AP Calculus Chapter 11
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§ 11.1 Sequences
◎ Defn> A sequence is a function defined on , whose range is contained in .
→ or → , .
◎ Defn> A sequence has the limit ⇔ lim ⇔ ∀ , ∃ ∈ s.t.
→∞
⇒
◎ Defn> lim ∞ ⇔ ∀ , ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
→∞
◎ Thm> If lim and , then lim .
→∞ →∞
pf) Let be given. Since lim , ∃ s.t. ⇒
→∞
. Take ∈ then . If then
⇒ , , lim ■
→∞
ln ln
ex) lim (∵ lim lim )
→ ∞ →∞ →∞
◎ Thm> Suppose that and are convergent sequences, then the following
property holds.
① lim ± lim ± lim
→ ∞ → ∞ → ∞
② lim lim ( ∈)
→ ∞ →∞
③ lim lim lim
→ ∞ → ∞ →∞
lim
④ lim
→ ∞
→∞
( ≠ ,
lim
→∞
lim ≠ )
→ ∞
pf) ④ Since lim ≠ and
, ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
→∞
⇒ ≤ ⇒
⇒ . Then for , we have
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≤
.
Since lim and
, ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
→ ∞
Since lim and
, ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
→ ∞
Therefore, take max then ⇒
≤
×
×
. ■
◎ Thm> ① lim lim ( )
→ ∞ →∞
② lim ⇔ lim
→ ∞ →∞
③ lim ⇒ lim
→ ∞ →∞
ex) lim
→ ∞
since lim lim .
→∞ → ∞
◎ Thm> A sequence can have at most one limit.
pf) Suppose that lim and lim ( ≠ ).
→ ∞ →∞
For , ∃ ∈ s.t.
⇒ , ⇒
Take max then ⇒
≤ and it is a
contradiction. ■
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Alternative proof : ∀ , ≤
∴ ■
◎ Thm> If is a convergent sequence and ≥ for ∀ ≥ for some ∈,
then lim ≥ .
→ ∞
pf) Suppose lim . For
, ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
→ ∞
⇒ and it is a contradiction. ■
◎ Thm> A real function is continuous at ⇔ lim ⇔ For every sequence
→
that converges to , lim . ( ≠ )
→∞
pf) [⇒ ] Let lim and be given. Since is continuous at ,
→∞
∃ s.t. ⇒ . For , ∃ ∈ s.t.
⇒ ⇒ , ∴ lim ■
→ ∞
[⇐ ] Assume that is not continuous at , then ∃ , ∀ , ∃ s.t.
but ≥ . Thus,
For , ∃ s.t. , ≥
For , ∃ s.t. , ≥
⋮
For , ∃ s.t. , ≥
Consider and . Since lim , lim and
→ ∞ →∞
lim , lim ≠ and it is a contradiction. ■
→ ∞ → ∞
◎ Note
lim lim , lim lim .
→ → →∞ → ∞
ex)
lim sin
→ ∞
sin lim sin (∵ sin is continuous at and
→∞
lim
.)
→ ∞
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◎ Thm> If ≤ ≤ for ≥ and lim lim , then lim .
→∞ → ∞ → ∞
pf) Let be given. Since lim lim , ∃ ∈ s.t.
→ ∞ → ∞
⇒ , ⇒
Take max , then ⇒ ≤ ≤
⇒ , lim ■
→∞
◎ Defn> ＊ A sequence is called increasing if for ∀ ≥ .
＊ A sequence is called decreasing if for ∀ ≥ .
＊ A sequence is called monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.
<Example>
,
. Since for
and is continuous on the interval ∞ , is decreasing on ∞ .
⇒ for ∀ ∈, is decreasing.
◎ Thm> ＊ A sequence is bounded above ⇔ ∃ ∈ s.t. ≤ for ∀ ∈
＊ A sequence is bounded above ⇔ ∃ ∈ s.t. ≤ for ∀ ∈
＊ A sequence is bounded ⇔ is bounded below and above
◎ Defn> Let ∅ ≠ ⊆ .
(a) The set is said to be bounded above if ∃ ∈ s.t. ≤ for ∀ ∈ .
Each such number is called an upper bound for .
(b) The set is said to be bounded below if ∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ for ∀ ∈ .
Each such number is called a lower bound for .
(c) A set is said to be bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.
(d) A set is said to be unbounded if it is not bounded.
◎ Thm> Every convergent sequence is bounded.
pf) Let lim . For , ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
→∞
⇒ ≤ . Take
max ⋯ ⇒ ∀ ∈, ≤ and therefore
is bounded. ■
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◎ Thm> If lim and ≤ for ≥ , then ≤ .
→∞
pf) Suppose . For , ∃ ∈ s.t. ⇒
⇒ ⇒ .
Take max then ≤ and it is a contradiction. ■
◎ Thm> If lim and ≤ ≤ for ≥ , then ≤ ≤ .
→∞
◎ Defn> Let ∅ ≠ ⊆ .
＊ An upper bound for is the least upper bound for ⇔ ≤ for
every upper bound for ⇔ sup ⇔ lub
＊ A lower bound for is the greatest lower bound for ⇔ ≥ for
every lower bound for ⇔ inf ⇔ glb
◎ The Completeness Axiom
Every nonempty subset of that is bounded above(below) has a least upper
bound(greatest lower bound) in .
◎ Monotone Sequence Theorem (MST) : Every bounded, monotonic sequence converges.
⇔ : increasing & bounded above or decreasing & bounded below ⇒ converges
pf) Suppose is increasing and bounded above. Let ≥ ⇒ has a
least upper bound by the Completeness Axiom. Let be given then is not
an upper bound for , and ∃ s.t. ≤ .
Since is increasing, ⇒ ≤ ≤ ⇒
∴ lim sup ■
→∞
<Example>
,
. Find the limit of .
① is increasing since
and if then
. Therefore, for ∀ ∈.
② is bounded below by
and above by since
≤
≤ and if
≤
≤ ≤ then
≤
≤ .
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Therefore,
≤ ≤ for ∀ ∈.
It follows from the MST that lim exists. Let lim then
→∞ → ∞
lim lim
and
, or . Since
≤ ≤ ,
→ ∞ → ∞
≤ ≤ and . ∴ lim ■
→∞
<Example> , . Find the limit of .
① is increasing since and if then
. Therefore, for ∀ ∈.
② is bounded above by since ≤ and if ≤ then
≤ . Therefore, ≤ for ∀ ∈.
By the MST, lim exists. Let lim then lim lim
→∞ → ∞ → ∞
→ ∞
and
, . ∴ lim ■
→∞
<Example> Let . Find the limit of .
①
C ⋯ C
C C
⋯
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋯ ⋅
⋯ ⋯ ,
C
C
C ⋯
C
⋯ ⋯
Therefore, for ∀ ∈.
② ⋯ ⋯
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≤ ⋯ ≤ ⋯ .
Therefore, ≤ for ∀ ∈.
By the MST, lim exists, and it is actually the so-called Euler’s constant . ■
→∞
∞
<Example>
⋯
lim .
→∞
pf) ⋯ ⋯
, .
∞
⇒ By the MST, lim
→ ∞
. Let
and .
①
⋯ ⋯
≤ ⋯ . Therefore, ≤ for ∀ ∈.
lim ≤ lim .
→∞ → ∞
② ≥
⋯ ⋯
( ≥ )
Fix the value of and send → ∞ , then lim ≥
⋯ .
→∞
Therefore, ∀ ∈, ≤ and lim ≤ .
→ ∞
∞
→∞
∴ lim
■
<Example> Prove lim , lim
→∞ → ∞
<Example> For sequence such that , let lim
. Prove :
→∞
① ≤ : lim
→∞
② : lim ∞
→ ∞
③ : Nothing
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§ 11.2 Series
◎ (Infinite) Series
∞
⋯
or
◎ Defn>
Given a series , let denote its th partial sum : . If
is
convergent and lim ∈, then
→∞
is called convergent. Then
∞
⋯ or . is called the sum of the series .
If is divergent then is divergent.
∞
＊ Note :
lim
→ ∞
<Example> Geometric Series
If then the series ⋯ converges to ( ≠ ).
Therefore,
is convergent ⇔ ( ≠ ).
<Example> Harmonic Series
∞ , since
⋯ and therefore lim ∞ .
→ ∞
◎ Thm> is convergent ⇒ lim
→ ∞
pf) Let lim , then
→∞
lim lim lim lim . ■
→ ∞ →∞ → ∞ → ∞
◎ Test for Divergence
∞
If lim does not exist or if lim ≠ , then
→∞ → ∞
is divergent.
∞
<Example> For the sequence
,
is divergent since
lim
≠ .
→ ∞
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∞
<Example> For the sequence sin ,
is divergent since
sin
lim sin
lim ≠ .
→ ∞ →
∞ ∞
◎ Thm> If ,
are convergent, then for constant ∈,
∞ ∞ ∞
①
∞ ∞ ∞
②
∞ ∞
③
∞
proof by the definition of
and the limit laws of a converging limit.
◎ Note
A finite number of terms does not affect the convergence or divergence of a series.
∞ ∞ ∞
<Example>
→∞
lim
.
∞
<Example> tan
is divergent since lim tan
→ ∞
≠ .
∞
<Example> sin
is convergent since lim sin is not convergent.
→ ∞
∞
<Example>
is convergent if .
∞
<Example>
is convergent if .
∞
sin
<Example>
is convergent regardless of if ∈.
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∞ ∞
<Example>
lim
→ ∞
§ 11.3 The Integral Test and Estimate of Sums
∞
(Q) The convergence of
⋯ ?
◎ The Integral Test
Suppose is a continuous, positive, and a decreasing function on ∞ and
∞ ∞
for ∀ ∈. Then
is convergent ⇔
is convergent.
pf)
∞ ∞
If
is convergent then ⋯ ≤ ≤
and
∞
≤
: An upper bound. Therefore, is increasing and
∞
≤ for ∈. By the MCT, lim exists and
→ ∞
is convergent.
∞
If
is divergent then
→∞
lim ∞ . Since
∞
≤
⋯ ,
→∞
lim ∞ and lim ∞ and
→∞
is
divergent.
∞
ln ln
<Example> For
, let then for , and ′ for
. Therefore, is continuous, positive, and decreasing on ∞ .
∞
ln ln
Since
lim
→ ∞
lim ln
→ ∞
lim
→ ∞
ln ∞ .
∞ ∞ ∞
Since
is divergent,
is also divergent and therefore
is
divergent.
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∞
<Example> -series : convergence of
⋯
sol) (i) : is continuous, positive, and decreasing on ∞ .
∞
∞
lim
→∞
lim
→∞
∞
lim
→∞
→∞
lim
.
Therefore,
converges.
(ii) : is continuous, positive, and decreasing on ∞ .
∞ ∞
lim
→∞
∞ . Therefore,
diverges.
∞
(iii) :
diverges since it is the harmonic series.
(iv) ≤ : lim lim ∞ , lim lim ≠ if
→∞ → ∞ →∞ →∞
∞
Therefore,
diverges.
∞
⇒
converges if and only if .
∞
<Example> Determine the convergence of
.
sol) Let then ′ for ≥ and is continuous, positive,
and decreasing on ∞ . Now we should check the convergence of
∞ ∞ ∞
. Since
lim
→ ∞
( )
∞
→ ∞
lim
→ ∞
lim ,
is convergent.
∞
<Example> Determine the convergence of
. ln
sol) Let then ′ for ≥ and is continuous, positive,
ln
and decreasing on ∞ . Now we should check the convergence of
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∞ ∞ ∞
ln
. Since
ln
( ln)
∞
lim
→ ∞ ln
lim ∞ ,
→ ∞ ln
ln
is divergent.
◎ Estimating the Sum of a Series
∞
⋯ lim , let
→ ∞
⋯ then .
◎ Remainder Estimate for the Integral Test
Suppose for ∀ ∈ where is a continuous, positive, and decreasing
∞ ∞ ∞
function on ∞ . If
is convergent, then
≤ ≤
.
pf)
∞
<Example>
∞
Since
→ ∞
→ ∞
lim lim , if ≥ then
≤ ≤ ,
◎ Note
∞ ∞
≤ ≤
⇒
∞ ∞
≤ ≤
∞ ∞
<Example>
is convergent since
lim
→∞
lim
→∞ →∞
tan lim tan tan tan .
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∞
<Example>
Let then ′ for ≥ and is continuous, positive, and
∞
decreasing on ∞ . Since
lim
→∞
lim tan
→∞
∞
→∞
lim
tan tan
,
is convergent.
§ 11.4 The Comparison Test
◎ The Comparison Test (CT)
∞ ∞
Suppose
and
are series with positive terms.
∞ ∞
(i) If
is convergent and ≤ for ∀ ∈, then
is convergent.
∞ ∞
(ii) If
is divergent and ≥ for ∀ ∈, then
is divergent.
pf) Let ,
.
(i) ⇒ , are increasing
∞
Since
is convergent, is bounded above from the fact that
∞
⋯ ≤ ⋯ ≤ .
∞ ∞
Since is increasing,
→∞
lim
exists and
is convergent by MCT. ■
∞
(ii) Since for ∀ ∈,
lim ∞ . Since
→∞
∞
⋯ ≤ ⋯ , lim ∞ and
→∞
is divergent. ■
∞
ln
<Example> Determine the convergence of
.
∞ ∞
ln ln
sol) Since for ≥ and
∞,
is divergent and therefore
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∞
ln
is divergent.
∞
<Example>
is convergent since
∞
⋯
⋯ .
∞ ∞
<Example>
is divergent since and
is divergent.
∞
ln ln
<Example>
is convergent since
≤
≤
and
∞
is convergent.
◎ The Limit Comparison Test
∞ ∞
Suppose
and
are series with positive terms.
∞ ∞
(i) If lim
→∞
then
and
both converges or diverges.
∞ ∞
(ii) If lim
→∞
then
is convergent ⇒
is convergent.
∞ ∞
(iii) If lim
→∞
∞ then
is divergent ⇒
is divergent.
pf) (i) Since , ∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ ⇒
, ,
∞ ∞
. If
is convergent,
is convergent by the CT, and
∞ ∞ ∞
therefore
is convergent. If
is divergent,
is divergent by the CT,
∞
and therefore
is divergent. ■
∞
(ii) ∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ ⇒
, . Since
is convergent,
∞ ∞
is convergent by the CT, and therefore
is convergent. ■
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∞
(iii) ∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ ⇒
, . Since
is divergent,
∞ ∞
is divergent by the CT, and therefore
is divergent. ■
∞
<Example> Determine the convergence of
.
∞ ∞
sol) Let
,
, then
is divergent by the -series
∞ ∞
test. Since lim
→∞
lim ,
→ ∞
is divergent.
∞
<Example> Determine the convergence of .
∞ ∞
sol) Let
,
then
is divergent by the
∞ ∞
-series test. Since lim
→∞
lim ,
→∞
is
divergent.
∞
<Example> Determine the convergence of
.
∞ ∞
sol) Let
,
then
is convergent by the -series
∞ ∞
test. Since lim
→∞
lim
→ ∞
,
is convergent.
∞
ln
<Example> Determine the convergence of
.
∞ ∞
ln
sol) Let
, then
is divergent by the -series
∞ ∞
ln ln
test. Since lim
→∞
lim
→ ∞
∞,
is divergent.
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§ 11.5 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence
◎ Thm> Alternating Series Test (AST)
∞
If the alternating series
⋯ ( )
satisfies the conditions (i) ≤ for ∀ ∈ and (ii) lim , then
→ ∞
∞
is convergent.
pf) Let ⋯
≥ ⇒ increases. Since
⋯ ≤ , is bounded above. By the
MCT, is convergent and let lim . Since and
→∞
∞
lim lim , lim lim and
→ ∞ →∞ →∞ → ∞
is
convergent. ■
∞
<Example>
Let
then ′ and is decreasing on ∞ .
∞
Since lim
→ ∞
,
is convergent by the AST.
◎ Alternating Series Estimation Theorem
∞
If
is an alternating series, then ≤ .
pf) Since ⋯ ,
≥ and increases. Since ≤ ,
decreases and ≤ ≤ ⋯ ≤ ≤ ⋯ ≤ ≤ .
⇒ ∀ ∈, ≤ ≤ . If then ≤ ≤ and
≤ ≤ , ≤ . If then ≤ ≤ and
≤ ≤ , ≤ . Thus, ≤ . ■
∞
<Example>
, ≤ .
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◎ Absolute Convergence and Conditional Convergence
∞ ∞
＊
is absolutely convergent ⇔
is convergent
∞ ∞ ∞
＊
is conditionally convergent ⇔
is convergent and
is divergent
∞ ∞
◎ Thm>
is absolutely convergent ⇔
is convergent
∞ ∞
pf) ∀ ∈, ≤ ≤ . Since
is convergent,
is
∞
convergent. By the CT,
is convergent. Therefore,
∞ ∞
is convergent. ■
∞
<Example>
⋯
∞ ∞ ∞
is convergent (∵ ) and
is absolutely
convergent.
∞
cos cos cos cos
<Example>
⋯
∞ ∞ ∞
cos
Since ≤
≤
and
is convergent,
cos
and
cos
is
convergent by the CT.
∞ ∞ ∞
<Example> (1)
(2)
(3)
∞ ∞ ∞
(1) Since
converges,
is absolutely convergent and it
converges.
∞ ∞
(2) diverges and lim
,
.
→∞
∞
Therefore,
is convergent by the AST.
(3) Since lim ≠ , lim does not exist and therefore
→∞ →∞
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∞
is divergent.
∞ ∞
◎ Defn> A series
is a rearrangement of a series
⇔ There exists a bijection
of → s.t. .
∞ ∞ ∞
◎ Thm> If
is absolutely convergent and
is any rearrangement of ,
∞ ∞ ∞
then
is absolutely convergent where
.
∞
◎ Thm> If
is conditionally convergent and ∈, there exists a rearrangement
∞ ∞ ∞
of
such that
.
∞
<Example>
is divergent since lim
→∞
and
lim
is divergent.
→ ∞
∞
<Example>
is convergent since lim
→ ∞
and if then
since ′ for ≥ , is decreasing.
∞
<Example>
∞
<Example>
ln
∞
ln
is convergent since
ln
ln
and
∞
ln
lim
→ ∞
ln
lim
ln → ∞
→ ∞
lim
ln
ln
.
ln
∞
Therefore,
ln
is absolutely convergent and it converges.
( is continuous, positive, and decreasing on ∞ .)
ln
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∞ ∞
cos
<Example>
is absolutely convergent since
and
∞
is convergent.
§ 11.6 The Ratio and Root Tests
◎ The (Limit) Ratio Test
∞
For the series
( ≠ ),
∞
① ≤ lim
→∞
⇒
is absolutely convergent
∞
② lim
→ ∞
or ∞ ⇒
is divergent
lim
∞ ∞
③
→ ∞
⇒ Inconclusive (
,
)
pf) ① ≤
lim
→∞
∃ s.t. . Since
lim
→∞
, for , ∃ ∈ s.t.
≥ ⇒
⇒ ⇒ .
∞ ∞
Therefore, for ∀ ∈, . Since
is convergent,
∞ ∞
is convergent by the CT. Since is finite, is convergent since
is
convergent. ■
② lim
→ ∞
or ∞
∃ s.t. . For , ∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ ⇒
⇒ ⇒
. If ∞ , then for , ∃ ∈ s.t.
∞
≥ ⇒
⇒ . Since lim ≠ , lim ≠ and
→ ∞ →∞
is divergent. ■
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∞ ∞
<Example>
∞ ∞
Since
→
as → ∞ ,
is absolutely
convergent.
∞ ∞
<Example>
∞ ∞
Since
→ as → ∞ ,
is divergent.
◎ The (Limit) Root Test
∞
For the series
( ≠ ),
∞
① ≤
→∞
lim ⇒
is absolutely convergent
∞
②
→ ∞
lim or ∞ ⇒
is divergent
∞ ∞
③ ⇒ Inconclusive (
lim
, )
→ ∞
pf) ① ≤ lim
→∞
∃ s.t. . Since lim , for , ∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ ⇒
→∞
⇒
⇒ ≤ .
∞ ∞ ∞
Since
is convergent,
is convergent by the CT. Thus,
is
convergent. ■
② lim or ∞
→ ∞
∃ ∈ s.t. ≥ ⇒
⇒ ⇒ lim ≠ and lim ≠ .
→ ∞ →∞
∞
Therefore,
is divergent. ■
∞ ∞
<Example>
is convergent since lim
→ ∞
.
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<Example>
∞
where
is odd
(Only the Root Test holds.)
is even
∞
<Example>
⋯ (con)
⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
∞
<Example> (div)
sin
∞
<Example>
(con)
∞
<Example>
ln
(div)
∞
<Example> For and lim
→∞
,
⋯
(div)
∞
<Example>
(con)
◎ The Ratio Test
∞
For the series
( ≠ ),
∞
① ∃ ∈ , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ ,
≤ ⇒
is absolutely convergent
∞
② ∃ , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ ,
≥ ⇒
is divergent.
pf) ① ∀ ≥ ,
≤ ⇔ ≤ , ≤ for ∀ ∈.
∞ ∞ ∞
Since
is convergent,
is convergent by the CT and
is
convergent.
② ∀ ≥ ,
≥ , ⇔ ≥ , ≥ for ∀ ∈.
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Since lim ∞ , lim ∞ and lim ∞ . Therefore, lim does
→∞ →∞ →∞ →∞
∞
not exist and
is divergent.
◎ The Root Test
∞
For the series
( ≠ ),
∞
① ∃ ∈ , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ , ≤ ⇒
is absolutely convergent
∞
② ∃ , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ , ≥ ⇒
is divergent.
∞
pf) The proof of the convergence of a series
is an application of the
comparison test. If for all ≥ ∈, ≤ , then ≤ . Since the
∞ ∞
geometric series
converges, do does
by the comparison test. Hence
∞
converges absolutely. If for infinitely many , then fails to
converge to , hence the series is divergent. ■
§ 11.8 Power Series
∞
◎ A power series is of the form
⋯ for ∈. Then
∞
the domain of the function is ∈ converges .
∞
◎ In general,
⋯ is called a power series in
, a power series centered at , or a power series about .
∞
<Example> When does
converge?
sol) Let then
,
∞
lim
→ ∞
and . If ,
is convergent
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∞
by AST. If ,
is divergent. Therefore, the interval of convergence
is and the radius of convergence is .
∞
<Example> When does
converge?
sol) Let then
→ ∞ for all
≠ . Therefore, and .
∞
<Example> When does converge?
sol) Let then
×
→ for ∀ ∈. Therefore, and ∞ .
∞
<Example> When does
converge?
sol) Let
then
×
→ . Therefore, and ∞ .
∞
◎ Thm> For a power series
, there are only three possibilities :
(i) The series converges only when . ( )
(ii) The series converges for ∀ ∈. ( ∞ )
(iii) There is a positive number such that the series converges if
and the series diverges if .
∞
<Example> When does
converge?
sol) Let
then
×
∞
→ if .
If ,
is
∞
convergent by AST and if ,
is divergent. Therefore,
and .
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∞
<Example> When does
converge?
sol) Let
then
×
∞
→
if . If ,
is
∞
divergent and if ,
is divergent. Therefore, and
.
<Example> Find the interval of convergence and radius of convergence for series
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
, , ,
ln
(Ans) , , , , , , ,
§ 11.9 Representations of Functions as Power Series
∞
⋯
( ) : A power series representation of
on the interval
∞ ∞
<Example>
,
∞ ∞
<Example> ×
,
◎ Differentiation and Integration of Power Series
∞
◎ Thm> If the power series
has radius of convergence , then the
function defined by ⋯ is
differentiable on and
∞
(i) ′ ⋯
and ′ .
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(ii) ⋯
∞
and ′ .
∞
<Example> Let
and
.
Since
×
→ when ,
∞ ∞
±
. When ± ,
is convergent and .
∞
Also, ′
and let
then
×
→ when , .
∞ ∞
When ,
is divergent but when ,
is
convergent by AST. Therefore, .
<Example> Derive the power series expression for .
∞
sol) Since ⋯
( ),
∞
⋯
( ).
∞
<Example>
( ). By integrating both sides, we
obtain ln ⋯ , . When , .
∞
Therefore, ln ⋯
( ).
<Example> Derive the power series expression for tan .
sol) Since tan ′ , tan
⋯ and when . Therefore,
∞
tan
. Let then
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×
→ when and
.
<Example>
⋯
⋯
§ 11.10 Taylor and Mclaurin Series
∞
⋯ , .
Since , ′ , ″ , ⋯ , and
∞ ∞
and this is called the Taylor series of the
function at , about , or centered at .
∞
Especially when ,
is called the Mclaurin series of function .
Not all functions can be expressed by power series, and some are even different from its
Taylor series.
∞
<Example> ⋯
,
∞
<Example> ⋯
, let
then
×
→ for ∀ ≠ , and the series
∞
converges when . Therefore,
converges for ∀ ∈ and ∞ .
(Q) Under what circumstances is a function equal to the sum of its Taylor series?
∞
⇔ When can we say that
?
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sol) Define as
which is the th-degree Taylor
∞
polynomial of at . Now
→∞
lim . Let
, then and if lim , then
→ ∞
lim lim .
→ ∞ → ∞
◎ Thm> If , where is the th-degree Taylor polynomial of
at , and lim for , then is equal to the sum of its
→∞
Taylor series on the interval .
◎ Taylor’s Inequality
If for ≤ , then ≤ for
≤ .
◎ Note
∞
converges for ∀ ∈ ⇒ lim
→∞
, ∀ ∈
∞ ∞
,
, let then
× → , ≤ , ≤
By Taylor’s Inequality, ≤ →
∞
⇒ lim , ≤ and ∀ ∈,
→∞
.
◎ Taylor’s Theorem
Suppose that the derivatives for ⋯ are continuous on and
that exists on . Let ∈ . Then for each ∈ ,
″
′ ⋯
and for some between and .
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∞
<Example> If , then
.
∞
<Example> sin ⋯
∞
cos ⋯
∞
tan ⋯
∞
( )
∞
<Example> If , then sin
( ,
)
◎ , ∈
′ , ″ , ⋯
′ , ″ , ⋯ , ⋯
Therefore, the Mclaurin series of is
∞ ∞ ∞
⋯
, and
∞
for (though it is difficult to prove).
⋯
∞
<Example>
∞ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋯ ⋅
∞
C
, .
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∞ ∞
<Example> cos
,
∞.
∞
∞
<Example> ln
,
.
∞ ∞
<Example>
∞ ∞
⋯
× × ×
<Example>
→
lim
lim
→
⋯
∞
∞
<Example> sin
∞
∞
<Example> tan
sin
cos
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