What is the Ideal Power Factor?

The ideal power factor is 1 (or unity). At this point, all the electrical power supplied to the
system is used for useful work, and there is no wasted energy in the form of reactive power.
A power factor of 1 means the voltage and current are perfectly in phase.

What is Reactive Power?

Reactive power occurs when the current and voltage are out of phase, usually due to
inductance or capacitance in the system. It doesn't contribute to useful work but is
essential to maintain the voltage levels in the system for proper operation of electrical
equipment.

What Happens Without Reactive Power?

Without reactive power:

1. Voltage Instability: The voltage in the system may drop or rise uncontrollably,
leading to equipment malfunction or failure.

2. Equipment Failure: Inductive loads (like motors and transformers) and capacitive
loads (like long transmission lines) require reactive power to function. Without it,
they may overheat or stop working.

3. Inefficient Power Delivery: Power transfer over long distances becomes inefficient,
as the system cannot maintain proper voltage levels.

Why Do We Need Reactive Power?

We need reactive power for:

1. Voltage Control: It helps in maintaining the required voltage level for the proper
operation of devices.

2. Stability of the Power System: Ensures steady power flow in transmission and
distribution.

3. Efficient Operation of Loads: Motors, transformers, and other devices need

reactive power to establish magnetic fields for operation.
Impedance (Z) is a measure of how much a circuit resists the flow of alternating current
(AC). It is a combination of two effects:

1. Resistance (R): Opposition to current due to collisions of electrons with the atoms
in a conductor. This dissipates energy as heat.

2. Reactance (X): Opposition to current due to the energy exchange between the
source and the reactive components (inductors or capacitors).

Physical meaning: Admittance indicates the "ease" of current flow. Larger admittance
means the circuit allows more current to flow for a given voltage.

Medium transmission line End Condenser Method

It is also a method to analyze the performance of medium transmission line. It is the most
easier and quicker way to analyze the performance. It is very simple method as compared
to both nominal pi and nominal t method. In this method the whole capacitance is focused
at a single point, most of the time at receiving end.

Advantages of long transmission line

• Due to the high capacitance the power management is better.

• Transmission of power from bulk generating plant to various regions.

• Interconnecting so many grids to regions.

Voltage regulation refers to the ability of a power supply system (like a generator,
transformer, or transmission line) to maintain a constant output voltage, regardless of
changes in the load (current drawn by the connected devices).

A smaller percentage indicates better regulation, meaning the system maintains nearly
constant voltage under varying load conditions.

Factors Affecting Voltage Regulation

• Line Resistance : If the Resistance is more then the voltage drop is more that means
the voltage regulation is not proper.

• Power Factor : If the Power Factor is lagging then the voltage regulation is not proper.
 • Line Length : Due to long line, voltage regulation is bad.

How to improve Voltage Regulation

• We can use high voltage transmission line.

• We can use capacitor banks which will help in improving voltage regulation.

• We can use tap changers on the transformers to adjust the voltage ratio.

Load Power Factor on Transmission Line

• The current in the line increases as the power factor is less.

• The I^2R losses are increased.

• The Efficiency is reduced.

Capacitance(I) : It is the power of the circuit to store energy in the form of an electrical
charge. Basically we can call them as energy storing devices which is available in many
shapes and sizes.

Shunt Conductance(G) : Shunt conductance is caused due to leakage currents flowing

across insulators and air. It is measured in siemens(S) per unit length. Most of the time in
overhead transmission line it is neglected as it is very low. But in underground transmission
line it is measured

Protection of Transmission Line

Protection of Transmission Line is also the most important factor that affects the
distribution of electrical power. There are various ways to protect the transmission line

• Over Current Protection : This is the most used technique to protect the
transmission line. In this method it automatically detects the high currents
exceeding the set amount, by which we know there is a fault. After this the relays get
tripped and further damage is not happened.
 • Distance Protection : In this type of protection both resistance and reactance is
used that means impedance is used to measure the fault. It is mostly used fir long
transmission lines where it is hard to tell where the fault is.

• Ground Fault Protection : In this method we detect faults if the current leaks from
the ground.

• Protective Relays : By installing Protective Relays, our system is protected from

major faults. They are helpful to us as they are used for monitoring all the crucial
processes.

• Regular Maintenance : We indeed know that all the protection provided from
machines are good, but it will be at its best when there will be regular maintenance
and inspection by workers. This will help the system to be stable.

Long Transmission Line

• Voltage regulation is very important for maintaining the stability of long transmission
lines.

• Long transmission lines line has resistive losses due to corona losses and skin
effect.

• Long transmission lines require regular inspection and monitoring.

The corona effect occurs in high-voltage transmission lines when the electric
field around the conductor becomes strong enough to ionize the surrounding air. This
creates a faint glow, a hissing sound, and sometimes ozone gas.

Prevention:

Use bundled conductors (multiple wires instead of one)( Bundled conductors are multiple
smaller conductors).

Bundled conductors increase the effective diameter of the phase conductor without
adding too much weight or cost.
A larger diameter decreases the electric field intensity around the conductor for the
same voltage

By increasing the distance between the conductors, the interaction of the electric fields is
reduced.

Use corona rings on high-voltage equipment.

Applications of Long Transmission lines

There are many applications of long transmission line some of them are as follows:

• Industrial and Commercial Applications

• Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure

• Renewable Energy Integration

• Used in renewable energy sources like hydroelectric dams and also wind farms.

• Used in long distance communication cables that are underwater.

The future of long transmission lines involves the adoption of advanced technologies, such
as high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission, smart grid solutions, and energy
storage integration.

A power grid is a network of electrical infrastructure that generates, transmits, and

distributes electricity from power plants to consumers, such as homes, businesses, and
industries.

Key Components of a Power Grid:

1. Power Generation:

o Electricity is generated at power plants using various energy sources such as

coal, gas, nuclear, wind, solar, or hydropower.

2. Transmission System:

o High-voltage transmission lines carry electricity over long distances from

power plants to substations.
 o High voltage reduces energy losses during transmission.

3. Substations:

o Substations step down the high voltage to a medium or low voltage suitable
for distribution.

4. Distribution System:

o Electricity is delivered to end-users through lower-voltage lines.

How It Works:

1. Generation:

o Power plants produce electricity at high voltages (e.g., 11 kV to 25 kV).

2. Transmission:

o Electricity is stepped up to extra-high voltage (e.g., 220 kV or 400 kV) using

transformers and transmitted over long distances via overhead lines or
underground cables.

3. Distribution:

o Voltage is stepped down at substations to levels suitable for local

consumption (e.g., 11 kV, 440 V).

4. Consumption:

o Electricity is delivered to end-users like homes, offices, and industries.

Why Is the Power Grid Important?

1. Reliability:

o Ensures electricity reaches users efficiently and continuously.

2. Scalability:

o Can accommodate multiple power sources (renewable and non-renewable).

3. Flexibility:
 o Power grids interconnect regions, allowing electricity to be shared during
shortages or emergencies.

4. Stability:

o Balances supply and demand across the network to avoid blackouts.

Types of Power Grids:

1. Local Power Grid:

o Serves a small area, such as a neighborhood or industrial park.

2. Regional/National Grid:

o Covers larger areas and interconnects multiple local grids.

3. Smart Grid:

o Uses advanced technologies like sensors, automation, and AI to optimize

energy distribution and incorporate renewable energy sources efficiently.

1. Overhead HVAC Lines:

o Why Popular: Cost-effective, easy to install and maintain, and used

extensively for long-distance transmission.

o Applications: Power supply in industries, cities, and rural electrification.

2. HVDC Lines:

o Why Popular: Efficient for very long distances and bulk power transfer, with
lower transmission losses.

o Applications: Interconnecting grids, renewable energy (e.g., offshore wind

farms), and undersea cables.

3. Underground Cables:

o Why Popular: Preferred in urban areas where overhead lines are impractical
due to space or safety concerns.

o Applications: Urban power supply, high-voltage industrial zones.

4. Bundle Conductors:
 o Why Popular: Minimize corona loss, improve efficiency, and handle ultra-
high voltages.

o Applications: High-capacity grids for industries and dense urban regions.

Here’s a comparison of transmission lines that aligns with typical interview questions
for GMDC or GAIL. Below are questions, answers, and key properties to highlight.

Q1: What are the key differences between Overhead HVAC, HVDC, and Underground
cables?

Property Overhead HVAC HVDC Underground Cables

Alternating Current Typically AC, can be DC

Voltage Type Direct Current (DC)
(AC) for specific uses

Distance Short to medium

Up to 400–500 km Best for >500 km
Suitability distances in urban areas

Transmission Higher losses due to Lower losses over Lower losses but higher
Losses reactive power long distances installation cost

Low initial cost, high High initial cost, low Very high installation
Cost
maintenance cost operational losses cost

Affected by weather Highly reliable for long Highly reliable, not

Reliability
conditions distances weather-dependent

High (visible towers Moderate (fewer None (hidden

Visual Impact
and lines) conductors) underground)

General power supply, Long-distance, bulk Urban and industrial

Applications
rural areas power, inter-grid zones

Q2: Why is HVDC preferred over HVAC for long-distance transmission?

Answer:
 • Lower Transmission Losses: HVDC avoids reactive power losses, making it more
efficient for distances >500 km.

• Economic for Bulk Power: Fewer conductors and less insulation are required.

• Grid Interconnection: HVDC links grids with different frequencies or phase angles,
which HVAC cannot do easily.

• Submarine Cables: HVDC is better for undersea connections due to lower

capacitive losses.

Q3: Why are underground cables used despite being more expensive?

Answer:

• Urban Suitability: Underground cables save space and avoid visual pollution in
cities.

• Weather Resistance: Protected from storms, lightning, and external damage.

• Safety: Reduces risk of accidental contact compared to overhead lines.

• Industrial Use: Ideal for dense industrial zones with high power demands.

Q4: How do bundle conductors reduce losses in overhead lines?

Answer:

• Corona Reduction: Bundle conductors increase the effective diameter of the

conductor, reducing electric field intensity and corona losses.

• Minimized Line Reactance: Improves current-carrying capacity and reduces power

losses.

• Noise Reduction: Suppresses audible noise caused by corona discharge.

Q5: What challenges are faced by HVDC systems compared to HVAC?

Answer:

• High Initial Cost: Converter stations for HVDC are expensive.

• Complexity: Requires specialized equipment and control systems.

 • Limited Flexibility: Unlike AC, HVDC systems are not easily tapped into for
intermediate loads.

Q6: Which type of line would you recommend for connecting a remote solar plant to a
city?

Answer:

• Recommendation: HVDC

o Reason: For distances >500 km, HVDC offers lower losses and efficient bulk
power transfer.

o Alternative: For shorter distances (<300 km), Overhead HVAC may be cost-
effective.

Q7: How do you decide the type of transmission line for a specific project?

Answer: The choice depends on factors like:

1. Distance:

o <250 km: Overhead HVAC is economical.

o 500 km: HVDC for efficiency.

2. Environment:

o Urban areas: Underground cables to save space and avoid hazards.

o Open/rural areas: Overhead HVAC is cost-effective.

3. Load Demand:

o Bulk power transfer: HVDC for reduced losses.

o Moderate demand: Overhead HVAC works well.

Q8: How do maintenance requirements vary among these lines?

Transmission Line Maintenance

Requires regular inspection for weather damage and vegetation

Overhead HVAC
clearance.

Low maintenance for lines; converter stations require skilled

HVDC
personnel.

Underground Minimal maintenance but high cost if faults occur (requires

Cables excavation).

Summary of Key Points to Emphasize in the Interview:

1. Overhead HVAC is cost-effective but has higher losses and visual impact.

2. HVDC is efficient for long distances and bulk transfer but costly upfront.

3. Underground Cables are ideal for urban areas despite high installation costs.

4. Always consider distance, cost, load demand, and environmental factors when
selecting a line.

Practice explaining these with examples like solar plants, industrial zones, or
interconnecting grids to showcase your practical understanding.

HVAC has reactive power due to the sinusoidal nature of AC, which leads to energy
oscillation in inductive and capacitive components.

HVDC eliminates reactive power because DC has steady voltage and current with no
oscillation, making it more efficient for long-distance power transfer.

Difference Between Active Power and Reactive Power

Aspect Active Power (P) Reactive Power (Q)

The power that performs useful The power used to create and sustain
Definition work, such as running motors, magnetic and electric fields in
lights, and heaters. inductive or capacitive loads.

Real power that is converted Power that oscillates back and forth,
Nature
into useful energy. not used for performing useful work.

Measured in Watts (W) or Measured in Volt-Amperes Reactive

Unit
kilowatts (kW). (VAR).

Voltage and current are in phase Voltage and current are out of phase
Phase Relation
(aligned). (lagging or leading).

Components Resistors (purely resistive Inductors (e.g., motors, transformers)

Involved loads). or capacitors.

Drives the actual load and Creates losses in the system and
Effect on
generates heat or mechanical affects voltage regulation but doesn’t
System
work. do useful work.

Examples of Active Power

1. Electrical Appliances: Lights, heaters, and computers use active power to perform
useful functions.

2. Industrial Equipment: Machines that convert electricity into mechanical energy

(e.g., motors, pumps).

Examples of Reactive Power

1. Transformers: Use reactive power to establish the magnetic field needed for
voltage transformation.

2. Induction Motors: Require reactive power to maintain the magnetic field in the
rotor.

3. Capacitors: Provide reactive power to improve power factor and counteract the
lagging effect of inductive loads.
Active Power vs Reactive Power in a System

• Active Power (P): Enables devices to perform actual work like lighting a bulb or
turning a fan.

• Reactive Power (Q): Does not produce work but supports the electrical system by
maintaining voltage levels and stability.

Induction Motor: In a factory, an induction motor consumes both active power (to rotate
the shaft) and reactive power (to create the magnetic field). The active power actually
powers the motor's mechanical movement, while the reactive power is required to
establish the motor's magnetic field.