Microbiology

 It is a branch of science, in which we study of microscopic organisms,

such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.

 This discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry,

physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of
microorganisms, including the host response to these agents.
 Medical Microbiology
 It is a branch of microbiology that deals the study of human pathogens

including the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of infectious

diseases caused by them.

 Pathogens: Bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses.

 Importance of microbiology
In environment

 Microbes are responsible for the recycling of carbon, nitrogen

phosphorus (geochemical cycles).

 Microbes are found in-association with plants in symbiotic

relationships, maintain soil fertility.

 Microbes may also be used to clean up the environment of toxic

compounds (bio-remediation).

 Some are devasting plant pathogens, but others act as biological control
agents against these diseases.
 In Medicine and Pharmacy

 Some microbes cause various diseases, e.g. Small Pox; Variola virus,
Cholera; Vibrio cholera, Malaria; Plasmodium, etc.

 Some microbes can spoilage the medicine, e.g. Staphylococcus aureus,

Aspergillus species, etc.

 Some microbes produce antibiotics, e.g. Strptomyces spp., Penicillium

spp., etc.

 Some microbes produce other medically important chemicals like

enzymes; streptokinase, amylase, lipase, proteinase etc.
 In Food
 Some microorganisms have been used to produce food and food products
such as beer, wine, cheese production, bread making, soy sauce production
etc.

 Some microbes are also responsible for food spoilage.

Biotechnology
 Commercial applications like synthesis of acetone, organic acids, enzymes,
alcohols and many drugs are produced by microbes.

 Genetic engineering :- Some microbes can produce important therapeutic

substances such as insulin, human growth hormone, and interferon, etc.
 In Research
 Most life processes are simple in unicellular organisms than in

complex multicellular ones.

 Microbes are easier to study.

 Millions of copies of the same single cell can be produced in

large numbers very quickly and at low cost to give plenty of

homogenous experimental material.

 Brief History of Microbiology
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1673)
 Discovered the ‘invisible’ world of microorganisms called them
‘animalcules’.

 He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and is one of the

first microscopists and microbiologists.

 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

 Developed the aseptic techniques used in the laboratory and medical
procedure to prevent contamination by microorganisms that are in the
air.
 He developed a technique called pasteurization.

 The pasteurization is a heating process, used to kill bacteria in some

alcoholic beverages and milk.

Joseph Lister (1860s)

 He introduced the use of disinfectant to clean surgical dressings in order
to control infection in humans.

Robert Koch (1876)

 He proved that microorganisms transmit disease.

 He introduced pure cultures.

 He developed the methods for isolating microorganisms.

 He identified the Bacillus responsible for TB and anthrax.

 He developed tuberculin (used in the diagnosis of TB) and studied

various African and Asian diseases.

 In 1905, his research on TB (tuberculosis) won him the Nobel Prize in

philosophy and medicine.
 BACTERIA
 Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes.

 Bacteria may be pathogenic (harmful) or beneficial.

 Bacteria can contaminate the pharmaceutical materials because they

can obtain their energy by decomposition of animal and vegetable
materials.

 Size:- 1–2 µm diameter and 1–5 µm longer.

 Shapes:- Coccus (oval), coccobacillus, bacillus (rod), vibrios (curved

rods ), spirillum, spirochete (spiral), pleomorphic (indefinite) shape.
Ultrastructure of A Typical Bacterial Cell
 A. Cell wall
 It is a outer covering of bacterial cell and found between cytoplasmic
membrane and the capsule.

 The major constituent of most bacterial cell walls is peptidoglycan and

teichoic acid except mycoplasmas.

 E.g.: Mycoplasma pneumoniae (they don’t possess cell wall).

 Functions
 It provides structural integrity to the cell.
 It gives shape to the bacteria and rigidity to the cell structure.
 Peptidoglycan prevents from osmotic lysis.

 Mycolic acids and other glycolipids in AFB make them more resistant

to chemical agents and lysosomal components of phagocytes than most

bacteria.

 The periplasm contains enzymes for nutrient breakdown.

 Classification of bacteria
 On the basis of cell wall composition, bacteria are classified
into following groups :
1. Gram-positive and Gram-negative
2. Acid Fast Bacteria
3. Mycoplasma
1. Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria
 Contents Gram-positive Gram-negative

Peptidoglycan 70-80% 10-20%

Teichoic acid Present Absent

Periplasmic space Smaller present present

Outer membrane Absent Present

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Virtually none High

Lipid and Lipoprotein Low High

 2. Acid Fast Bacteria
 They have a thin inner layer of peptidoglycan.

 Peptidoglycan layer is linked to arabinogalactan.

 Arabinogalactan is then linked to an outer membrane containing high-

molecular weight mycolic acids.

 Arabinogalactan/mycolic acid layer is overlaid with a layer of

polypeptides.
 3. Mycoplasma
 Mycoplasma lack cell wall.

 They don’t take color of any routine staining techniques.

 They resistant to penicillin antibiotic.

 E.g.: Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

 B. Cytoplasmic membrane
 It is a fragile, phospholipid bilayer with proteins and lies internal to
the cell wall and encloses the cytoplasm of the bacterium.

Functions
 It acts as a semi-permeable barrier between the cytoplasm and the cell
environment.

 It transport of nutrients, energy generation, and electron transport.

 It is the location for regulatory proteins and biosynthetic proteins.

 C. Cytoplasm
 It is a gel-like matrix, surrounded by cell membrane.

 It is composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, gases, and

contains cell structures such as ribosomes, a chromosome, and
plasmids.
Functions
 It contains enzymes that generate ATP.

 Most of enzymatic reactions occur in side the cytoplasm.

 D. Nucleoids
 They are thin, transparent areas of prokaryotic cells that contain DNA.
 Bacterial chromosome exists as a singular, covalently closed, circular
molecule of double stranded DNA.

Functions
 It is primary center for DNA transcription and replication.

E. Plasmid
 It is a small, circular, double-stranded, extra chromosomal DNA.

 Autonomous replication.
 It encodes for many auxiliary functions that are not usually
necessary for bacterial growth.
Functions
 It involves in antibiotic resistance.
 It is responsible for the production of some special chemicals.

F. Ribosomes
 Bacterial ribosomes are 70S in size.
Functions
 They are the sites for protein synthesis.
 G. Inclusion body
 Bacteria occasionally contain inclusion granules within their
cytoplasm.

 They consist of storage material composed of carbon, nitrogen,

sulphur or phosphorus.

 E.G.: Poly-β-hydroxy butyrate, glycogen, and polyphosphate.

Functions
 They act as reserved food.
 H. Flagella
 The long helical-shaped structures that project from the surface of the
cell are called flagella.

 They are built up from multiple copies of the protein called flagellin.

Functions
 They help in movement.
 I. Fimbriae
 They are thinner and shorter than flagella.

 They project from the cell surface.

Functions
 They act as adhesins, allowing organisms to attach to surfaces, including
animal tissues.
J. Pilli
 They are morphologically and chemically similar to fimbriae, but present
in much smaller numbers (<10) and are usually longer.
Functions
 They involved in the genetic exchange process during conjugation.
 K. Capsule and Slime layer
 Many bacteria secrete extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) that are
associated with the exterior of the bacterial cell.

 Capsule: A tight, fairly rigid layer closely associated with the cell.

 Slime layer: A loosely layer associated with the cell.

Functions
 Protection.

 Act as a cement; binding cells to each other.

Common pathogenic bacteria and their infections
A. Gram-positive cocci bacteria and their infections

Staphylococcus aureus:
 Boils, Furuncles, Styes, Impetigo,
Superficial skin infections.

Staphylococcus epidermidis
 Pneumonia, Deep abscesses,
Osteomyelitis, Endocarditis,
Phlebitis, Mastitis, Meningitis.
 Streptococcus pyogenes
 Pharyngitis, Acute rheumatic fever, Acute glomerulonephritis.
Streptococcus agalactiae (group ß streptococci)
 Meningitis, Neonatal sepsis, Pneumonia in neonates, Vaginitis,
Puerperal fever, Urinary tract infection, Skin infection, Endocarditis.
Enterococcus faecalis
 Urinary tract and Biliary tract infections.
Anaerobic streptococci
 Mixed infections of the abdomen, Pelvis, Brain, Lungs.
 B. Gram-positive bacilli bacteria and their infections
Bacillus anthracis
 Anthrax.

Bacillus cereus
 Bacteremia, Endocarditis, Meningitis, Wound Infections, Ears, Eyes,
Respiratory Tract, Urinary Tract, Gastrointestinal Tract, Food
Poisoning.
 C. Gram-negative cocci bacteria and their infections

Neisseria gonorrhoeae
 Gonorrhea, Urethritis, Cervicitis, Pharyngitis, Conjunctivitis,
Bacteremia.

Neisseria meningitidis
 Acute bacterial meningitis.
 D. Gram-negative bacilli bacteria and their infections

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter spp.,

Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris
 Urinary tract infections, infection-related kidney stones,
Pneumonia, Systemic infections, Bacteremia, etc.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa
 Infections in hospitalized patients like Burns, Endocarditis,
Pneumonia, Infections of the urinary tract, Central nervous system,
Wounds, Eyes, Ears, Skin, and Musculoskeletal system.
 D. Gram-negative bacilli bacteria and their infections
Salmonella spp.
 Typhoid (diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever), Gastroenteritis.

Shigella spp.
 Shigellosis: Abdominal pain, watery diarrhea, abdominal tenderness,

fever, vomiting, dehydration, and convulsions.