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Computer Networks_Chapter 3 (Data and Signals)

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19 views

Computer Networks_Chapter 3 (Data and Signals)

Uploaded by

Ghaffar Buzdar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Computer Networks

Chapter 3
Data and Signals

3.1
Note

To be transmitted, data must be


transformed to electromagnetic signals.

3.2
3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers


to information that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Topics discussed in this section:


Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

3.3
Note

Data can be analog or digital.


Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.

3.4
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.


Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.

3.5
Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

3.6
Note

In data communications, we commonly use


periodic analog signals and nonperiodic
digital signals.

3.7
3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or


composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.

Topics discussed in this section:


Sine Wave
Peak Amplitude
Period and Frequency

3.8
3-2 Sine wave.
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When
we visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a
cycle is smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow. Each cycle consists
of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the
frequency, and the phase. These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.

3.9
Peak Amplitude.
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional
to the energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.

Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but
different amplitudes

3.10
Period and Frequency.

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to


complete 1 cycle. Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1
s. Note that period and frequency are just one characteristic
defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and
frequency is the inverse of period, as the following formulas show.

3.11
Figure 3.5 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

3.12
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

3.13
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means
that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what
is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise.

Topics discussed in this section:


Attenuation
Distortion
Noise
3.14
3-4.1 Attenuation.
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a
while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To
compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. The Figure
shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

3.15
3-4.2 Distortion.

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in
a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its
own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving
at the final destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the
delay is not exactly the same as the period duration. In other words, signal
components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender.
The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same. The Figure shows the
effect of distortion on a composite signal.

3.16
3-4.3 Noise.
It is the error produced in a signal due to various reasons. Noise is the external
interference which changes the shape of the signal. Noise is another cause of
impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk
noise, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal Noise is the random
motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the
transmitter. Induced Noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These
devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving
antenna. Crosstalk Noise is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a
sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna. Impulse Noise is a spike (a
signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines, lightning,
and so on. The Figure shows the effect of noise on a signal.

3.17
3-6 PERFORMANCE.

One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how


good is it? We discuss quality of service, an overall measurement of network
performance, in greater detail in Chapter 24.. In this section, we introduce
terms that we need for future chapters.

Topics discussed in this section:


Bandwidth Throughput Latency
(Delay)

3.18
3-6.1 Bandwidth.

The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second
that a channel, a link, or even a network can transmit.

For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or
the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that
this network can send 100 Mbps.
.

3.19
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.

The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies that a


channel can pass.

The Second, bandwidth in bits per second, refer to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.

3.20
3-6.2 Throughput.

The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data


through a network.
In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the
throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.

For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the
devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This
means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one
point to another. However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure
may be reduced to 100 cars per minute. The bandwidth is 1000 cars per
minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.

3.21
3-6.3 Latency (Delay).

The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source. We can say that latency is made of four components:
propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.

Latency =Propagation time + transmission time +queuing time + processing delay

3.22

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