0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views29 pages

AP Calculus Chapter 11

Uploaded by

dr8p98dq2c
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views29 pages

AP Calculus Chapter 11

Uploaded by

dr8p98dq2c
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 29

sukita1729@gmail.

com

§ 11.1 Sequences

◎ Defn> A sequence is a function defined on , whose range is contained in .


   →  or    → ,      .

◎ Defn> A sequence   has the limit  ⇔ lim    ⇔ ∀  , ∃  ∈ s.t.


→∞

   ⇒       

◎ Defn> lim   ∞ ⇔ ∀   , ∃  ∈ s.t.    ⇒   


→∞

◎ Thm> If lim      and      , then lim    .


→∞ →∞

pf) Let    be given. Since lim      , ∃    s.t.    ⇒


→∞

     . Take        ∈ then          . If    then


     ⇒        ,       , lim    ■
→∞

ln ln 
ex) lim    (∵ lim   lim   )
→ ∞  →∞  →∞ 

◎ Thm> Suppose that   and   are convergent sequences, then the following
property holds.

① lim  ±    lim  ± lim 


→ ∞ → ∞ → ∞

② lim      lim  ( ∈)


→ ∞ →∞

③ lim     lim  lim 


→ ∞ → ∞ →∞

lim 
④ lim
→ ∞
 



→∞
  ( ≠ ,
lim 
→∞
lim  ≠ )
→ ∞

  
pf) ④ Since lim    ≠  and 

 , ∃   ∈ s.t.     ⇒
→∞
   
      ⇒         ≤         ⇒
 
     
          ⇒    . Then for     , we have
       

- 1 -
[email protected]

                   
 



 
     
       
 
             ≤ 
   
           

  
        
       .


   
Since lim    and 
  , ∃   ∈ s.t.     ⇒        

→ ∞

 
Since lim    and 
     
 , ∃   ∈ s.t.     ⇒
→ ∞

 
     
     

Therefore, take   max         then    ⇒

 






≤ 


  
    
 


       

×
  
 

 
 


× 
 
     
 
     . ■
 


◎ Thm> ① lim    lim   (   )
→ ∞ →∞

② lim     ⇔ lim   


→ ∞ →∞

③ lim    ⇒ lim     


→ ∞ →∞

ex) lim 
→ ∞


   

  since lim   lim   .
→∞  → ∞ 
 

◎ Thm> A sequence   can have at most one limit.

pf) Suppose that lim    and lim    (  ≠  ).


→ ∞ →∞

   
For     , ∃      ∈ s.t.

       
    ⇒        ,     ⇒       
 

Take   max      then    ⇒               


       
≤                    and it is a
 
contradiction. ■

- 2 -
[email protected]

 
Alternative proof : ∀  ,      ≤               
 
∴   ■

◎ Thm> If   is a convergent sequence and  ≥  for ∀ ≥  for some  ∈,


then lim    ≥ .
→ ∞


pf) Suppose lim     . For    

 , ∃  ∈ s.t.    ⇒
→ ∞

   
      ⇒              and it is a contradiction. ■
   

◎ Thm> A real function  is continuous at  ⇔ lim       ⇔ For every sequence


→

  that converges to , lim       . ( ≠ )


→∞

pf) [⇒ ] Let lim    and    be given. Since  is continuous at ,


→∞

∃   s.t.      ⇒          . For   , ∃  ∈ s.t.


   ⇒      ⇒         , ∴ lim        ■
→ ∞

[⇐ ] Assume that  is not continuous at , then ∃  , ∀  , ∃  s.t.


    but       ≥  . Thus,
For   , ∃  s.t.       ,         ≥ 
 
For    , ∃  s.t.        ,         ≥ 
 

 
For    , ∃  s.t.      ,          ≥ 
 
Consider    and    . Since lim     , lim      and
→ ∞ →∞

lim   , lim   ≠    and it is a contradiction. ■


→ ∞ → ∞

◎ Note
lim     lim    , lim       lim     .
→ → →∞ → ∞

ex)

lim sin 
→ ∞   
 
 sin lim   sin   (∵    sin is continuous at  and
→∞ 


lim 

 .)
→ ∞

- 3 -
[email protected]

◎ Thm> If  ≤  ≤  for  ≥  and lim   lim    , then lim    .


→∞ → ∞ → ∞

pf) Let    be given. Since lim   lim    , ∃      ∈ s.t.


→ ∞ → ∞

    ⇒      ,     ⇒       
Take   max       , then    ⇒      ≤  ≤     
⇒       , lim    ■
→∞

◎ Defn> * A sequence   is called increasing if      for ∀ ≥ .


* A sequence   is called decreasing if      for ∀ ≥ .
* A sequence   is called monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.

    
<Example>   
,     
. Since        for   
        
and  is continuous on the interval  ∞ ,  is decreasing on  ∞ .
⇒                for ∀ ∈,   is decreasing.

◎ Thm> * A sequence   is bounded above ⇔ ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≤  for ∀ ∈


* A sequence   is bounded above ⇔ ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≤  for ∀ ∈
* A sequence   is bounded ⇔   is bounded below and above

◎ Defn> Let ∅ ≠  ⊆ .
(a) The set  is said to be bounded above if ∃ ∈ s.t.  ≤  for ∀ ∈  .
Each such number  is called an upper bound for  .
(b) The set  is said to be bounded below if ∃ ∈ s.t.  ≥  for ∀ ∈  .
Each such number  is called a lower bound for  .
(c) A set is said to be bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.
(d) A set is said to be unbounded if it is not bounded.

◎ Thm> Every convergent sequence is bounded.

pf) Let lim    . For   , ∃  ∈ s.t.    ⇒     


→∞

⇒           ≤             . Take
  max    ⋯         ⇒ ∀ ∈,  ≤  and therefore
  is bounded. ■

- 4 -
[email protected]

◎ Thm> If lim    and  ≤  for  ≥  , then  ≤ .


→∞

pf) Suppose   . For       , ∃   ∈ s.t.     ⇒


         ⇒                ⇒    .
Take   max     then    ≤  and it is a contradiction. ■

◎ Thm> If lim    and  ≤  ≤  for  ≥  , then  ≤  ≤ .


→∞

◎ Defn> Let ∅ ≠  ⊆ .
* An upper bound   for  is the least upper bound for  ⇔   ≤  for
every upper bound  for  ⇔    sup  ⇔    lub 

* A lower bound   for  is the greatest lower bound for  ⇔   ≥  for


every lower bound  for  ⇔    inf ⇔    glb 

◎ The Completeness Axiom

Every nonempty subset of  that is bounded above(below) has a least upper


bound(greatest lower bound) in .

◎ Monotone Sequence Theorem (MST) : Every bounded, monotonic sequence converges.


⇔   : increasing & bounded above or decreasing & bounded below ⇒ converges

pf) Suppose   is increasing and bounded above. Let      ≥  ⇒  has a
least upper bound  by the Completeness Axiom. Let    be given then    is not
an upper bound for  , and ∃ s.t.      ≤  .

Since   is increasing,    ⇒      ≤  ≤      ⇒       


∴ lim     sup  ■
→∞

<Example>   
 ,     
 . Find the limit of  .

  
①   is increasing since    
   and if      then
    
  
       . Therefore,      for ∀ ∈.

②   is bounded below by 


 and above by  since 
 ≤    
 ≤  and if

  ≤ 
 ≤  ≤  then   
 ≤      
 ≤ .

- 5 -
[email protected]

Therefore, 
 ≤  ≤  for ∀ ∈.

It follows from the MST that lim  exists. Let lim    then
→∞ → ∞

lim     lim 
 and    
  ,    or   . Since 
 ≤  ≤ ,
→ ∞ → ∞


 ≤  ≤  and   . ∴ lim    ■
→∞


<Example>   ,        . Find the limit of  .

①   is increasing since        and if      then


 
                   . Therefore,      for ∀ ∈.
 

②   is bounded above by  since    ≤  and if  ≤  then



        ≤ . Therefore,  ≤  for ∀ ∈.

By the MST, lim  exists. Let lim    then lim     lim 


→∞ → ∞ → ∞

→ ∞ 
    and  

      ,   . ∴ lim    ■
 →∞

 
 
<Example> Let       . Find the limit of   .

   



①     
       C     ⋯  C   
 
   C    C  
     

  
              ⋯ 
   ⋅    ⋅      ⋅     ⋯   ⋅   
   
      

                    ⋯          ⋯     ,
         
        

     


      

  
 


 C  
 C 


C   ⋯ 


C
  
 

       

                    ⋯          ⋯    
        
          

Therefore,        for ∀ ∈.



 
 
 

②                    ⋯         ⋯   
        

 
 
 
  

- 6 -
[email protected]

      
≤       ⋯  ≤        ⋯       .
     
      

Therefore,   ≤  for ∀ ∈.

By the MST, lim   exists, and it is actually the so-called Euler’s constant  . ■
→∞


  
<Example> 


       ⋯
 
 lim   .
→∞

     
pf)            ⋯            ⋯   
 ,        .
     
∞ 
 
⇒ By the MST, lim     
→ ∞




. Let  



 

and      .
 

 
 
①     
  
 
  


 

 



 
               ⋯       ⋯  
       
  
≤         ⋯      . Therefore,  ≤   for ∀ ∈.
  
 lim  ≤ lim     .
→∞ → ∞




②  ≥   


 
 


 


  



 

               ⋯       ⋯  
        ( ≥ )
 
Fix the value of  and send  → ∞ , then   lim  ≥     

 ⋯     .

→∞

Therefore, ∀ ∈,   ≤  and   lim   ≤  .


→ ∞

 ∞

→∞
 
∴ lim   
    





 

 

<Example> Prove lim   , lim   
→∞ → ∞



<Example> For sequence    such that    , let lim 

 . Prove :
→∞ 

① ≤ : lim   
→∞

②  : lim   ∞
→ ∞

③    : Nothing

- 7 -
[email protected]

§ 11.2 Series

◎ (Infinite) Series

      ⋯  

 or  

◎ Defn>

Given a series   , let   denote its th partial sum :      . If
 
    is

convergent and lim   ∈, then


→∞
  is called convergent. Then


      ⋯   or     .  is called the sum of the series  .

 

If    is divergent then  is divergent.



* Note : 

   lim  
→ ∞

<Example> Geometric Series



If    then the series       ⋯ converges to  ( ≠ ).
 
Therefore,  
is convergent ⇔     ( ≠ ).

<Example> Harmonic Series


 
   ∞ , since 
   ⋯         and therefore lim    ∞ .
   → ∞

◎ Thm>   is convergent ⇒ lim   


→ ∞

pf) Let lim     , then


→∞

lim   lim          lim    lim          . ■


→ ∞ →∞ → ∞ → ∞

◎ Test for Divergence



If lim  does not exist or if lim  ≠ , then
→∞ → ∞


 is divergent.



<Example> For the sequence   
  
,

  is divergent since


 
lim  
  ≠ .

 → ∞   

- 8 -
[email protected]



<Example> For the sequence    sin  ,
 

 is divergent since

 sin
lim  sin 

 lim    ≠ .

→ ∞ →

∞ ∞
◎ Thm> If  , 



 are convergent, then for constant  ∈,

∞ ∞ ∞
①  

     

  


∞ ∞ ∞
② 

     

  


∞ ∞
③ 

    



proof by the definition of 

 and the limit laws of a converging limit.

◎ Note
A finite number of terms does not affect the convergence or divergence of a series.

∞ ∞ ∞
      
<Example>          
 

        
           


→∞
 
lim 
 
 

   .
    

 


<Example>  tan


 is divergent since lim tan     
→ ∞ 
≠ .


<Example>  sin

is convergent since lim sin is not convergent.
→ ∞


<Example>     


is convergent if      .


<Example> 


is convergent if   .


sin  
<Example> 



is convergent regardless of  if  ∈.

- 9 -
[email protected]

∞ ∞
 
<Example>  
   


 

     
    


lim   
→ ∞ 

  
 

§ 11.3 The Integral Test and Estimate of Sums


   
(Q) The convergence of 


    ⋯ ?
  
   

◎ The Integral Test


Suppose  is a continuous, positive, and a decreasing function on   ∞  and
∞ ∞
     for ∀ ∈. Then 

 is convergent ⇔  
   is convergent.

pf)

∞  ∞
If  
   is convergent then     ⋯       ≤  ≤ 
 
 and


  ≤    
     : An upper bound. Therefore,  is increasing and


  ≤  for  ∈. By the MCT, lim   exists and
→ ∞


 is convergent.

∞ 
If  
   is divergent then
→∞
lim      ∞ . Since

 ∞
    ≤ 

  ⋯          ,
→∞
lim      ∞ and lim    ∞ and
→∞


 is

divergent.


ln ln
<Example> For



, let      then      for   , and  ′     for

   . Therefore,  is continuous, positive, and decreasing on   ∞  .
∞  
ln ln   
Since 

  lim
→ ∞

  lim   ln  
 → ∞


 lim 
→ ∞
ln     ∞ .

∞ ∞ ∞
Since 
   is divergent,  
   is also divergent and therefore 

 is

divergent.

- 10 -
[email protected]


   
<Example> -series : convergence of 


    ⋯
 
   


sol) (i)    :      is continuous, positive, and decreasing on   ∞  .


 ∞    
 


   
     lim
→∞
 

  lim  
→∞ 
   
 

 lim 
→∞ 

  →∞ 

       lim  
  

 
   .


    Therefore,





converges.


(ii)      :      is continuous, positive, and decreasing on   ∞  .

∞ ∞
  
 


  lim 
→∞ 
       ∞ . Therefore, 



diverges.



(iii)    : 



diverges since it is the harmonic series.

 
(iv)  ≤  : lim   lim    ∞ , lim   lim    ≠  if   
→∞  → ∞ →∞  →∞


Therefore, 



diverges.



⇒ 



converges if and only if   .


<Example> Determine the convergence of  

 
.


sol) Let       then  ′     for  ≥  and  is continuous, positive,

and decreasing on  ∞  . Now we should check the convergence of
∞ ∞ ∞ 
  
 

 
. Since  

 
  
  
  

lim 
→ ∞  

 (    )


 

→ ∞
  
lim  


 → ∞





 lim       ,
    

 
is convergent.



<Example> Determine the convergence of 


. ln


sol) Let      then  ′     for  ≥  and  is continuous, positive,
 ln
and decreasing on   ∞  . Now we should check the convergence of

- 11 -
[email protected]

∞ ∞ ∞ 
 


 ln
. Since  


ln
       (  ln)


     ∞

  
 
lim  
     

 
 → ∞ ln     
 lim      ∞ ,
 
 → ∞ ln     


ln
is divergent.

◎ Estimating the Sum of a Series



  

        ⋯  lim   , let
→ ∞

                   ⋯ then       .

◎ Remainder Estimate for the Integral Test


Suppose      for ∀ ∈ where  is a continuous, positive, and decreasing
∞ ∞ ∞
function on  ∞  . If 

 is convergent, then  
  ≤  ≤  
  .

pf)



<Example> 



∞  
Since  



 
→ ∞

  → ∞

 



 
lim     lim       , if  ≥  then 

 ≤  ≤ ,


◎ Note
∞ ∞
 
  ≤  ≤  
   ⇒

∞ ∞
  
  ≤       ≤     
  

∞ ∞ 
  
<Example> 
  
is convergent since  

 
  lim
→∞

 

 

  
 lim  
→∞     →∞
 





  
    
tan      lim  tan     tan        tan    .
     

- 12 -
[email protected]



<Example> 
 



Let      then  ′     for ≥ and  is continuous, positive, and
  

    
decreasing on   ∞  . Since  

  
  lim
→∞

 

  lim   tan
  →∞

 



→∞

lim 

 
tan      tan      
 

 
   ,
     
 


is convergent.

§ 11.4 The Comparison Test

◎ The Comparison Test (CT)


∞ ∞
Suppose 

 and 

 are series with positive terms.

∞ ∞
(i) If 

 is convergent and  ≤  for ∀ ∈, then 

 is convergent.

∞ ∞
(ii) If 

 is divergent and  ≥  for ∀ ∈, then 

 is divergent.

 
pf) Let     ,
 
    .
 

(i)      ⇒   ,    are increasing



Since 

 is convergent,    is bounded above from the fact that


     ⋯   ≤    ⋯       ≤  .


∞ ∞
Since    is increasing,
→∞
lim   

  exists and 

 is convergent by MCT. ■


(ii) Since    for ∀ ∈,

   lim   ∞ . Since
→∞

    ⋯   ≤   ⋯      , lim    ∞ and
→∞


 is divergent. ■


ln
<Example> Determine the convergence of
 

.

∞ ∞
ln   ln
sol) Since    for  ≥  and
  
 
 ∞, 
 
is divergent and therefore

- 13 -
[email protected]


ln


is divergent.



<Example> 


is convergent since


     



     ⋯
 
    
 
 ⋯    .

 

∞ ∞
    
<Example>  
     
is divergent since      and

     

is divergent.


ln ln   
<Example> 
  


is convergent since 
  
≤ 
  
≤ 

 

and







is convergent.

◎ The Limit Comparison Test


∞ ∞
Suppose 

 and 

 are series with positive terms.

 ∞ ∞

(i) If lim 
→∞ 
    then



 and 

 both converges or diverges.

 ∞ ∞

(ii) If lim 
→∞ 
  then



 is convergent ⇒ 

 is convergent.

 ∞ ∞

(iii) If lim 
→∞ 
 ∞ then



 is divergent ⇒ 

 is divergent.


pf) (i) Since   , ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≥  ⇒
  

 
   
    ,      ,
   
∞ ∞
 
       . If
   

 is convergent, 

 is convergent by the CT, and

∞ ∞ ∞
therefore 

 is convergent. If 

 is divergent, 

 is divergent by the CT,


and therefore 

 is divergent. ■

    ∞
(ii) ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≥  ⇒ 

   ,    . Since
 

 is convergent,

∞ ∞



 is convergent by the CT, and therefore 

 is convergent. ■

- 14 -
[email protected]

 
  ∞
(iii) ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≥  ⇒ 

   ,     . Since
 

 is divergent,

∞ ∞



 is divergent by the CT, and therefore

  is divergent. ■



<Example> Determine the convergence of 

 

.

∞ ∞
  
sol) Let   

 
,   

, then 

  



is divergent by the -series


   ∞ ∞

test. Since lim 
→∞  
 lim     ,

→ ∞    

  



is divergent.


  
<Example> Determine the convergence of    .
     

∞ ∞
    
sol) Let   
 
,   
 

then

   


is divergent by the 

   ∞ ∞ 
     
-series test. Since lim 
→∞ 

 lim     ,

→∞     
   


   
is

divergent.



<Example> Determine the convergence of 
  

. 

∞ ∞
  
sol) Let   
 
 
,   

then 

 


 
is convergent by the -series

  ∞ ∞
  
test. Since lim 
→∞  
 lim 

→ ∞
   ,
   
  


  
is convergent.


 ln  
<Example> Determine the convergence of 
 

. 

∞ ∞
 ln   
sol) Let   
  
,    then
 

 

  is divergent by the -series

  ∞ ∞
  ln    ln  
test. Since lim 
→∞  
 lim 
→ ∞

 ∞,
  


  
 


is divergent.

- 15 -
[email protected]

§ 11.5 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence

◎ Thm> Alternating Series Test (AST)



If the alternating series    

 
          ⋯ (  )

satisfies the conditions (i)    ≤  for ∀ ∈ and (ii) lim   , then


→ ∞

   


 is convergent.

pf) Let            ⋯                 


≥     ⇒    increases. Since
               ⋯   ≤  ,    is bounded above. By the
MCT,    is convergent and let lim     . Since            and
→∞

lim   lim     , lim      lim     and
→ ∞ →∞ →∞ → ∞
   


 is

convergent. ■



<Example>    



 
      
Let     
then  ′    and  is decreasing on   ∞  .
      
 ∞
 
Since lim 
→ ∞

 ,
 
  



  
is convergent by the AST.

◎ Alternating Series Estimation Theorem



If      


 is an alternating series, then          ≤    .

pf) Since            ⋯                  ,


  ≥     and    increases. Since                 ≤     ,
     decreases and   ≤   ≤ ⋯ ≤  ≤ ⋯ ≤   ≤   .
⇒ ∀  ∈,   ≤  ≤     . If    then   ≤  ≤     and
 ≤     ≤    ,       ≤    . If      then     ≤  ≤     and
    ≤       ≤ ,        ≤    . Thus,          ≤    . ■


   
<Example>   

 
,    ≤  .


- 16 -
[email protected]

◎ Absolute Convergence and Conditional Convergence


∞ ∞
* 

 is absolutely convergent ⇔   

 is convergent

∞ ∞ ∞
* 

 is conditionally convergent ⇔ 

 is convergent and   

 is divergent

∞ ∞
◎ Thm> 

 is absolutely convergent ⇔ 

 is convergent

∞ ∞
pf) ∀ ∈,  ≤      ≤     . Since   

 is convergent,    

 is


convergent. By the CT,

        is convergent. Therefore,

∞ ∞



    

           is convergent. ■


       
<Example> 


 
  
 
 
 
 

 ⋯

∞ ∞ ∞

     
          
 


is convergent (∵    ) and 



is absolutely

convergent.


cos cos cos cos
<Example> 

     ⋯

  
∞ ∞ ∞
cos
Since  ≤ 
 

≤
and   

 

is convergent, 

cos

  and
cos



is

convergent by the CT.

∞ ∞ ∞
      
<Example> (1) 



(2)    
   
(3)     
   

∞ ∞ ∞

     
     
(1) Since
 


converges, 



is absolutely convergent and it

converges.

  
∞ ∞
  
   
(2)   diverges and lim 
 
 ,     
 
   
 
.
 


 
 

→∞    
   

  
Therefore,    
   
is convergent by the AST.

  
(3) Since lim    ≠ , lim    does not exist and therefore
→∞     →∞  

- 17 -
[email protected]



    


  
is divergent.

∞ ∞
◎ Defn> A series 

 is a rearrangement of a series 

 ⇔ There exists a bijection

of    →  s.t.     .

∞ ∞ ∞
◎ Thm> If 

 is absolutely convergent and 

 is any rearrangement of  ,


∞ ∞ ∞
then 

 is absolutely convergent where 

 

 .


◎ Thm> If 

 is conditionally convergent and  ∈, there exists a rearrangement

∞ ∞ ∞



 of

  such that 

  .


      
<Example>

    
  

is divergent since lim 
→∞   
  and

  
lim    
  
is divergent.
→ ∞


     
<Example>

    
 
is convergent since lim 
→ ∞ 
   and if      then

  


since  ′     for  ≥ , is decreasing.


  
<Example>

    
  

 


    
<Example>


 ln 
 


  

 ln 


is convergent since 
 ln 
     
ln
and

∞  
  
 


 ln 
  lim
→ ∞
 
 ln 

  lim    

 ln → ∞ 

→ ∞

lim  

ln

ln

   .
ln 

    
Therefore,  
    ln 

is absolutely convergent and it converges.


(     is continuous, positive, and decreasing on  ∞ .)
 ln 

- 18 -
[email protected]

 
∞ ∞
cos       
<Example> 
 


 
 
  
is absolutely convergent since 
 
 

and







is convergent.

§ 11.6 The Ratio and Root Tests

◎ The (Limit) Ratio Test



For the series 

 ( ≠ ),

 
 ∞

① ≤ lim 
→∞ 
   ⇒ 

 is absolutely convergent

 
 ∞
 
② lim 
→ ∞ 
    or   ∞ ⇒ 

 is divergent

lim  
   ∞ ∞
 

→ ∞

  ⇒ Inconclusive ( 
 
,  


) 

pf) ①  ≤

lim 
→∞   
   
∃ s.t.     . Since 
lim 
→∞ 


  , for       , ∃  ∈ s.t.

≥ ⇒    

     
 
  ⇒            ⇒           .

∞ ∞
Therefore, for ∀ ∈,        . Since    
 

is convergent,   

 
∞ ∞
is convergent by the CT. Since  is finite,    is convergent since


 
  is

convergent. ■

② lim 
→ ∞ 
  

    or   ∞

  
∃ s.t.      . For     , ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≥  ⇒           
  
⇒        ⇒   
  
   . If   ∞ , then for   , ∃  ∈ s.t.

 
   ∞
≥ ⇒ 
  ⇒         . Since lim  ≠ , lim  ≠  and
→ ∞ →∞



is divergent. ■

- 19 -
[email protected]

∞ ∞ 

<Example> 

 

    


 
∞ ∞
        
Since 
 

→ 

  as  → ∞ , 

  

   

is absolutely

convergent.

∞ ∞

<Example> 

   
   

  
    ∞ ∞

Since 

  
  →    as  → ∞ , 

  


is divergent.

◎ The (Limit) Root Test



For the series 

 ( ≠ ),


① ≤
→∞
 
lim         ⇒ 

 is absolutely convergent



→ ∞
 
lim        or   ∞ ⇒ 

 is divergent

∞ ∞
 
③     ⇒ Inconclusive (  
 
lim  
,  ) 
→ ∞  

 
pf) ①  ≤ lim        
→∞
 
∃ s.t.     . Since lim      , for       , ∃  ∈ s.t.  ≥  ⇒
→∞

 

      ⇒ 

         ⇒  ≤       .
∞ ∞ ∞
Since 

 is convergent, 

  is convergent by the CT. Thus,

  
 is

convergent. ■

 
② lim        or   ∞
→ ∞

∃  ∈ s.t.  ≥  ⇒ 

     ⇒      ⇒ lim  ≠  and lim  ≠ .
→ ∞ →∞

Therefore, 

 is divergent. ■

∞ ∞ 
   
    
<Example> 

 


  
is convergent since lim 
 → ∞   
   .

- 20 -
[email protected]

 

<Example> 

where   

 
 is odd
(Only the Root Test holds.)






 is even


    
<Example>    



 
         ⋯ (con)
⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅

∞ 

 

<Example>   (div)
 

sin 


  
<Example> 
      
 (con)


 
<Example> 

 ln

(div)


  
 
<Example> For    and lim   
→∞ 
, 
   ⋯


  
(div)




<Example> 



(con)

◎ The Ratio Test



For the series

  ( ≠ ),

 
   ∞
① ∃ ∈    , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ , 
≤ ⇒ 

 is absolutely convergent

 
   ∞
② ∃  , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ , 
≥ ⇒ 

 is divergent.

pf) ① ∀ ≥ ,    
 
≤  ⇔     ≤    ,     ≤    for ∀ ∈.

∞ ∞ ∞
Since    


 is convergent,  

   is convergent by the CT and 

 is

convergent.

② ∀ ≥ ,    
 
≥ ,    ⇔      ≥    ,      ≥   for ∀ ∈.

- 21 -
[email protected]

Since lim     ∞ , lim      ∞ and lim    ∞ . Therefore, lim  does
→∞ →∞ →∞ →∞

not exist and 

 is divergent.

◎ The Root Test



For the series 

 ( ≠ ),

 ∞

① ∃ ∈    , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ ,     ≤  ⇒ 

 is absolutely convergent
 ∞

② ∃  , ∃ ∈ s.t. ∀ ≥ ,    ≥  ⇒ 

 is divergent.


pf) The proof of the convergence of a series

  is an application of the




comparison test. If for all  ≥  ∈,   ≤   , then  ≤   . Since the
∞ ∞
geometric series  


converges, do does

    by the comparison test. Hence

∞ 



 converges absolutely. If       for infinitely many , then  fails to

converge to , hence the series is divergent. ■

§ 11.8 Power Series


◎ A power series is of the form    

  

          ⋯ for  ∈. Then

  

the domain of the function  is      ∈    converges .



◎ In general, 

                    ⋯ is called a power series in

   , a power series centered at , or a power series about .


    
<Example> When does 

converge?

   
sol) Let    then
    
 
     ,

 

 
 ∞
    
lim 
→ ∞ 
       and     . If   , 

 
is convergent

- 22 -
[email protected]


by AST. If   ,

  is divergent. Therefore, the interval of convergence

is    and the radius of convergence is   .


<Example> When does  


converge?

sol) Let     then    



        

         → ∞ for all

 ≠ . Therefore,    and   .



<Example> When does   converge?
   


sol) Let    then
     

   
  
   
 
×

   
    
→    for ∀ ∈. Therefore,    and   ∞ .


    
<Example> When does     
  

 
converge?

   
sol) Let   
  
then    

   
   
           
×
  

  

  →   . Therefore,    and   ∞ .
   


◎ Thm> For a power series 

    , there are only three possibilities :

(i) The series converges only when   . (   )


(ii) The series converges for ∀ ∈. (   ∞ )
(iii) There is a positive number  such that the series converges if     
and the series diverges if      .


    
<Example> When does 



converge?


   
sol) Let   
  
then    

           
   
× 

     

    ∞
  
  

 
→    if    .

If   ,
 


is


 
convergent by AST and if     ,
 


is divergent. Therefore,


 
       and    .
  

- 23 -
[email protected]


    
<Example> When does 
  
converge?

    
sol) Let   
  
then    

           

  
× 
  
     

     
      →
 

      if      . If    , 

 
is



divergent and if   ,  

is divergent. Therefore,       and

  .

<Example> Find the interval of convergence and radius of convergence for series
∞  ∞  ∞ ∞
      



 ,  ,    ,  



 
 ln 
  


  

  

 
(Ans)    ,       ,   ,        ,    ,       ,   ,
      
       

§ 11.9 Representations of Functions as Power Series


 


         ⋯  


(    ) : A power series representation of 
 
on the interval   

∞ ∞
 
<Example>   
      
    

 
     

 
,  

   ∞  ∞
      
 
 
<Example>    ×   

   
  
,  
   
  

  
  

◎ Differentiation and Integration of Power Series



◎ Thm> If the power series 

    has radius of convergence   , then the

function  defined by                         ⋯ is
differentiable on         and

(i)  ′                  ⋯   

       and  ′   .

- 24 -
[email protected]

 
(ii)                         ⋯

 

∞ 
 


     
and  ′   .


 
<Example> Let     



and   

.

Since    
  
 
  
   
×



 

    
  →     when     ,

∞ ∞

 
±  
  . When   ± ,



 



is convergent and        .


     
Also,  ′    

 
and let     
then

  
  

 

 
×

  

  
  →   when    ,   .

∞ ∞
   
  
When   ,

is divergent but when    , 

is

convergent by AST. Therefore,        .


<Example> Derive the power series expression for  .
   


sol) Since             ⋯ 
 


(    ),




   
        ⋯ 

  
(     ).


 
<Example> 

  
         

 
(     ). By integrating both sides, we

  
obtain ln                ⋯ ,     . When   ,   .
  

   
Therefore, ln             ⋯ 
      




(     ).

<Example> Derive the power series expression for tan   .


 
sol) Since tan    ′   , tan    



 

  
           ⋯ and    when   . Therefore,
  

   
   
tan         
   

. Let       then
  

- 25 -
[email protected]

   

      

  
  
×
   
  
   
      →      when     and

  .

 
<Example> 

         

     

       ⋯ 

    
      ⋯
  

§ 11.10 Taylor and Mclaurin Series


    

                          ⋯ ,      .

Since      ,  ′     ,  ″     , ⋯ ,       and


∞ ∞
    
    

     
 
 
   and this is called the Taylor series of the

function  at , about , or centered at .

∞  
   
Especially when   , 
 
 
is called the Mclaurin series of function  .

Not all functions can be expressed by power series, and some are even different from its
Taylor series.



<Example>             ⋯ 
 


,  


   
<Example>            ⋯ 
   
   
, let   

then

   

   
  
   

×
 

 
  →  for ∀ ≠ , and the series

∞ 

converges when   . Therefore, 


converges for ∀ ∈ and   ∞ .

(Q) Under what circumstances is a function equal to the sum of its Taylor series?

   
⇔ When can we say that    



    ? 

- 26 -
[email protected]

  
   
sol) Define    as      
 
    
which is the th-degree Taylor


    
polynomial of  at . Now 

 
    
→∞
lim   . Let

          , then            and if lim     , then


→ ∞

lim      lim              .
→ ∞ → ∞

◎ Thm> If            , where    is the th-degree Taylor polynomial of


 at , and lim      for      , then  is equal to the sum of its
→∞

Taylor series on the interval      .

◎ Taylor’s Inequality

If           for    ≤ , then   ≤         for
   
   ≤ .

◎ Note
∞  
 



converges for ∀ ∈ ⇒ lim 
→∞ 
 , ∀ ∈

∞   ∞
     

      , 
 
 
 


, let    then


   
   
  
   ×   →   ,         ≤   ,   ≤ 
        


By Taylor’s Inequality,     ≤        → 
  

∞ 

⇒ lim     ,   ≤  and ∀ ∈,   
→∞



.

◎ Taylor’s Theorem
Suppose that the derivatives    for         ⋯   are continuous on    and
that      exists on    . Let   ∈    . Then for each  ∈    ,
 ″        
          ′                ⋯           
 
      
and             for some  between  and   .
   

- 27 -
[email protected]

∞ 

<Example> If   , then    


    . 


      
<Example> sin          ⋯ 
   

   
   

    
cos          ⋯ 
   

   
 

  
∞       
tan                ⋯ 
   
   


∞                  
 

  
(    )

∞ 

<Example> If    , then sin 
  

  
 
       
  

      
(   ,           
)
   


◎         ,  ∈

 ′           ,  ″              ,            ⋯         
 ′    ,  ″    , ⋯ ,            ⋯      

Therefore, the Mclaurin series of         is


∞ ∞ ∞
           ⋯       


 
  

 
      


, and


         


for     (though it is difficult to prove).

            
                 ⋯
 



 ∞    
<Example>     
    
      
   
 
   


    
 

 
   

  ∞      ⋅⋅⋅ ⋯ ⋅    


  
       

 C 

 
 

         ,  .

- 28 -
[email protected]

∞ ∞   
   
  
 
<Example>      cos    
 

  ,
  
  ∞.


        ∞
        
<Example>     ln       

 



 
,   

.

  ∞      ∞     
<Example>  

 
    
 
    
 



 ∞      ∞
  
 
      

        ⋯
  
             ×   ×   × 

<Example>
→
    
lim 
 
 
 lim 
→ 
 






   ⋯  
  
  
∞  
∞   
<Example>   sin    
     
            


 ∞      

  
<Example> tan                
sin 
cos    

            

- 29 -

You might also like