EE18701

PROTECTION AND
SWITCHGEAR
 OBJECTIVES
• Realize the causes of abnormal operating conditions
of the power system.
• Understand the operating characteristics and
functions of electromagnetic, static and numerical
relays.
• Comprehend the schemes of apparatus protection.
• Design and selection of circuit breakers
SYLLABUS
SYLLABUS
 OUTCOMES
• Interpret the faults in power system and essential qualities of
protection.
• Understand the operation of various electromagnetic relays.
• Analyze the protection schemes for power system apparatus.
• Synthesize various relays using static comparators and
microcontroller.
• Analyze the circuit breaker arcing phenomenon and
understand the functioning of various types of circuit breakers
TEXT AND REFERENCE BOOKS
 UNIT I
PROTECTION SCHEMES
Principles and need for protective schemes – nature and
causes of faults – types of faults – fault current
calculation using symmetrical components – Methods of
Neutral grounding – Zones of protection and essential
qualities of protection – Protection schemes for
distributed generation – Micro grid protection - IEEE
standards for power system protection.
 INTRODUCTION
• Switching device: opening/closing and protective device: over-
current protection
• What is “Switchgear”?

• It is a general term covering a wide range of equipments

concerned with switching and protection
• Switchgear – Switching, Protecting and Controlling
 INTRODUCTION

• Transmission and distribution lines: overhead lines

and exposed – breakdown
• Results in mechanical damage, electrical fault
 SWITCHGEAR INTRODUCTION
• Every electric circuit requires a
switching device for opening /
closing and a protective device
for over-current protection

• All the equipments associated

with fault clearing process are
covered by the term
“Switchgear”

• It includes switches, fuses,

circuit breakers, isolators,
relays, control panels, lightning
arresters, CT’s, PT’s and various
associated equipments.
Low/Medium voltage Switchgears
High voltage Switchgears
Isolator
Fuses
Relays
Circuit Breaker
Oil switches
HRC Fuses
Lightning Arrester
CT and PT
CT & PT
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
PRINCIPLES
• The protective relaying scheme include protective relays,
circuit breakers etc. to isolate the faulty section of the system
from healthy sections and normally about 5% of the total cost
of the project goes towards the protective schemes
• Protective relays and relaying schemes detect abnormal
conditions (faults) in electric circuit and operate automatic
switchgear (circuit breaker) to isolate the faulty element from
the system as soon as possible.
• The switchgear must be capable of interrupting both normal
current as well as fault currents
• The protective relay is a device which senses abnormal
conditions on a power system by constantly monitoring
electrical quantities (V, I,  & f) of the system
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
PRINCIPLES (Contd.)
• A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of
the system when it is called upon to do so by the
protective relay.
• Thus the entire process includes the operations like
occurrence of fault, operation of relay, opening of a CB
and removal of faulty element. This entire process is
automatic and fast, due to protective relaying schemes.
• It should be noted that a relay does not anticipate or
prevent the occurrence of a fault; rather it takes action
only after the fault has occurred except Buchholz relay
(Gas actuated)
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
PRINCIPLES (Contd.)
• The most visible effect of fault is a sudden build-up of
current. Thus over-current relaying is the most natural
principle of relaying.
• However, fault current magnitude is a function of type of
fault and the source impedance. The source impedance,
which depends upon no. of generating units, that are in
service at a given time, keeps changing from time to time.
• So the operating time of o/c relaying keep changing from
fault to fault, and time to time
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
PRINCIPLES (Contd.)
• This has led relay engineers to think of other principles of
protection.
• Another very natural and appealing principle is the
differential protection. It is based on the premise that the
current entering a protected section must be equal to
that leaving it. Any discrepancy between the two
indicates the presence of fault.
• However, it is impractical to apply this principle to a
transmission line because the ends are far apart, and it is
not easy to compare information at the two ends.
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
PRINCIPLES (Contd.)
• To get over the above problem, a distance relay compares
voltage with current at the same end.
• This, in effect measures the impedance between the relay
location and the fault point.
• Since impedance of T.L. can be considered to be directly
proportional to the distance along the line, this type of
relaying is known as “distance relaying”
• In case of a double-end feed system or parallel lines or a ring
main system, a fault gets fed from both sides.
• In order to be selective, the relay must be sensitive to the
direction of fault power flow. The relays which exhibit such
property are termed as “directional relays”
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
• An electrical power system (generators,
transformers, transmission and distribution lines,
etc.) undergo abnormalities
• Examples:
– Worn out bearing: overloading of motor
– Tree falling or touching an overhead line: fault
– Lightning strike: insulation failure
– Pollution: degradation in performance of insulators
(breakdown)
– Under or over frequency of generators: mechanical
damage to it's turbine
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SCHEMES (Contd.)
• Fault: automatic protective device is needed to isolate
faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the
healthy section in normal operation.
• Fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second
• Short circuit persists on a system for a longer period
may cause damages to some important sections of
system (heavy short circuit current may cause a fire)
• Fault may spread and damage - system voltage may
reduce to low level and generators may lose
synchronism
• Uncleared heavy short circuit – total failure of system
 PRINCIPLES AND NEED FOR
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SCHEMES (Contd.)
• Protection needed also against abnormal conditions
• Examples:
– over-speed of generators and motors,
– over-voltage,
– under-frequency,
– loss of excitation,
– over-heating of stator and rotor of alternator, etc.
• Conclusion: every electrical equipment is to be
monitored to protect it and provide human safety under
abnormal operating conditions
 TYPES OF PROTECTION
• Protection systems can be classified into apparatus and
system protection
❑ Apparatus Protection
▪ Detection of a fault in the apparatus and consequent
protection
▪ Apparatus protection can be further classified into
following:
➢ Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection
➢ Transformer Protection
➢ Generator Protection
➢ Motor Protection
➢ Busbar Protection
 Types of Protection
❑ System Protection
▪ Detection of system unstable operating region and
consequent control actions to restore stable operating
point and/or prevent damage
▪ Loss of system stability - partial or complete system
blackouts
▪ Under-frequency relays, out of step protection,
islanding systems, rate of change of frequency relays,
reverse power flow relays, voltage surge relays etc. are
used for system protection
▪ Wide Area Measurement (WAM) systems are also
deployed for system protection
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• The nature of fault - any abnormal condition causes a
reduction in basic insulation strength
• Results in either excess current flows or impedance between
conductors or conductors to earth reduce to a lower value
• Probability of failure or abnormal condition is more on power
lines (greater length and exposure to atmosphere)
• According to causes of fault incidence, causes of failures are
classified as,
a. Breakdown may occur at normal voltage on account of
(i) Detoriation of insulation &
(ii) Damage due to unpredictable causes (perching of birds,
accidental short circuit by snakes, kite strings, tree branches,
ice & snow loading etc.)
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
b. Breakdown may occur because of abnormal voltages
caused by either (i) switching or (ii) lightning surges
• Faults are generally caused either by insulation failures
or by conducting path failures
• Failure of insulation - short circuit
• Most of the faults on T & D lines are caused by over
voltages due to lightning or switching surges (causes
flashover on the insulators surface - short circuits,
puncture or break), or by external conducting objects
falling on O.H. lines.
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• The line and apparatus insulation may be subjected to
transient over-voltages (switching operations) - peak value:
3 Vph - higher insulation level (3-5 times the nominal value)
• But still pollution on the insulator string (deposited soot or
cement dust) and by salt deposited by wind-borne sea spray
in coastal areas cause the insulation strength to decrease
• This will initially lower the insulation resistance and cause a
small leakage current or flashover - hastening deterioration
• Even if the insulation is enclosed (sheathed and armoured
cables and metal-clad switchgear), deterioration of insulation
occurs because of ageing
• Void formation in the insulating compound of UG cable
(unequal expansions and contractions) caused by rise and fall
of temperature is another cause of insulation failure
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• Lightning produces very high voltage surge (millions of volts)
- not feasible to provide an insulation. These surges travel
with velocity of light (limiting factors are surge Z and line R)
• Birds may cause faults on O.H. lines - bodies touch one of the
phases & earth wire (or metallic supporting structure).
• Broken conductor falls to the ground – short circuit
• Joint failures on cables or O.H. lines are also a cause of failure
• The opening of one or two of the 3 phases – unbalanced
– Unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines set up
harmonics - heating the machines in short periods of time
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
• Other causes of faults on O.H. lines are: aircraft, ice & snow
loading, snakes, lightning strokes, abnormal loading, storms,
earth quakes, creepers, etc.
• In case of cables, transformers, generators & other
equipments, the causes of failure are: Failure of solid
insulation (ageing, heat, moisture or over-voltage, mechanical
damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed screens,
flashover due to over-voltages, etc.)
• Sometimes CBs trip due to errors in the switching operation,
testing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in
the protective devices, etc.
• Certain faults occur due to poor quality of system components
or because of a faulty system design
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS
CAUSES OF FAULTS
SN Equipment Causes of fault
Lightning stroke, Earth quake, icing, Birds, tree
1 Over head lines
branches, kite strings, Internal over voltages
Under ground Damage due to digging, Insulation failure due to
2
cable temperature rise, Failure of joints
Stator faults, Rotor faults, Abnormal conditions,
3 Alternator
Faults in associated equipment
Insulation failure, faults in tap-changer, faults in
4 Transformer
bushings, over loading
Over voltages, insulation failure, breaking of
5 C.T.’s and P.T.’s
conductors, wrong connection
Insulation failure, leakage of air/oil/gas, mechanical
6 Switchgear
defect, lack of maintenance
 TYPES OF FAULTS
Different types of faults are
(i) Symmetrical faults
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults
(iii) Multiple/Simultaneous faults
(i) Symmetrical faults
A three-phase fault (three phases are short circuited with or
without ground - to determine the “System fault level”)
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults
– Single-phase to Ground (L-G) fault
– Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) fault
– Phase-Phase (L-L) fault
– Open circuited phases: Break in the conducting path (joint
failures) and CB’s or isolators fails to close
– Winding faults: short circuit in machine winding
 TYPES OF FAULTS
(iii) Multiple/Simultaneous faults
• Two or more faults occurring simultaneously (same or
different types/points)
• For example, two L-G faults on same section or in different
lines (cross-country earth fault)
➢ Frequency of occurrence of different types of faults on OH
lines
TYPE OF FAULTS % OF TOTAL FAULTS
Line to Ground 85
Line to Line 8
Double Line to Ground 5
Three Phase 2
 TYPES OF FAULTS
• % distribution of faults on various elements of a power system

ELEMENTS % OF TOTAL FAULTS

Overhead Lines 50
Transformers 10
UG Cables 9
Generators 7
Switchgears 12
CTs, PTs, Relays, Control 12
equipment, etc.
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Fault impedance and Fault current estimates form input for
the setting and coordination of protective devices like
over-current relay, distance relay etc.
• The equipment rating are decided based on Fault Current.
Symmetrical Components:
• Introduced by Dr. Charles L. Fortescue - analysis of
unsymmetrical (unbalanced) poly phase network can be
done easily
• “Fortescue Theorem” - an unbalanced system of ‘n’ related
vectors can be resolved into ‘n’ system of balanced vectors
called symmetrical components of original vectors
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• In a 3 system, 3 unbalanced vectors (Va, Vb & Vc or Ia, Ib
& Ic) can be resolved into 3 balanced system of vectors
called symmetrical components.
• Let Va, Vb and Vc be the set of unbalanced voltage vectors
with phase sequence abc. Each voltage vector can be
resolved into positive, negative and zero sequence
components as,
• Let, Va1, Vb1 & Vc1 = Positive sequence components
• Va2, Vb2 & Vc2 = Negative sequence components
• Va0, Vb0 & Vc0 = Zero sequence components
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
1. Positive sequence components
Consists of 3 vectors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120 in phase & having same phase
sequence as the original vectors (Phase sequence: abc)
2. Negative sequence components
Consists of 3 vectors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120 in phase & having phase sequence
opposite to that of the original vectors (Phase sequence:
acb)
3. Zero sequence components
Consists of 3 vectors equal in magnitude and also are in-
phase with each other (zero phase displacement)
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Significance of Positive, Negative and Zero sequence Components
• Positive sequence voltage corresponds to generated voltages of an
alternator. If a set of positive sequence voltage is applied to the
stator windings of an alternator, the direction of rotation of the
stator field is same as that of the rotor or alternatively, if the
direction of rotation of the stator field is same as that of rotor, the
set of voltages are positive sequence voltages.
• On the contrary, if the direction of rotation of stator field is
opposite to that of rotor, the set of voltages are negative sequence
voltages.
• The zero sequence voltages are in-phase voltages, and therefore
they give rise to an alternating field in space, does not produce any
rotating field.
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• From the vector diagram of symmetrical components, the following
conclusions can be made
1. On rotating the vector Va1 by 120 in anti clock wise direction
(ACW), we get Vc1
2. On rotating the vector Va1 by 240 in anti clock wise direction, we
get Vb1
• Similarly for Va2 also. Therefore on rotating the symmetrical
components of one vector by 120 or multiples of 120, we get the
symmetrical components of other vectors.
• Operator ‘a’ (definition) - causes a rotation of 120 in ACW
direction, whose magnitude is unity
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Computation of unbalanced vectors from their symmetrical
components

• Computation of symmetrical components from unbalanced

vectors

• Similarly, we can compute the expressions for current also

 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Since the phasor sum of 3 line-to-line voltages or 3 line
currents in 3 - 3 wire system is always zero, there will
be no zero sequence component in line voltages or line
currents of a 3 - 3 wire system
• In case of 3 - 4 wire system, sum of phase voltages
(line to neutral) may not be zero so that zero sequence
component (Va0) may exist. Also the sum of 3 line
currents equals the current in the Neutral wire
Ia0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 1/3 In (or) In = 3 Ia0
• In the absence of neutral connection, zero sequence
line current is always zero
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Sequence Impedances and Sequence Networks
Sequence Impedances
• Positive sequence impedance is impedance offered to
the flow of positive sequence currents (Z1)
• Similarly negative and zero sequence impedance is
impedance offered to the flow of corresponding
sequence currents (Z2 & Z0)
• For static devices (transformer and transmission lines),
the sequence has no significance (Z1 = Z2); Z0 includes
impedance of the return path through the ground.
• In a symmetrical rotating machine, impedances are equal
in all the three phases
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Sequence Networks
• Single phase equivalent circuit (Z or X diagram) formed
using Z1 is called positive sequence network, similarly for
negative and zero sequence networks
• In unsymmetrical fault analysis of power system, positive,
negative and zero sequence networks of the system are
determined and interconnected
Voltage of the Neutral
• The potential of the neutral is given as, Vn = -InZn,
• Negative sign is used as the current flows from the
ground (higher potential) to the neutral (lower potential)
of the system (opposite)
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• For a 3 phase system,
In = Ia + Ib + Ic
= (Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0) + (a2Ia1 + aIa2 + Ia0) + (aIa1 + a2Ia2 + Ia0)
= Ia1(1 + a + a2) + Ia2 (1 + a + a2) + 3 Ia0 = 3 Ia0
• Vn = - 3 Ia0 Zn
• Since positive and negative sequence components of
currents through neutral are absent, drops due to these
currents are also zero
• Also for a balanced set of currents or voltages, neutral is
at ground potential; therefore, for +ve and –ve sequence
networks, neutral will be taken as reference
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Sequence Network equations (Unloaded alternator)

• These equations will be derived for an unloaded alternator as

shown in fig. assuming that the system is balanced
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Let Ea, Eb and Ec be the generated emf/phase
• In a balanced system, sequence impedance per phase are same
for all the three phases (analysis on single phase basis)
• At the fault point, +ve sequence component of voltage is: +ve
sequence generated emf minus the drop due to +ve sequence
current in +ve sequence impedance,
Va1 = Ea1 (emf) – Ia1 Z1 (drop) = Ea – Ia1 Z1
• Similarly, -ve sequence component of voltage, Va2 = Ea2 – Ia2 Z2 =
– Ia2 Z2, Ea2 = 0 (since a synchronous machine is designed with
symmetrical windings, it induces emf of +ve seq. only, no –ve
or zero seq. voltages)
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Similarly, for zero sequence component of voltage, Ea0 = 0;
Va0 = Vn – Ia0 Zg0 = -3Ia0Zn – Ia0 Zg0 = -Ia0 (Zg0 + 3Zn)
Where, Zg0 is the zero seq. impedance of the generator,
Zn is the neutral impedance
• The 3 sequence network equations are:
Va1 = Ea1 – Ia1 Z1 = Ea – Ia1 Z1
Va2 = Ea2 – Ia2 Z2 = – Ia2 Z2
Va0 = – Ia0 Z0, where Z0 = Zg0 + 3Zn
and the corresponding sequence networks are:
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

• For all types of faults the sequence network equations will be the
same but the 3 equations describing the boundary conditions will
be different for different types of faults
• Sequence Networks of Transmission lines
• Sequence Networks of Loads
• Sequence Networks of Transformers
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Single Line to Ground Fault
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
A 25 MVA, 13.2 KV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a
sub-transient reactance of 0.25 p.u. The negative and zero
sequence reactances are 0.35 and 0.1 p.u. respectively. A
SLG/LL/LLG fault occurs at the terminals of an unloaded
alternator; determine the fault current and line-to-line voltages.
Neglect resistance.
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Let the line-to-neutral voltage at the fault point before the
fault be 1.0 + j0.0 p.u.
• For a line to-ground fault the fault impedance is
j0.25 + j0.35 + j0.1 = j0.7
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

-
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
• Now actual line-to-line voltages (magnitude: polar form)
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Line to Line Fault
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Problem continued for Line-to-line fault:
• Solution: Since the zero sequence network is absent,
assuming (1 + j0.0) prefault per unit voltage,
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Double Line to Ground Fault
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Problem continued for Double Line-to-ground fault:
• Solution: Assuming (1 + j0.0) prefault per unit voltage,
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Three Phase Fault (Symmetrical Fault)
 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Conclusion:
1. Positive sequence currents are present in ALL types of faults
2. Negative sequence currents are present in ALL
Unsymmetrical faults
3. Zero sequence currents are present when the neutral of the
system is grounded and the fault also involves ground, the
magnitude of neutral current is 3Ia0
 POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING OR
EARTHING
• The process of connecting the metallic frame (non-current carrying
part) of electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system
(neutral point) to earth (soil) is called “Grounding” or “Earthing”
• Connection to earth may be through a conductor or some other
circuit elements (resistor, CB) depending upon the situation.
Advantages :
1. Protection to power systems
2. Ensures the safety of the persons handling the equipment
Grounding or earthing may be classified as
(i) Equipment grounding
(ii) System (Neutral) grounding
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

• Neutral is not connected to the ground (isolated) - isolated or

free neutral system
• In Fig. - line conductors have capacitances between one
another (delta) and to ground (star)
• Delta connected capacitors have little effect on the grounding
characteristic of the system - neglected
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• Circuit behaviour under normal conditions

• The line is assumed to be perfectly transposed so that each

conductor has same capacitance to ground
CR = CY = CB = C (say)
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• Since the phase voltages VRN, VYN and VBN have the same
magnitude, the capacitive currents IR, IY and IB will have the same
value, i.e.

• Capacitive currents IR, IY and IB lead their respective phase voltages

VRN, VYN and VBN by 90 as shown in the phasor diagram.
• Three capacitive currents are equal in magnitude and are displaced
by 120, therefore their phasor sum is zero
• As a result, no current flows to ground and the potential of neutral
is same as ground potential, therefore it poses no problem under
normal conditions.
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• Circuit behaviour under abnormal conditions

• Suppose line to ground fault occurs in line B at some point F as

shown in Fig. (i), the current in phase B has two components: one IR
flows from F to R through CR, second IY flows from F to Y through CY
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
• The voltages driving these currents IR and IY are VBR and VBY
respectively.
• Note that VBR and VBY are the line voltages
• Since, the paths of IR and IY are essentially capacitive, they
lead their respective line voltages by 90 as shown in Fig. (ii)
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

From Phasor diagram

The following conclusions can be drawn from the above:

1. The potential of the faulty phase becomes equal to ground
potential. However, the voltages of the two remaining healthy
phases rise from their normal phase voltages to full line value. This
may result in insulation breakdown.
2. The capacitive current in the two healthy phases increase to 3
times the normal value.
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM
3. The capacitive fault current (Ic) becomes 3 times the normal per phase
capacitive current.
4. The capacitive fault current Ic flows into earth. Experience shows that Ic
in excess of 4A is sufficient to maintain an arc in the ionized path of the
fault.
– If this current is once maintained, it may exist even after the earth
fault is cleared. This phenomenon of persistent arc is called arcing
ground.
– Due to arcing ground, the system capacity is charged and discharged
in a cyclic order, because the arc extinguishes and restrikes in a
repeated regular manner;
– This sets up high-frequency oscillations on the whole system and the
phase voltage of healthy conductors may rise to 5 to 6 times its
normal value, leads to insulation damage in the line.
5. Earth fault relaying becomes complicated here because the earth fault
current is not enough to operate the relay
• Due to the above disadvantages, ungrounded neutral system is not used.
 NEUTRAL GROUNDING

• The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth

either directly or through some circuit element is called Neutral
grounding.
• Neutral grounding provides protection to personnel and equipment
(current path is completed through earthed neutral and the
protective devices operate to isolate the faulty conductor from the
rest of the system)
 NEUTRAL GROUNDING
Advantages of Neutral Grounding:
i. Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to
ground voltages i.e. they remain nearly constant
ii. High voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated
iii. The protective relays can be used to provide protection
against earth faults
iv. The over-voltages due to lightning are discharged to
earth
v. It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment
vi. It provides improved service reliability
vii. Operating and maintenance expenditures are reduced.
METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING
• The system neutral can be grounded effectively or non-
effectively
• In effectively grounded systems, the neutral point is
grounded directly (also called solid grounding) to the
earth
• In non-effectively grounded systems, any of the
following three methods can be adopted:
» Resistance grounding
» Reactance grounding
» Resonant or Peterson-coil grounding
(by arc suppression coil)
Solid or Effective Grounding
 Solid Grounding
• When a neutral point of three phase system is directly
connected to earth (soil) through a wire of negligible
resistance and reactance, it is called solid or effective
grounding. (Neutral is held at earth potential under all
conditions)
• Consider a line to ground fault in line B as shown in Fig. The
capacitive currents flowing in the healthy phases R and Y are
IR and IY respectively.
• The current in line B has 3 components:
1. IR from N to R through F and CR,
2. IY from N to Y through F and CY and
3. IF from F to earth, then to N and back to F through phase B
 Solid Grounding

• WKT, IF = 3Vph / z1 + z2 + z0, since z1 + z2 + z0 is predominantly inductive, IF

lags behind phase to neutral voltage of faulted phase (VBN) by nearly 90
• Voltage driving the currents IR & IY (direction reversed) are VRN & VYN
respectively and since impedance offered by these currents is
predominantly capacitive, they lead their respective voltages by 90
• IC is the resultant of IR and IY
• Path of IC is capacitive and that of IF is inductive, IC is in phase opposition
to IF, therefore they cancel each other, so no arcing ground or over-voltage
 Solid Grounding
Advantages:
1. Neutral is effectively held at earth potential
2. No arcing ground or over-voltage conditions
3. When there is an earth fault on any phase, phase to earth
voltage of the faulty phase becomes zero (remaining two
healthy phases remains at normal value because N is fixed at
earth potential) – insulate only for phase voltage (saving in
cost)
4. The flow of heavy fault current permits the use of
discriminative protective gear like earth fault relay
 Solid Grounding
Disadvantages:
1. Since most of the faults on an overhead system are phase to earth
faults - large number of severe shocks leads to unstable system
2. Solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the
fault has to be cleared by CB’s, it may cause burning of contacts
3. The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in
the neighboring communication lines.
Applications
• Solid grounding is usually employed where the circuit impedance is
sufficiently high so as to keep the earth fault current within safe
limits.
• This system of grounding is used for voltages up to 33 kV with total
power capacity not exceeding 5000 kVA
Resistance Grounding
 Resistance Grounding
• When the neutral point of a three phase system is connected
to earth through a resistor (to limit the magnitude of earth
fault current), it is called “resistance grounding”
• The resistance may comprise of metallic resistance units. It is
more usual to use liquid resistors if voltage is 6.6 KV or more.
• But metallic resistors do not change with time and little or no
maintenance - inductive in nature poses a problem with O.H
lines exposed to lightning (travelling waves or impulses unduly
stress the insulation of equipment and causes breakdown)
• Liquid resistors are free from these disadvantages and are
normally of simple robust construction, mounted outdoors
 Resistance Grounding
• Fig. shows the grounding of neutral point through a resistor R, the
value of R should be neither very low nor very high.
• If R is very low, E/F current will be large and system becomes
similar to solid grounding system.
• if R is very high, the system conditions becomes similar to
ungrounded neutral system
• The value of R is so chosen such that E/F current is limited to safe
value but still sufficient to permit the operation of E/F relay
• In practice, value of R is selected that limits E/F current to 2 times
the normal full load current of earthed generator or transformer
• Fig. shows an earth fault on phase-B of a resistance grounded
system. The 3 currents at F in phase B are IF, IR and IY
 Resistance Grounding

• Current IF lags behind the phase voltage of the faulted phase

(VBN) by a certain angle depending upon the resistance and
reactance of the system upto the point of fault
 Resistance Grounding
• IR and IY lead VBR and VBY (N is not held at earth potential)
respectively by 90, IC is the resultant of IR and IY; IF may resolved
into a reactive component (IRea) and a resistive component (IRes)
• At the point of fault IC is in phase opposition to IRea
• By adjusting the value of R to a low value it is possible to nullify
the effect of IC - no transient oscillations due to arcing ground
• However, if the value of earthing resistance R is increased such
that IRea < IC then leads to the effect of ungrounded system
• An important consideration in the resistance grounded system is
the power loss in the resistor during line to ground faults
• In general, it is common to fix a value which will limit the E/F
current to the full rating of largest generator or transformer
• Based on this practice, the value of R to be inserted in neutral is,
R = VL/3 I
 Resistance Grounding
• If at some later stage a still larger machine is added, it may
necessary to reduce the ohmic value of resistance.
• Peterson gave the following formula for most favourable
dimensions of the resistance, R = (1 to 2.5) / (CR + CY + CB)
Advantages:
1. Permits the use of discriminative protective switch gear
2. Minimizes hazards of arcing grounds
3. E/F current is small due to presence of earthing resistance,
so interference with communication circuits is reduced
4. It improves stability of the system
 Resistance Grounding
Disadvantages:
1. Since system neutral will almost invariably be displaced
during earth faults, the equipment has to be insulated for
higher voltages
2. This system is costlier than solidly grounded system
3. A large amount of energy is produced in earthing resistance
during earth faults – energy loss
Applications:
• It is used on a system operating at voltages between 2.2 kV
and 33 kV with power source capacity more than 5000 kVA
• Neutral Grounding Resistors (NGR) are normally designed to
carry their rated current for a short period, usually 30 seconds
 Reactance Grounding

• “Reactance grounding” means grounding through impedance, the

principal element of which is reactance.
• It implies insertion of a reactance in between N and ground as
shown in fig. The purpose of reactance is to limit the E/F current
 Reactance Grounding
• By changing the earthing reactance, the E/F current can be changed
to obtain the conditions similar to that of solid grounding
Advantages:
• It ensures satisfactory relaying, partial grounding of apparatus
insulation, reduced interference with communication lines as
compared to that in solidly grounded systems and intermediate cost
Disadvantages:
1. In this system, the fault current required to operate the protective
device is higher than that of resistance grounding for the same
fault conditions
2. The transient voltages resulting from arcing increases as the
reactance is increased
3. During switching operation, higher values of reactance are
expected to result in higher values of surge voltages
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding

• Capacitive currents between each line and earth are

responsible for producing arcing grounds
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in parallel with
capacitance of the system, fault current IF flowing through L will
be in phase opposition to the capacitive current IC of the system.
• If L is so adjusted that IL= lC then resultant current in the fault
will be zero. This condition is known as Resonant grounding.
• Circuit details: An arc suppression coil (Peterson coil) is an iron-
cored coil connected between the neutral and earth
• The reactor is provided with tappings to change the inductance
of coil.
• The function of Peterson coil is to make the arcing earth faults
self extinguishing and in case of sustained fault to reduce E/F
current to a lower value.
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• Operation: Fig. shows B phase earthed by a SLG fault at point F. IF,
IR and IY flows as shown. Note that IF flows through Peterson coil to
neutral and back through fault.
• The total capacitive current lc is the phasor sum of IR and IY as
shown in phasor diagram.
• The voltage of the faulty phase is applied across the arc suppression
coil. Therefore, fault current lags the faulty phase voltage (VBN) by
approximately 90°, IF is in phase opposition to IC
• By adjusting the tappings on the Peterson coil, the resultant
current in the fault can be reduced. If inductance of the coil is so
adjusted that IF = IC, then resultant current in the fault will be zero.
• In practice, there will be a small resultant current present at the
fault since absolute tuning may not be possible.
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• Value of L for resonant grounding: For resonant grounding,
system behaves as an un-grounded neutral system. Therefore,
full line voltage appears across capacitors CR and CY.
Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
• Advantages:
i. Peterson coil is completely effective in preventing any
damage by an arcing ground.
ii. Peterson coil has the advantages of ungrounded neutral
system.
• Disadvantages:
i. Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of
the network changes from time to time. Therefore,
inductance L of Peterson coil requires readjustment.
ii. The lines should be transposed.
iii. It requires high insulation level
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson
Coil Grounding
PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the reactance of Peterson coil suitable for a 33 KV 3-
phase transmission line having a capacitance to earth of each
conductor as 4.5 F. Assume supply frequency to be 50 Hz.
Solution:
• For Peterson coil grounding, reactance XL of the Peterson coil
should be = Xc/3
 Resonant/Arc Suppression Coil/Peterson Coil
Grounding
2. A 230 kV, 3-phase 50 Hz, 200 km transmission line has a
capacitance to earth of 0.02 F/km/phase. Calculate the
inductance and kVA rating of the Peterson coil used for earthing
the above system.
Solution:
• Capacitance of each line to earth, C = 200 x 0.02 = 4 x 10-6 F
• Required inductance of Peterson coil is
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
1. Voltage transformer earthing

• Primary of a single-phase voltage transformer is connected

between neutral and ground
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding

• A low resistor in series with a relay is connected across the

secondary of the voltage transformer
• The voltage transformer acts as a very high reactance
grounding device and does not assist in mitigating the over-
voltage conditions
• A system grounded through voltage transformer operates
virtually as an ungrounded system
• A ground fault on any phase produces a voltage across the
relay which causes operation of the protective device
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
2. Grounding through an earthing transformer
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
• In cases where neutral of a power system is not available for
grounding or where transformer/generator is delta connected, an
artificial neutral grounding point is created using zig-zag
transformer called 'grounding transformer’
• This transformer does not have secondary winding and it is a core-
type transformer having 3 limbs similar to power transformer.
• Each limb of the transformer has two identical windings wound
differentially (directions of current are opposite to each other)
• Since two identical windings on each limb are wound differentially,
under normal conditions, total flux in each limb is negligibly small
(transformer draws very little magnetizing current)
• The grounding transformer is of short-time rating, usually 10
seconds to 1 minute. Therefore, the size of such transformer is
small as compared to the power transformer of same rating.
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
• If a zig-zag transformer is not available for grounding, a special
small size star-delta transformer can be used without loading
the delta side as shown in the Fig. below
 Other Methods of Non-effective Grounding
• This transformer is also known as grounding transformer
and it is a step-down transformer.
• Star connected primary is connected to the system and its
neutral is grounded.
• Secondary is in delta and generally does not supply any
load but provides a closed path for triple harmonic currents
to circulate in them
• Under normal conditions, the current in the transformer is
only its own magnetizing current
• However, large current may flow in the event of single line
to ground fault condition
• Hence, it should be of sufficient rating to withstand the
effect of line to ground faults.
 PRESENT PRACTICES IN NEUTRAL GROUNDING

i. Generally, one grounding is provided at each voltage

level. In power system, there are various voltage Levels
between generation and distribution. At least one
grounding is normally provided at each voltage level
ii. Grounding is provided at the power source end and not at
the load end. If power source is delta connected,
grounding is provided by means of grounding transformer
rather than grounding at the load end.
iii. Grounding is provided at each major source bus section
iv. Generators are normally provided with resistance
grounding whereas synchronous motors and synchronous
capacitors are provided with reactance grounding.
 PRESENT PRACTICES IN NEUTRAL GROUNDING
v. When several generators are operating in parallel, only one
generator neutral is grounded. If more neutral are grounded,
disturbance is created by the zero sequence components of
circulating currents.
vi. When there are one or two power sources, no switching
equipment is used in the grounding circuit
vii. When several generators are connected to a common neutral
bus, the bus is grounded either directly or through reactance.
viii. Effectively (solid) grounding is used for the systems of low
voltages up to 600 volts and for systems of high voltages above
33 kV whereas resistance or reactance grounding is used for
systems of medium voltages between 3.3 kV and 33 kV.
 ZONES OF PROTECTION
• A power system contains generators, transformers, bus-bars,
transmission and distribution lines etc.
• There is a separate protective scheme for each element of the
power system, such as generator protection, transformer
protection, transmission line protection, bus-bar protection, etc.
• Thus a power system is divided into a no. of zones of protection.
• Also in order to delimit the no. of elements disconnected by the
protective system during a fault, the protective system is divided
into a no. of zones
• A protective zone covers one or at the most two elements of a
power system.
• The zones are arranged to overlap so that no part of the system is
left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power
system are shown in fig.
 ZONES OF PROTECTION
• Circuit breakers and relays are located at zone boundaries
• Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing
which a fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any
of the zones (due to errors in measurement of actuating
quantities, etc.) and hence no CB’s would trip
• If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly
protected scheme, more CB’s than the minimum necessary to
isolate the faulty element of the system would trip
• A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of
faults in this region and consequently, tripping of too many
breakers does not occur frequently
 ZONES OF PROTECTION

• When it becomes desirable for economic or space saving reasons to

overlap on one side of a breaker “blind spots” occur as shown in
fig.
• If a fault occurs at point “x”, CB’s of zone B including breaker “c” will
be tripped - fault current from zone A is not interrupted (relaying
equipment of zone B must also trip certain breakers in zone A)
• But for faults in zone B to the right of CB “c” the operation of
breakers in zone A is not useful
• How far this unnecessary operation can be tolerated will depend on
the particular application
 ZONES OF PROTECTION
Primary and Back-up Protection
• Protection provided by each zone to its element(s) is known as
‘Primary Protection’
• Rarely, some components of a zone protection scheme fail to
operate when called upon to do so
• In order to almost 100% protect the power system elements and to
prevent extensive damage, ‘back up protection’ is provided which
takes over only in the event of primary protection failure
• Back up relays should not employ or control anything that is
common with primary relays that are to be backed up - located at a
different physical location (so when it operates a large chunk of
power system will get disconnected)
• Back up relaying should function with sufficient time delay (first
opportunity is given to primary relays)
• Also back up relaying need to be provided for only the most severe
kind of faults (short circuits), not for other abnormal conditions
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
The basic requirements of a protective system are
1. Reliability
2. Selectivity
3. Sensitivity
4. Stability
5. Fastness of operation
6. Discrimination
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
1. Reliability:
• Qualitative term. Quantitatively it is a probability of failure
(due to breaker defects).
• Failure can be reduced by inherently reliable designs
backed by regular and thorough maintenance.
• Quality of personnel must not be taken for reliability.
• Some requirements of reliability are: high contact
pressures, dust free enclosures, well braced joints and
impregnated coils.
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
• Precautions in manufacture and assembly reduce liability to
failure.
• Components should be treated to prevent contamination.
Acid fluxes and acid producing insulation should be
avoided.
• On assembly direct handling of components should be
avoided as far as possible.
• A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is 95%
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
2. Selectivity: This is the property by which only the faulty
element of the system is isolated and the remaining healthy
sections are left intact.
• Selectivity is ‘absolute’ if the protection responds only to the
faults within its own zone, and ‘relative’ if the protection
responds to the faults of several zones.
• System of protection in which selectivity is ‘absolute’ are
known as “Unit Systems” (differential protection and frame
leakage protection) and systems in which selectivity is
‘relative’ are “Non Unit Systems” (current time graded
protection and distance protection)
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
3. Sensitivity:
• A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of
the current exceeds the preset value (pick-up current).
• The relay should not operate when the current is below its
pick-up value.
• A relay should be sufficiently sensitive to operate when the
operating current exceeds pick-up value
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
4. Stability:
• A protective system should remain stable even when a
large current is flowing through its protective zone due to
an external fault (not in its zone) .
• The protective system will not wait indefinitely if the
protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred
fails to operate.
• After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the CB.
 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
5. Fastness of Operation: A protective scheme should be fast
enough to isolate the faulty element of the system as quickly
as possible to minimize damage to equipment and to maintain
system stability, due to the following reasons:
i. Critical clearing time should not be exceeded to avoid the
loss of synchronism
ii. A persistent fault will lower the voltage resulting in crawling
and overloading of industrial drives
• The operating time of protective relay is usually one cycle.
Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems
the operating time may be more than one cycle.
• The shorter the time a fault is allowed to persist, the more
load can be transferred between points without loss of
synchronism.
 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION

• It can be seen that 3 phase faults have a more effect on the system
and they must be cleared faster than the SLG fault
• Relays should not be made extremely fast (<10 msec), because
when there is any lightning surge on the line, surge diverters must
have sufficient time to discharge the lightning to ground, otherwise
the relay will operate unnecessarily for transient conditions
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION
6. Discrimination: A relay should be able to distinguish
between a fault and an overload.
• In case of transformers inrush of magnetizing current (5 to 7
times full load current) may be comparable to fault current.
The relay should not operate for inrush currents.
• In interconnected systems, there will be power swings, which
should also be ignored by the relay.
• The discrimination may either be an inherent characteristic of
relay or may be achieved by connecting auxiliary devices
(minimum voltage relay).
• It may be noted that the word ‘discrimination’ is sometimes
used to include ‘selectivity’
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
• Protective scheme comprises set of ‘protective
systems’ and the protection schemes are named
according to the protected equipment. For example,
– Generator protection (scheme)
– Transformer protection (scheme)
– Motor protection (scheme)
– Bus bar protection (scheme)
• The term ‘protective system’ or simply ‘protection’ is
also named according to the principle of operation
or abnormal condition
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
• Names based on abnormal condition:
– Over-current protection
– Earth-fault protection
– Reverse-power protection
– Under-voltage protection
– Under-frequency protection
• Names based on principle of operation:
– Differential protection
– Distance protection
– Power line carrier protection
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
• A protective scheme includes one or more relays of the same
or different types. The following are the most common
schemes.
1. Over current protection: An O/C relay may operate when
the current increases above a certain magnitude. It is used
for protection of distribution lines, motors, equipments, etc.
2. Distance protection: A distance relay measures the distance
between the relay location and point of fault in terms of
impedance, reactance, etc. and operates if the point of fault
lies within the protected section of the line.
– It is used for the protection of transmission or sub-transmission lines;
usually 33 KV, 66 KV and 132 KV lines. The important types are:
– Impedance, Reactance and Mho type relays
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
3. Carrier-current protection: Relay operates depending on the
information available in generated carrier signal (50-500 kHz).
• A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a
transmission line to be protected. Information regarding the
direction of fault current is transmitted from one end of the line
section to the other.
• Depending on the information, relays placed at each end trip if the
fault lies within their protected section. Relays do not trip in case
of external faults.
• Relays are of distance type and their tripping operation is
controlled by ‘carrier signal’.
• Used for protection of EHV and UHV lines (132 KV and above)
 PROTECTION SCHEMES
4. Differential protection: Relay operates by comparing the current
entering and leaving a machine.
• Used for protection of generators, transformers, motors of very
large size, bus zones, etc.
• CTs are placed on both sides of each winding of a machine. The
outputs of their secondaries are applied to the relay coils
(compares current entering and leaving the machine winding )
• Under normal conditions or during external fault, the current
entering the winding is equal to the current leaving the winding.
• In case of an internal fault on the winding, these are not equal.
This difference in the current actuates the relay
 Protection Schemes for Distributed
Generation
• Due to the increasing demand of energy and the need for Renewable
energy sources, Distributed Generation (DG) has come into play.
• The International Energy Agency (IEA) and the IEEE classify any source
which is connected to the distribution level and which delivers power
to the load as DG.
• DG should not be confused with renewable energy because the DG
may include renewable technologies, non-renewable technologies,
or a combination of both.
• However, the introduction of DG poses some serious problems for the
electrical power network.
• The power network has been inherently radial. Introduction of DG
makes it bidirectional as power can flow from DG as well as the main
utility grid.
 Protection Schemes for Distributed
Generation
• This poses various problems regarding system voltage profile,
power quality, security, power flow control, energy
management and frequency control, system protection and
lower fault current contribution from inverter interfaced DGs.
• Recent research study has highlighted the negative effects of
DG units on short circuit currents and overcurrent (OC)
protection systems in distribution networks.
• Change in the direction of fault current flow, increase or
decrease of fault current magnitude, and the blindness of
protection are some of the possible impacts of DG unit
integration.
 Protection Schemes for Distributed
Generation
Effect of DG units on fault current
• Integration of DG units should be taken into account in the
fault current calculation as these conditions certainly impact
the fault current level.
• The contribution of a DG unit to a fault current is related to
the type of DG unit [synchronous generators, induction
generators and inverter-based units].
• However, the response of each type to a fault and its
contribution to the fault current varies.
 Protection Schemes for Distributed
Generation
Effect of DG units on protection systems
• Any changes in the fault current level at any point within the power
system would affect the operation of Protective Devices.
• The negative impacts that the integration of DG units would have
on Protective Devices can be classified as follows:
– Reverse power flow.
– False tripping.
– Blinding of protection.
– Unwanted islanding.
– Unsynchronised reclosing.
– Loss of main power.
 Protection Schemes for Distributed
Generation
Protection systems in distribution networks with DG units
• Many attempts have been made to mitigate the impact of DG units
on the power systems to which they are connected.
• Some solutions consider protection system reformation while a few
of the others take the capacity and the characteristics of DG units
into account.
• The suggested methods can be classified as follows
1. Disconnection of DG units
2. Recalculation and/or resizing of protective devices
3. Directional protection
4. Application of fault current limiter
5. Limiting DG size
 Protection Schemes for Distributed
Generation
6. Inverter control methods for inverter-based DG units
7. Adaptive protection [online modification of protective
settings to address changes in the network by means of
external control signals]
8. Multiagent-based method
9. Application of distance protection
10. Application of differential protection
11. Voltage-dependent OC protection
12. Network matrix algorithm
13. Artificial neural network (ANN) and optimization method
14. Other methods
 Micro-Grid Protection
• The International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE)
defines micro grid as, Microgrids are electricity distribution
systems containing loads and distributed energy resources, (such
as distributed generators, storage devices, or controllable loads)
that can be operated in a controlled, coordinated way either while
connected to the main power network or while islanded.
• Micro grids are miniature version of conventional large power
grids functioning either autonomously (island-mode) or with
inter connection to the main grid (grid-connected mode).
• A microgrid is a self-sufficient energy system that serves a
discrete geographic footprint
• Primary function of micro grid is to serve power at distribution
level, such as a college campus, hospital complex, business center,
or neighborhood.
 Micro-Grid Protection
• Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) connected to the micro grid
enables reliable and efficient operation of micro grid.
• Protection of micro grids assumed importance due to increased
penetration of DERs.
• Most of the distribution systems in earlier days are radial in
nature and protection systems are designed for that.
• These protection systems pose serious challenges when applied
to present day distribution systems which are mesh connected
and fed by the DERs (intermediate current injection-bidirectional)
• Hence the protection of micro grid systems with DERs require
different approach to ensure faults are cleared in less time.
• A typical CIGRE benchmark LV micro grid is shown in Fig. 1
Micro-Grid Protection

Fig. 1 CIGRE LV benchmark microgrid

 Micro-Grid Protection
Islanding detection and recommended practices for
micro grid protection
• An efficient protection scheme must ensure proper protection to
the micro grid in its both modes of operation, i.e., grid connected
mode and islanded mode.
• It also should ensure proper functionality during the transition
from one mode to another depending on the requirement.
• There are several factors that need to be taken into consideration
such as the size of the DERs, type of DER, no. of DERs, how they
are integrated to the main grid and the islanding detection
methodologies.
• Many functional differences in the operation of a synchronous
DER and inverter based DER calls for alternative protection
strategies for them.
 Micro-Grid Protection
Effect of micro grid integration with main grid
• Micro grid is integrated with the main grid with an interfacing
switch.
• As per the IEEE standard 1547-2003, a DG should be immediately
get disconnected for any type of fault occurrence in the grid.
• If a fault occurs anywhere in the main grid or micro grid, the static
switch connecting the two gets opened and thus the micro grid
goes into the islanded mode of operation.
• Along with opening the static switch, location of the fault also
should be detected simultaneously.
• If incase, the faults happens to be within the micro grid, a suitable
protective system should be brought into operation immediately,
so that the DGs do not contribute to the fault current.
 Micro-Grid Protection
General categories of micro-grid protection are:
• Over current protection,
• Distance protection,
• Differential protection,
• Voltage based methodologies, and
• Adaptive protection (application of microprocessors in
the area of protective relays) is the main ingredient of
micro grid protection.
Complying to IEC 61850 and installation of IEDs (Intelligent
Electronic Devices) at appropriate places can make the
conventional relays to be adaptive