body on which the distance between two
points never changes whatever be the force applied on it. Practically,
there is no rigid body. Whereas a deformable body is defined as a body
on which the distance between two points changes under action of some
forces when applied on it.

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Basic Structural Principles
Free-body diagrams
It is a graphical illustration used to visualize the applied forces, moments, and
resulting reactions on a body in a given condition. It is generally customary in
a free-body diagram to represent the object by a box and indicate the forces
using arrow pointing outwards in the direction that the force.

• The size of the arrow in a free-body diagram reflects

the magnitude of the force.
• The direction of the arrow shows the direction that the
force is acting.
• Each force arrow in the diagram is labeled to indicate
the exact type of force. Figure: Free-body diagram showing external
forces acting on a bicycle travelling on an
inclined plane. 12
Structural Members
Those members that are interconnected in such a way so as to
constitute a structure are called structural members.

● Beam
● Columns
● Strut
● Beam-Column
● Grid
● Cables and Arches
● Plates and Slabs

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Structural Members
Beam
A beam comprises of horizontal members which transfer
loads to the supports. It is a flexure member of the
structure. It is subjected to transverse loading such as
vertical loads, and gravity loads. These loads create
shear and bending within the beam.

BEAM

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Structural Members
Columns
A long vertical member mostly subjected to
compressive loads is called column

Columns

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Structural Members
Strut
A compressive member of a structure is called strut.

Beam-Column
A structural member subjected to compression as well as flexure is
called beam-column

Grid
A network of beam intersecting each other at right angles and subjected
to vertical loads is called grid.

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Structural Members
Cables and Arches
Cables are usually suspended at their ends and are allowed to sag. The
forces are then pure tension and are directed along the axis of the cable.
Arches are similar to cables except hath they are inverted. They carry
compressive loads that are directed along the axis of the arch.

Plates and Slabs

Plates are three dimensional flat structural components usually made of
metal that are often found in floors and roofs of structures. Slabs are
similar to plates except that they are usually made of concrete.

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Type of Structures
Rigid Frame
Its is that type of structure in which the members are joined together by
rigid joints e.g. welded joints.

Truss (Pin connected joints)

A type of structure formed by members in triangular form, the resulting
figure is called a truss. In truss joints are pin connected and loads are
applied at joints. No shear force & bending moment are produced. Only
axial compression and axial tension is to be determined while analyzing
a truss.

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Classification of Structures
Structures can be classified in several ways:

Type: Structural system: Form:

● Solid ● Tensile. ● One-dimensional:
● Frame ● Compressive. Ropes, cables, struts, columns, beams.
● Shell ● Shear. ● Two-dimensional:
● Membrane ● Bending. Membranes, plates, slabs, shells, domes.
● Composite ● Composite. ● Three-dimensional: Solid masses.
● Composite: A combination of the above.

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Bicycle Structure
Truss Frame
The most common frame type is a truss frame as shown below, which consists of
two trusses, namely, one formed by the top tube, down tube, and seat tube
and the other by the seatstay, chainstay, and seat tube. Seatstays and
chainstays are in duplicate with one on either side of the rear wheel.

As a first-order approximation, the truss frame can

be assumed to be a frame with pin joints at A, B,
C, and D. The frame experiences a compressive
load at C equals to the weight of the rider and a
vertical reaction forces at A and D from the rear
and front wheels, respectively.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
Engineers must determine the loads or external forces that act upon a
structure. When external forces are applied to a structure, internal
stresses (internal forces) develop resistance to the outside forces. The
opposition of external and internal forces is what holds the structure
together. Once engineers know the loads acting on a structure, they
calculate the resulting internal stresses, and design each piece of the
structure so it is strong enough to carry the loads without breaking.
Thus, it is important for the students to understand the different types of
beams, supports and loads that may be encountered in the structures.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
A. Beam
Any structural member whose cross section is much smaller compared to its
length and undergoes lateral load, is known as beam. In other words beam is a
horizontal bar which undergoes lateral load or couple which tends to bend it.

Types of beams
Based on how they are supported they are classified as:
1. Fixed Beam
2. Cantilever Beams
3. Simply Supported Beams
4. Over Hanging Beams
5. Continuous Beams

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Beams, Supports & Loads
1. Fixed beam
This beam is fixed from both ends. It does not allow vertical movement and
rotation of the beam. It is only under shear stress and no moment produces in
this beams. It is used in trusses, and other structure.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
2. Cantilever beam
Cantilever beams a structure member of which one end is fixed and other is free.
This is one of the famous type of beam use in trusses, bridges and other
structure member. This beam carry load over the span which undergoes both
shear stress and bending moment.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
3. Simply Supported Beams
As the name implies, simply supported beam is supported at both end. One end
of the beam is supported by hinge support and other one by roller support. This
support allow to horizontal movement of beam. It beam type undergoes both
shear stress and bending moment.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
4. Over Hanging Beams
Overhanging beam is combination of simply supported beam and cantilever
beam. One or both of end overhang of this beam. This beam is supported by
roller support between two ends. This type of beam has heritage properties of
cantilever and simply supported beam.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
5. Continuous Beams
This beam is similar to simply supported beam except more than two support are
used on it. One end of it is supported by hinged support and other one is roller
support. One or more supports are use between these beams. It is used in long
concrete bridges where length of bridge is too large.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
B. Support
A support is an element which bears the weight of a beam and keeps it upright.
Supports are essential for providing the suitable reactions (resisting force) and
design flexibility to a beam element. Also, they maintain a beam in Equilibrium.

Types of supports
Based on how the supports are applied to a beam they are classified:
1. Fixed Support
2. Simple Support
3. Roller Support
4. Hinged Support

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Beams, Supports & Loads
1. Fixed Support
This support keeps the end of the beam fixed, i.e. The beam end resists to take
any kind of translation or bending moment.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
2. Simple Support
In this type of support, the beam is allowed to rest freely on a support and, the
beam is free to move in any direction as well as to rotate about the support.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
3. Roller Support
A Roller support gives capability of movement to the respected beam connected
to it may be along normal to the guides or it can also rotate about the support.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
4. Hinged Support
A Hinged support restricts the movement of the beam in any directions, but it will
allow the beam to rotate about the support just like a door which is a best
example of hinged support.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
C. Loads
A load in this concept refers to the forces acting on Structures. This is the reason
these can be also called as structural loads.

Types of loads
Based on the action of the forces the loads are classified into:
1. Point Load (or) Concentrated Load
2. Uniformly Distributed Load
3. Uniformly Varying Load
4. Coupled Load

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Beams, Supports & Loads
1. Point Load (or) Concentrated Load
When a load acts concentrated at a definite point then it is named as a
concentrated load or point load. Point load is denoted by P and symbol of point
load is arrow heading downward (↓).

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Beams, Supports & Loads
2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
A distributed load is a load which is spread on some length of a beam which is
measured in terms of intensity having a unit of Newton/meter. If the intensity is
constant along the length (i.e. magnitude remains uniform throughout the length),
then it is named as uniformly distributed load. It is usually represented by W and
is pronounced as intensity of UDL over the beam, slab etc.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
3. Uniformly Varying Load
Whenever the load distributed along the length of the beam varies in intensity
uniformly, according to some law. Then it is named as uniformly varying load.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
4. Coupled Load
When two equal and opposite forces acts on the same span. The lines of action
of both the forces are parallel to each other but opposite in directions. This type
of loading creates a couple load. Coupled load tries to rotate the span in case
one load is slightly more than the other. If force on one end of beam acts upward
then same force will acts downwards on the opposite end of beam.

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Beams, Supports & Loads
Supports and Reactions

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Loading of structural elements
Beam and bar elements are the most commonly used elements in
structural analysis. Beams are capable of taking axial, bending, and
shear loads, and also moments and torsional loads.

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Loading of structural elements
Normal Stress

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Loading of structural elements
Stress vs Loading

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Loading of structural elements
Saint-Venant’s Principle

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Loading of structural elements
Stress Concentration

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Loading of structural elements
Stress Concentration

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Loading of structural elements

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Loading of structural elements
Elastic Deformation of an Axially loaded member

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Loading of structural elements
Elastic Deformation of an Axially loaded member

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Loading of structural elements
Poisson’s ratio
Poisson’s ratio, is the negative ratio of transverse to axial strain.

When a material is compressed

in one direction, it usually tends
to expand in the other two
directions perpendicular to the
direction of compression. This
phenomenon is called the
Poisson Effect.

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Loading of structural elements
Poisson’s ratio is a material property

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Loading of structural elements
Factor of Safety (FoS)
In engineering, a factor of safety (FoS), expresses how much stronger a
system is than it needs to be for an intended load. Safety factors are
often calculated using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing
is impractical on many projects, such as bridges and buildings, but the
structure's ability to carry a load must be determined to a reasonable
accuracy.
Many systems are intentionally built much stronger than needed for
normal usage to allow for emergency situations, unexpected loads,
misuse, or degradation (reliability).

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Loading of structural elements
Factor of Safety (FoS)
The factor of safety denoted by n is the ratio of the load the structure can
carry divided by the load it is required to take.

n = actual strength / required strength

Therefore, the factor of safety is a number greater than unity (n>1). The
allowable stress for a given material is the maximum stress the material can
take (normally the ultimate or yield stress) divided by the factor of safety.
𝜎𝑌 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑌
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑛

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Numerical Problems
1. Deformation: Solution:
Determine the deformation
of the steel rod shown in
the figure under the given
loads (E = 29 x 10^6 psi).

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Numerical Problems
2. Stress & Strain:

Solution:

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Numerical Problems
3. Tensile loading:

Solution:

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Numerical Problems
4. Compressive loading:

Solution:

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Numerical Problems
5. Reaction Force: SOLUTION
Equations of Motion: NB can be obtained directly by writing the moment
The mountain bike has a mass of 40 kg with
equation of motion about point A.
center of mass at point G1, while the rider
ΣMA = (Mk)A:
has a mass of 60 kg with center of mass at
NB(1) – 40(9.81)(0.4) – 60(9.81)(0.6) = - 60(3)(1.25) – 40(3)(0.4)
point G2.When the brake is applied to the
NB = 237.12 N = 237 N
front wheel, it causes the bike to decelerate
at a constant rate of 3 m/s2. Determine the
Using this result and writing the force equations of motion along the y axis,
normal reaction the road exerts on the front
ΣFy = 0
and rear wheels. Assume that the rear
NA + 237.12 – 4(9.81) – 60(9.81) = 0
wheel is free to roll. Neglect the mass of all
NA = 743.88 N = 744 N
the wheels.

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Numerical Problems
6. Factor of Safety:

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References

● 서명:Mechanics of Materials 저자: Ferdinand Beer 출판사: McGraw-Hill Higher Education 출판년도:
2014 ISBN: 9780077625238
● 서명:Loose Leaf Version for Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design 9th Edition 저자: Richard Budynas
출판사: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math 출판년도: 2012 ISBN: 9780077753016
● Strength of Materials, 4th Edition - Bhavikatti SS

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THANK YOU

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