22PSY1.

6 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY

PRACTICAL RECORD

NAME: Varsha Kurudumalai V.S

REG. NO: P03ME22S114006

Practical Record submitted for the partial fulfilment of I Semester M.Sc.

Psychology

DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES AND

RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

SURANA COLLEGE (Autonomous)

CA-17, Kengeri Satellite Town, Bengaluru – 560060
Affiliated to Bangalore University
2023
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Varsha Kurudumalai V.S bearing Reg.No. P03ME22S114006 has
satisfactorily completed the course in Practical: 22PSY1.6 Computer Application in
Psychology for the fulfilment of I Semester in Master of Psychology in Surana College
PG Centre, Kengeri Satellite Town, Bengaluru- 560060 for the academic year 2022-23.

Signature of the faculty in charge of the batch

Head of the Department

Date:

Name of the Candidate: Varsha Kurudumalai V. S

Reg No: P03ME22S114006
Examination Centre: Surana College
Date of Practical Examination:
Signature:
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CONTENTS

Part 1: MS Office

S. No Particulars Page Number

1 MS Office

2 Microsoft Word

3 Microsoft PowerPoint

4 Microsoft Excel
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CONTENTS

PART 2: Data analysis using SPSS

S. No Particulars Page Number

1 Introduction to SPSS 86

2 Basic functions

3 Interpreting and reporting in the APA format

4 Descriptive statistics and normality testing

5 Parametric Tests

6 Non-Parametric Tests

7 Predictive Analysis: Linear Regression analysis

8 Data Reduction: Factor Analysis

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SURANA EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

NAME: VARSHA KURUDUMALAI V. S

CLASS: M.Sc

Subject:1.6 Computer Applications in Psychology

TOPIC: Part 1
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MS Office

Microsoft Office is a suite of applications designed to help with productivity and

completing common tasks on a computer. You can create and edit documents containing
text and images, work with data in spreadsheets and databases, and create presentations and
posters.

Introduction

Microsoft Office for Windows is a suite of applications that are also available as independent
programs. Microsoft Office is a major facility in the computer applications field. Microsoft
Office comes in two ways. One is called Standard and the other one is called Professional.
Both the versions have the following primary applications.

1. Microsoft Word
2. Microsoft Excel
3. Microsoft PowerPoint
4. Microsoft Access
5. Microsoft Mail
6. Microsoft Graph
7. Microsoft Clip Art Gallery
8. Microsoft Word Art
9. Microsoft Organization Chart
10. Microsoft Equation Editor
11. Microsoft Publisher

1. Microsoft Word
This is a full-featured word processor that can create letters, menus, reports, newsletters,
manuals and any kind of documents. You can use it for daily correspondence and desktop
publishing also. It has more menus, keyboard shortcuts and toolbars. Toolbars containing
buttons that you can click to perform common tasks like cantering text, saving and printing
documents. After developing our own working style, we can make custom toolbars. Word
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provides macro capability to do repetitive tasks. It provides some model reports called
templates, rather than typing all the matters it gives skeleton reports. Wizards are more
powerful than templates. Word having spell checker that checks the document and more
features like Auto formatting, Printing envelops and labels, Mail Merge.

2. Microsoft Excel
This is a spreadsheet program that allows you to organize, analyse information. It is designed
to work with numbers. You can enter data in cells arranged in horizontal rows and vertical
columns on worksheets. Excel organizes the worksheets with a workbook. Every workbook
has 3 (default) worksheets and you can add up to 255 worksheets and you can remove 1 or 2
worksheets from the three. The Worksheet contains 65,536 rows and 256 columns (numbered
A to IV). The address of the cell is a combination of row and column labels. Excel provides
toolbars, menu choices and functions. Other than these features excel provides Screen wizard,
autocracy, auto complete, templates, templates wizard etc

3. Microsoft PowerPoint
It is a presentation tool. We can create slides, handouts and speaker notes. The slides can be
arranged sequentially in presentations.

4. Microsoft Access
This is a powerful database program but you can store, retrieve, and organize data. Access
comes with wizards and a variety of predefined database elements.

5. Microsoft Mail
Microsoft Mail is a product that comes with a license to use mail on the workstation where
the office is installed. If your workgroup is using Microsoft Mail, this license allows you to
copy the necessary software to your machine.

6. Microsoft Graph
Microsoft Graph is used to convert the tabular as well as text data into the graphs and charts.
A number of graphs and chart options are provided by this component of Office.
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7. Microsoft Clip Art Gallery

Clip Art Gallery is a collection of ready-made graphics that the user can import into any of
the primary applications to make them more effective.

8. Microsoft Word Art

Word Art enables a user to convert the text into various shapes for logos, banners, and
headlines.

9.Microsoft Organization Chart

Microsoft Organization Chart provides the tools for creating figures such as organization
charts by selecting the different styles and organizations for charts.

10. Microsoft Equation Editor

Microsoft Equation Editor enables a user to format complex equations correctly.

11.Microsoft Publisher
It helps to organize the material of textbooks in the form of chapters and volumes.

Word Processing
Using a computer to create, edit, and print documents is called word processing. Of all
computer applications, word processing is the most common. To perform word processing,
you need a computer, a special program called a word processor and a printer. A word
processor enables you to create a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on a
screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from the keyboard and print it on a
printer. The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make
changes without retyping the entire document. If you make a typing mistake, you simply back
up the cursor and correct your mistake. If you want to delete a paragraph, you simply remove
it, without leaving a trace. It is equally easy to insert a word, sentence, or paragraph in the
middle of a document. Word processors also make it easy to move sections of text from one
place to another within a document, or between documents. When you have made all the
changes you want, you can send the file to a printer to get a hardcopy.

Features of word processing

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1 Insert text
Allows you to insert text anywhere in the document.

2 Delete text
Allows you to erase characters, words, lines, or pages as easily as you can erase them on a
black board.

2 Cut and paste

Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a document and insert (paste)
it somewhere else.

3 Copy
Allows you to duplicate a section of text

4 Page size and margins

Allows you to define various page sizes and margins, and the word processor will
automatically readjust the text so that it fits.

5 Search and replace

Allows you to direct the word processor to search for a particular word or phrase. You can
also direct the word processor to replace one group of characters with another everywhere
that the first group appears.

6 Word wrap
The word processor automatically moves to the next line when you have filled one line with
text, and it will readjust text if you change the margins.

7 Print
Allows you to send a document to a printer to get a hardcopy
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8 File management
Many word processors contain file management capabilities that allow you to create, delete,
move, and search for files.

9 Font specifications
Allows you to change fonts within a document. For example, you can specify bold, italics,
and underlining. Most word processors also let you change the font size and even the
typeface.

10 Footnotes and cross-references

Automates the numbering and placement of footnotes and enables you to easily cross-
reference other sections of the document.

11 Graphics
Allows you to embed illustrations and graphs into a document. Some word processors let you
create the illustrations within the word processor; others let you insert an illustration
produced by a different program.

12 Headers, footers, and page numbering

Allows you to specify customized headers and footers that the word processor will put at the
top and bottom of every page. The word processor automatically keeps track of page numbers
so that the correct number appears on each page.

13 Layout
Allows you to specify different margins within a single document and to specify various
methods for indenting paragraphs.

14 Spell checker
A utility that allows you to check the spelling of words. It will highlight words that it does
not recognize.
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15 Table of contents and index

Allows you to automatically create a table of contents and index based on special codes that
you insert in the document.

16 Windows
Allows you to edit two or more documents at the same time. Each document appears in a
separate window. This is particularly valuable when working on a large project that consists
of several different files.

17 (What You See Is What You Get)

With WYSIWYG, a document appears on the display screen exactly as it will look when
printed.

Getting Started with Microsoft Word

Starting Word
On the PC, select Start followed by Programs, and Microsoft Word from the Start list.
Components of the Word Window Besides the usual PC window components (close box,
title bar, scroll bars, etc.), a Word window has other elements, as shown in the following
figure.
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Component Functionality or Purpose of the Component

Menu Bar Contains File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Table, Window and Help
menus.

Standard
Toolbar

Formatting Contains pop-up menus for style, font, and font size; icons for boldface,
Toolbar italic, and underline; alignment icons; number and bullet list icons;
indention icons, the border icon, highlight, and font color icons.

Ruler Ruler on which you can set tabs, paragraph alignment, and other formats.
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Insertion Blinking vertical bar that indicates where text you type will be inserted.
Point Don't confuse the insertion point with the mouse I-beam. To move the
insertion point, just click the mouse where you want the point moved.

End-of-File Nonprinting symbol that marks the end of the file. You cannot insert text
Marek after this mark.

Selection Bar Invisible narrow strip along the left edge of the window. Your mouse
pointer changes to a right-pointing arrow when it is in this area. It is used
to select a line, a paragraph, or the entire document

Split Handle Double-click to split the window in two (to view different portions of the
same file). Double-click to return to one window

Status Bar Displays page number, section number, and total number of pages, pointer
position on page and time of day.

Task Pane Displays and groups commonly used features for convenience

Office An animated character that can provide help and suggestions. There are
Assistant multiple characters to choose from, and it is possible to turn the Office
Assistant off.

Creating and Saving a Document

Opening and Closing A Document
To open a file, select Open... from the File menu. In the dialog box, click on the filename and
then on the Open button. If your file is not in the opened folder, click on the down arrow
(next to folder name) to see a directory listing. The Up One Level button icon on the right
enables you to move up one level. You can then switch to the floppy disk, hard drive or
Desktop where the appropriate file or folder is located.
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To close a document, click its close box in the upper right of the title bar (box with the large
X on it) or select Close from the File menu. The keyboard shortcut is ctrl+W

Saving a Document
Saving means preserving the content in a Secondary Storage device. It is a good idea to save
your document right away and they continue saving every 5 or 10 minutes so if your
computer crashes you will not be losing much. Your document and changes you make to a
document are not saved to disk until you issue a save command. Saving is quick and easy.
You should save often to minimize the loss of your work. Word has two save commands -
Save and Save As. - that works similarly. Both are under the File menu.

Save Save As
When you save a new document for the first This command always displays a dialog box
time, Word displays a dialog box. Select where you can choose a document name and
where you want to save your document and disk. Use the Save As command whenever
give it a name. When you save an existing you want to save a copy of the current
document that you have been editing, the document under a different name or in a
newly saved version is written over the different folder (or disk). The newly saved
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older version. copy becomes the active document.

Cut, Copy and Paste Text

Cut
The Cut command extracts the selected text and puts it on the Clipboard (a temporary storage
area). The contents of the Clipboard are overwritten with each copy or cut. This can be done
either by selecting Edit from the menu bar and opting the cut option in it. Alternative usage of
the short cut key is CTRL +X.

Copy
The Copy command puts a copy of the selected text on the Clipboard. By selecting the Edit
from the menu bar and opting the Copy option in it. Alternative is usage of the short cut key
is CTRL +C

Paste
The Paste command inserts the Clipboard's contents at the insertion point. The text that has
been selected using the Cut/ Copy command will be pasted at the insertion point. Existing
text moves to accommodate pasted text. By selecting the Edit from the menu bar and opting
the Paste option in it. Alternative usage of the short cut key is CTRL + V.

Formatting Text and Paragraph

Microsoft Word allows you to format a document very easily. Without formatting, a
document looks very plain and may not get the attention that is desired.
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Making Font Changes

In Microsoft Word you are able to change the font size, colour, type and attributes. Below
we demonstrate various ways to change the font

To edit the font style

1) Highlight the paragraph
2) Select Format menu
3) Select a Font type.
4) Notice the Preview window at the bottom of the dialog box, which displays the style of
the font, selected.
5) Click OK
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Font Size

Opting the one of the numbers in size box does changing the font size for a selected portion
of the text
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Using Bold, Italics and Underline

Another way to make text stand out in a document is by using bold, italics and underline (or
a combination of these) formatting.

To Bold Text in a Document

1) Select any word(s) in the document

2) Click the Bold icon on the Formatting Toolbar

To Italicize Text in a Document

1) Select any word(s) in the document

2) Click the Italic icon on the Formatting Toolbar

To Underline Text in a Document

1) Select any word(s) in the document

2) Click the Underline icon on the Formatting Toolbar

Formatting Paragraphs

In Microsoft Word, a paragraph is any amount of text followed by a paragraph symbol. A

one-word heading is a paragraph. A 100-word job description is a paragraph. Even a blank
line terminated by a is a paragraph.

You can perform paragraph formatting from the Format menu.

Highlight the paragraph you want to format.

Click on Format from the Command menu. Choose Paragraph.

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Justification

Justification determines how lines and characters within those lines are printed. With full
justification, all lines start at the left margin and end at the right margin

Change the appearance of your text or WordArt by altering its fill or outline or by including a
special effect like a glow, shadow, or reflection.

Choose either text or WordArt.

Go to Home > Text Effects.

Click the desired effect.

Point to Outline, Shadow, Reflection, or Glow for more options, and then click the desired
effect.
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Select the text once more, then select Home > Clear Formatting to reverse the impact.

Shortcut keys

Shortcuts Uses of Shortcut keys

Ctrl+ A Select All
Ctrl + B Bold
Ctrl + C Copy text
Ctrl+ I Italicize highlighted selection
Ctrl + F Find
Ctrl + H Find and replace
Ctrl + J Justify paragraph alignment
Ctrl + X Cut selected text
Ctrl + N Open a new/blank document
Ctrl + O Open
Ctrl + P Open the print window
Ctrl + K Insert link
Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection
Ctrl + V Paste
Ctrl + G Find and replace options
Ctrl+ Shift+= Set chosen text as superscript
Ctrl+= Set chosen text as a subscript
Ctrl + Align selected text or line to the left
Ctrl + Q Align selected paragraph to the left
Ctrl + E Align selected text or line to the centre
Ctrl + R Align selected text or line to the right
Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph
Ctrl + T Hanging indent
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Ctrl + D Font options

Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font
Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1
Ctrl +] Increase selected font +1
Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font -1
Ctrl + Shift + * View or hide non printing characters
Ctrl + (Left arrow) Move one word to the left
Ctrl + (Right arrow) Move one word to the right
Ctrl + (Up arrow) Move to the beginning of the line or paragraph
Ctrl + (Down arrow) Move to the end of the paragraph
Ctrl + Del Delete the word to the right of the cursor
Ctrl + Backspace Delete the word to the left of the cursor
Ctrl + End Move the cursor to the end of the document
Ctrl + Home Move the cursor to the beginning of the document
Ctrl + Space Reset highlighted text to the default font
Ctrl + 1 Single-space lines
Ctrl + 2 Double-space lines
Ctrl + 5 1.5-line spacing
Ctrl + Alt + 1 Change text to heading 1
Ctrl + Alt + 2 Change text to heading 2
Ctrl + Alt + 3 Change text to heading 3
Shift + F3 Shift + F3
Shift + Insert Paste
F4 Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+)
F7 Spell check selected text and/or document
Shift + F7 Activate the thesaurus
F12 Save as
Ctrl + S Save
Shift + F12 Save
Alt + Shift + D Insert the current date
Alt + Shift + T Insert the current time
Ctrl + W Close document
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Insert Tab Functions

Pages

Alt text for pages

Drop-Down for the cover page. Built-in, Remove Current Cover Page, and Save Selection to
Cover Page Gallery are the available commands in the drop-down menu. Alphabet, Annual,
Austere, Conservative, Contrast, Cubicles, Exposure, Mod, Motion, Pinstripes, Puzzle,
Sideline, Stacks, Tiles, and Transcend are among the built-in cover pages.

Inserts two-page breaks—one above and one below the current insertion point—to create a
blank page.

Ctrl + Enter to start a new page. instead of presenting the Breaks dialogue box, inserts a page
break. Using the Breaks drop-down in the Page Setup group of the Page Layout tab, you may
access all the additional break types.

Tables

When a table is selected, more contextual tabs are displayed. Table Tools > Tables Design
Table - Drop-Down alt text. You can easily drag out the table size by doing this. The biggest
object you can drag is (10 by 8). The commands Insert Table, Draw Table, Convert Text to
Table, Excel Spreadsheet, and Quick Tables are available in the drop-down menu. The
"Insert Table" dialogue box is displayed by Insert Table. Using the mouse, you can add
horizontal and vertical lines to a table using the Draw Table tool. The "Convert Text to
Table" dialogue box is displayed by Convert Text to Table. An Excel worksheet is added to
the document using the Excel Spreadsheet command. You can insert tables that have been
saved as building blocks using Quick Tables.
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Illustrations

Drop-Down Images the Commands This Device, Stock Images, and Online Pictures are
available in this drop-down menu. The dialogue box for "Insert Picture" is displayed by this
device.

Drop-Down Shapes The commands: Recently Used Shapes, Lines, Rectangles, Basic Shapes,
Block Arrows, Flowchart, Callouts, Stars and Banners are all available in the drop-down
menu. In Excel, this list is a little bit different.

Icons - (Added in 365).

CAD models (Added in 365). Drop-Down. The options in this drop-down menu are This
Device and Stock 3D Models.

List, process, cycle, hierarchy, relationship, matrix, and pyramid are the many forms of
smartart that are available when you select "SmartArt" from the menu.

Chart - Shows the dialogue box for inserting a chart. Datasheet and MS Graph are no longer
available. Opened in an Excel spreadsheet is the chart data currently.

Screenshot: Drop-Down on a screen. Screen Clipping and Available Screenshots are the two
commands that may be found in the drop-down menu.

Header and Footer

A header or footer is text or other information such as graphics that is stored at the top or
bottom of the page throughout your document. You can use the same header and footer
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throughout a document or change for part of the document. For example, you can use your
corporate logo in the first-page header, and then include the document's file name in the
header for subsequent pages.

To view Headers and Footers in Normal View, click View > Header and Footer. If you are in
Page Layout View (Word 97) or Print Layout View (Word 2000), simply double click the
visible header or footer that appears as Gray text.

In either case, the Header/Footer toolbar appears.

Header

A header is the contents of an area located within the top margin of a page.

Footer

A Footer is the contents of an area located within the bottom margin of a page.

Page number

On the Insert tab, click the Page Number icon, and then click Page Number. Select a
location, and then pick an alignment style. Word automatically numbers every page, except
designated title pages. To change the numbering style, select Format and then choose the
formatting you want to use.

Page layout
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Page setup controls are located in the "Layout" tab in the "Page Setup" category. The
image above shows the buttons used to control a page's layout. The "Margins" button lets you
customize each margins spacing.

Reuse Files

Alt text for Reuse Files Reuse Files: Shows the Search task window.

Add ins

alt text

Get Add-ins - Add-ins allow you to extend the functionality of your document.

My Add-ins Drop-Down menu.

Media

Locate and include Online Video from online sources

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Links

(Ctrl + K) is the link's alt text. Drop-Down. The commands Recent Items, Search for Files,
and Insert Link are available in this drop-down menu. In your document, include a link for
quick access to websites and other files. the "Insert Hyperlink" dialogue box appears.

The "Bookmark" dialogue box is displayed when you click this.

Cross-Reference - Shows a dialogue box labelled "Cross Reference". You can cross-reference
other sections of your document with this. used frequently for section titles and figure
numbers.

Alt text for comments Command

Add a comment to this section of the document.

Alt text for text

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Drop-Down for the text box. enables you to insert a textbox that is movable anywhere on the
page. Three options are available in the drop-down menu: Built-in, Draw Text Box, and Save
Selection to Text Box Gallery. Built-in textbox shapes and locations come in 36 different
varieties.

Drop-Down List of Quick Parts The options in the drop-down menu are Save Selection to
Quick Part Gallery, Building Blocks Organizer, Document Property, Field, and AutoText.

WordArt Drop-Down You can insert Word Art in a variety of styles using the drop-down
menu. When you click on a word art style, a dialogue box titled "Edit WordArt Text"
appears. In comparison to Excel, the styles are a little bit different.

Drop caps that drop down. There are four commands in the drop-down menu: None,
Dropped, In Margin, and Drop Cap Options. A Drop Cap options command displays "Drop
Cap" dialogue box.

Signature Line - Drop-Down Button. enables the use of and incorporation of digital
signatures into documents. The button inserts a digital signature line with the required
signer's information. The commands Microsoft Office Signature Line and Add Signature
Service are available in the drop-down menu.

Date and Time - Displays the "Date and Time" dialogue box when selected.

Button with a Drop-Down Men - You can insert embedded objects using the dialogue box
that appears when you click the "Object" button. Object and Text from File are among the
commands in the drop-down.

Symbols
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Equation - Button with Drop-Down. The button inserts an equation at the current location and
then displays the Equation Tools - Design Tab. The drop-down contains the following built-
in equations: Area of Circle, Binomial Theorem, Expansion of a Sum, Fourier Series,
Pythagorean Theorem, Quadratic Formula. At the bottom are the commands: Insert New
Equation and Save Selection to Equation Gallery.
Symbol - Drop-Down. Let’s you insert symbols into your documents. The drop-down
contains the commands: Euro, Pound, Yen, Copyright, Registered, Trademark, Plus-Minus,
Not Equal To, Less-Than or Equal To, Greater-Than or Equal To, Division, Multiplication,
Infinity, Micro, Alpha, Beta, Pi, Ohm, Summation, Smiley Face and More Symbols. The
More Symbols command display the "Symbol" dialog box. Different to Excel it displays the
common symbols for quick insertion.

Charts

Set the chart's location with your cursor in your Word document. Next, select "Chart" from
the Illustrations area of the ribbon's Insert tab.

Choose the style on the right and the sort of chart you wish to add on the left. The same chart
formats, including bar, column, pie, and line charts, are available in Word if you're familiar
with Excel's chart options. To insert the chart, click "OK."
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An Excel spreadsheet will open after the chart has been inserted. The sheet is a simplified
version of Excel with sample data to get you started.

You can edit the data in the spreadsheet to include your own or copy and paste the data from
another spot into the attached sheet. You’ll then see the chart in Word immediately update
with your changes.

Bookmark and Hyperlink

Insert a bookmark
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1. Select text or an item, or click where you want to insert a bookmark.

2. Click Insert > Bookmark.

3. Under Bookmark name, type a name.

4. Click Add.

Apply a heading style

Headings are automatically marked as a destination. All you need to do is apply one of the
built-in heading styles.

1. Select the text to which you want to apply a heading style.

2. On the Home tab, click the style you want.
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Add the link

After you’ve marked the destination, you’re ready to add the link.

1. Select the text or object you want to use as a hyperlink.

2. Right-click and then click Hyperlink .

3. Under Link to, click Place in This Document.
4. In the list, select the heading or bookmark that you want to link to.

Converting Word to Pdf

With Word 2010, Microsoft added a free PDF conversion tool that enables you to save your
documents in PDF format, making it incredibly simple to convert a Microsoft Word
document to that format

Click the "File" button in the upper left corner of your open Word document.

Select "Save As" from the menu. Additionally, you must select "Browse" on the "Save As"
screen in Word 2013.
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Choose "PDF (*.pdf)" under "Save as type:". After that, give your file a name and be careful
where you save it. When finished, click "Save."

By opening the PDF file in Adobe Reader and inspecting its contents, you may determine
whether the file was appropriately converted.

MS POWER POINT

MS PowerPoint is a program that is included in the Microsoft Office suite. It is used to make
presentations for personal and professional purposes.

CREATING POWER POINT SLIDES

With PowerPoint on your PC, Mac, or mobile device:

▪ Create presentations from scratch or a template.

▪ Add text, images, art, and videos.

▪ Select a professional design with PowerPoint Designer.

▪ Add transitions, animations, and motion.

▪ Save to OneDrive, to get to your presentations from your computer, tablet, or phone.

▪ Share and work with others, wherever they are.

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Create a presentation.

1. Open PowerPoint.
2. In the left pane, select New.
3. Select an option:

▪ To create a presentation from scratch, select Blank Presentation.

▪ To use a prepared design, select one of the templates.

▪ To see tips for using PowerPoint, select Take a Tour, and then select Create, .

Add a slide.

1. In the thumbnails on the left pane, select the slide you want your new slide to follow.
2. In the Home tab, in the Slides section, select New Slide.
3. In the Slides section, select Layout, and then select the layout you want from the
menu.
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Add and format text.

1. Place the cursor inside a text box, and then type something.
2. Select the text, and then select one or more options from the Font section of
the home tab, such as Font, Increase Font Size, Decrease Font
Size, Bold, Italic, Underline, etc.
3. To create bulleted or numbered lists, select the text, and then
select Bullets or Numbering.

Add a picture, shape, and more.

1. Go to the Insert tab.

2. To add a picture:

▪ In the Images section, select Pictures.

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▪ In the Insert Picture From menu, select the source you want.

▪ Browse for the picture you want, select it, and then select Insert.

3. To add illustrations:

▪ In the Illustrations section, select Shapes, Icons, 3D Models, SmartArt,

or Chart.

▪ In the dialog box that opens when you click one of the illustration types, select
the item you want and follow the prompts to insert it.

ABOUT TRANSITIONS

There are three categories of unique transitions to choose from, all of which can be found on
the Transitions tab.

● Subtle: These are the most basic types of transitions. They use simple animations to
move between slides.

● Exciting: These use more complex animations to transition between slides. While
they're more visually interesting than Subtle transitions, adding too many can make
your presentation look less professional. However, when used in moderation they can
add a nice touch between important slides.

● Dynamic Content: If you're transitioning between two slides that use

similar slide layouts, dynamic transitions will move only the placeholders, not the
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slides themselves. When used correctly, dynamic transitions can help unify your
slides and add a further level of polish to your presentation.

Transitions are best used in moderation. Adding too many transitions can make your
presentation look a little silly and can even be distracting to your audience. Consider using
mostly subtle transitions, or not using transitions at all.

To apply a transition:

1. Select the desired slide from the Slide Navigation pane. This is the slide that will
appear after the transition.

2. Click the Transitions tab, then locate the Transition to This Slide group. By
default, None is applied to each slide.
3. Click the More drop-down arrow to display all transitions.

4. Click a transition to apply it to the selected slide. This will automatically preview the
transition.
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You can use the Apply to All command in the Timing group to apply the same transition to
all slides in your presentation. Keep in mind that this will modify any other transitions you've
applied.

Try applying a few types of transitions to various slides in your presentation. You may find
that some transitions work better than others, depending on the content of your slides.

To preview a transition:

You can preview the transition for a selected slide at any time using one of these two
methods:

● Click the Preview command on the Transitions tab.

● Click the Play Animations command in the Slide Navigation pane.

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Modifying transitions

To modify the transition effect:

You can quickly customize the look of a transition by changing its direction.

1. Select the slide with the transition you want to modify.

2. Click the Effect Options command and choose the desired option. These options will
vary depending on the selected transition.

3. The transition will be modified, and a preview of the transition will appear.

Some transitions do not allow you to modify the direction.

To modify the transition duration:

1. Select the slide with the transition you want to modify.

 38

2. In the Duration field in the Timing group, enter the desired time for the transition. In
this example, we'll decrease the time to half a second—or 00.50—to make the
transition faster.

To add sound:

1. Select the slide with the transition you want to modify.

2. Click the Sound drop-down menu in the Timing group.
3. Click a sound to apply it to the selected slide, then preview the transition to hear the
sound.

Sounds are best used in moderation. Applying a sound between every slide could become
overwhelming or even annoying to an audience when presenting your slide show.

To remove a transition:

1. Select the slide with the transition you want to remove.

2. Choose None from the Transition to This Slide group. The transition will be removed.
 39

To remove transitions from all slides, apply the None transition to a slide, then click
the Apply to All command.

DESIGN IN POWERPOINT

Themes

1. Select the Design tab.

2. Select one of the Themes.
3. Select one of the Variants.

Use PowerPoint Designer

1. Insert one or more pictures, a list of items, or a list of dates.

2. The Designer panel will open. Select the design you want.

You can also bring up Designer by selecting a picture, and then selecting Design > Designer.

Animations

To animate text or objects on a slide:

1. Select the text or object you want to animate.

 40

2. On the Animations tab, select Add Animation, and select the animation you want
from the drop-down.

To animate one line of text at a time, select one line of text, select an animation, select the
next line of text, select an animation, ...

3. For Start, select When Clicked, With Previous, or After Previous.

You can also select the Duration or Delay.

HOW TO MERGE MULTIPLE POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS?

Consider the following three approaches and their associated stages for combining
PowerPoints:

1. Reuse PowerPoint Slides

2. Use Insert Object to Merge PowerPoint Files
3. Drag and Drop PowerPoint Slides

1. Reuse PowerPoint Slides

Reusing slides is the simplest technique to incorporate slides from one presentation into
another. You can manage what slides you add and where you place them using this strategy.
The reuse slides approach appears in this example.

1. Open PowerPoint, then open the document to which you wish to add slides.
 41

2. Select the location where you wish to add a slide or slides. Then, between two existing
slides, click.

3. In the ‘Main Menu,’ click the ‘Insert’ tab.

4. Then, on the left side of the menu, click the ‘New Slide’ option.

5. Then choose ‘Reuse Slides.’

6. Click the ‘Browse’ button to access the ‘Reuse Slides’ dialog box.
 42

If you click the option next to ‘Keep source formatting,’ the newly added slides will keep
their original formatting. When you uncheck the box, their formatting will be changed to
match that of the main presentation.

7. Insert your slide here. Browse the presentations and choose the one from which you wish
to add the slides, then click ‘Open.’

8. The thumbnails of the available slides will be shown. Browse and pick the ones you want
to include in your main document. You can import all slides from the external presentation by
clicking ‘Insert All Slides.’

9. When choosing the slides to include, click the ‘Apply Theme to All Slides’ option to
replace the theme of your primary presentation with the theme of the external presentation.
 43

This strategy is perfect for adding a slide or two to your main presentation. This is also the
best approach to include bits and pieces from other presentations in your primary
presentation. Although you can use this approach to insert all slides from an external
presentation, it is preferable to use the ‘Insert Object’ option.

2. Use Insert Object to Merge PowerPoint Files

If you wish to insert all slides from an external presentation while keeping the animations and
transitions between them, the insert object method is your best solution.

Keep in mind that after the slides are included in your new presentation, they will no longer
be connected to the original file. As a result, any modifications you make to the original file
will have no effect on the slides you include in your primary presentation.

If you update the slides in your primary presentation, the external file from which those slides
were transferred will stay untouched. Now that we’ve gotten that out of the way let’s look at
how the insert object technique works.

1. Open PowerPoint and the main presentation.

2. Add a new slide. Delete the text fields since they should be empty.
 44

3. In the Main Menu, choose the ‘Insert’ tab.

4. Select the ‘Object’ option.

5. The ‘Insert Object’ dialog box will appear. Choose the ‘Create from file’ option there.

6. Double-click on the external presentation that you want to include in your primary one.

7. Following that, you will only view the first slide of the imported presentation. The
remaining slides are below, though you can’t see them right now.
 45

8. To prevent changes in the size of the slides after the presentation is played, stretch the
added object to suit the size of the slide of your main presentation.

After inserting the complete item into your main presentation, you can alter and tweak it to
ensure it performs well.

3. Drag and Drop PowerPoint Slides

A drag-and-drop approach is one of the simplest methods to integrate two presentations. If

you have two different presentations that you want to combine ppt, or if you are working on a
collective project, you can use this feature to do so.

1. Open both presentations on your PC or Mac, and ensure that the PowerPoint software is
minimized so that you can view both at the same time.

2. Long-press the slide you want to relocate and drag it to its new location with your mouse.
You might need to do this for each slide; luckily, you can also select all of them by clicking
on the first slide, holding down the ‘Shift’ key, and then clicking on the final slide.
 46

3. The slide’s position will be highlighted with a red line. To make things even easier, your
final presentation will be updated to match the design of the receiving document. Of course,
you can always change the overall look of the document by clicking the ‘Design’ button at
the top of your presentation.

INSERT A PICTURE FROM YOUR COMPUTER ON YOUR SLIDE

Depending on which version of PowerPoint you're using, you can insert pictures, photos, clip
art, or other images to your slide show from your computer or from the Internet.

1. Click where you want to insert the picture on the slide.

2. On the Insert tab, in the Images group, click Pictures and then click This Device.

3. In the dialog box that opens, browse to the picture that you want to insert, click that
picture, and then click Insert.
 47

Tip: If you want to insert multiple pictures at the same time, press and hold the Ctrl key
while you select all the pictures you want to insert.

Insert stock images on your slide

1. Click where you want to insert the picture on the slide.

2. On the Insert tab, in the Images group, click Pictures and then click Stock Images.

3. Type in what image you're looking for, then click on which images you want and
click Insert.

Insert a picture from the web on your slide

1. Click where you want to insert the picture on the slide.

2. On the Insert tab, in the Images group, click Pictures and then click Online
Pictures.

Tips:

▪ If you see a message that "The service required to use this feature is turned
off" you may need to check your privacy settings located
at File>Account>Account Privacy and then click on Manage Settings.
Check the Enable optional connected experiences box, click OK, and then
restart PowerPoint.
 48

▪ If you don't have access to your privacy settings you may need to contact your
administrator.
3. In the search box type in the image you're looking for and press enter.
4. Select all the images you want and then click Insert.

Tip: After you insert a picture, you can change its size and position. To do so, right-click the
picture, and click Format Picture. You can then use the Format Picture tools that are on the
right of your slide.

Insert a picture into the slide master

If you want a picture to appear on every slide of a specific type in your PowerPoint template,
add it to the slide master.

Insert a picture into the background

If you want a picture to appear as background without affecting all slides in a Master, change
the background settings for the slide.

CHARTS

To create a simple chart from scratch in PowerPoint, click Insert > Chart and pick the chart
you want.

1. Click Insert > Chart.

2. Click the chart type and then double-click the chart you want.
 49

3. In the worksheet that appears, replace the placeholder data with your own
information.

4. When you insert a chart, small buttons appear next to its upper-right corner. Use

the Chart Elements button to show, hide, or format things like axis titles or data

labels. Or use the Chart Styles button to quickly change the color or style of the
chart.

INSERT AND PLAY A VIDEO FILE FROM YOUR COMPUTER

Depending on the version of PowerPoint that you're using, you can insert an
embedded video (the default behavior) or link to a video file stored on your computer.

▪ Inserting an embedded video is convenient, but it increases the size of your

presentation.

▪ A linked video keeps your presentation file smaller, but links can break. We
recommend storing presentations and linked videos in the same folder.
 50

ADD A HYPERLINK TO A SLIDE

Link to a website
1. Select the text, shape, or picture that you want to use as a hyperlink.
2. Select Insert > Hyperlink.
3. Select Existing File or Web Page, and add the:

▪ Text to display: Type the text that you want to appear as hyperlink.

▪ ScreenTip: Type the text that you want to appear when the user hovers over
the hyperlink (optional).

▪ Current Folder, Browsed Pages, or Recent Files: Select where you want to
link to.

▪ Address: If you haven't already selected a location above, insert the URL for
the web site you want to link to.
If you link to a file on your computer, and move your PowerPoint presentation to another
computer, you'll also need to move any linked files.

▪ 4. Select OK.

Link to a place in a document, new document, or email address

1. Select the text, shape, or picture that you want to use as a hyperlink.
2. Select Insert > Hyperlink and select an option:

▪ Place in This Document: Link to a specific slide in your presentation.

▪ Create New Document: Link from your presentation to another presentation.

▪ E-mail Address: Link a displayed email address to open up a user's email

program.
3. Fill in the Text to display, ScreenTip, and where you want to link to.
 51

4. Select OK.
Change the color of a hyperlink.
You can change the color of a hyperlink if you like. If you want to change the display text of
a link, right-click it and select Edit Link.
1. Select the hyperlink you want to re-color.
2. On the Home tab of the ribbon, select down arrow next to the Font Color button to
open the menu of colors.

3. Select the color you want for the hyperlink.

Test the hyperlink.
Once you've inserted the link, you can test it (in Normal view) by right-clicking the hyperlink
and selecting Open Hyperlink.

HOW TO FORMAT A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION IN APA STYLE:

The APA manual does not have a section on how to format a PowerPoint presentation,
but you can follow APA style guidelines within your PowerPoint. For example:

● Include the same information on your title slide that you would have on a title page.

● Include in-text citations for any quote, paraphrase, image, graph, table, data, audio or
video file that you use within your presentation. Please note that photographs are
considered figures in APA style. See section 7.30 of the APA manual for more
information about this.

● The last slide will be your References List.

● “No citation, permission, or copyright attribution is necessary for clip art from
programs like Microsoft Word or PowerPoint” (American Psychological Association
[APA], 2020, p. 346).

● Do not reproduce images without permission from the creator or owner of the image.
See section 12.15 of the APA manual for more information about this.

How to cite PowerPoint slides in your References List

 52

You will use the following format to cite PowerPoint slides:

Author, A. A. (year). Title of presentation [PowerPoint slides]. Website Name. https://xxxxx
Please note that “if the slides come from a classroom website, learning management system
[e.g., Blackboard], or company intranet and you are writing for an audience with access to
that resource, provide the name of the site and its URL (use the login page URL for sites
requiring login)” (APA, 2020, p. 347). Don't forget to indent the second and subsequent lines.

An Introduction to MS Excel

MS Excel is a commonly used Microsoft Office application. It is a spreadsheet program

which is used to save and analyse numerical data.

MS Excel is a spreadsheet program where one can record data in the form of tables. It is easy
to analyse data in an Excel spreadsheet. The image given below represents how an Excel
spreadsheet looks like:

How to open MS Excel

To open MS Excel on your computer, follow the steps given below:

● Click on Start
● Then All Programs
● Next step is to click on MS Office
● Then finally, choose the MS-Excel option
 53

Alternatively, you can also click on the Start button and type MS Excel in the search option
available.

cell

A spreadsheet is in the form of a table comprising rows and columns. The rectangular box at
the intersection point between rows and columns forms a cell. Given below is an image of a
cell:

Cell Address

The cell address is the name by which is cell can be addressed. For example, if row 7 is
interested in column G, then the cell address is G7.

Features of MS Excel

Various editing and formatting can be done on an Excel spreadsheet. Discussed below are the
various features of MS Excel.

The image below shows the composition of features in MS Excel:

● Home
 54

Comprises options like font size, font styles, font colour, background colour,
alignment, formatting options and styles, insertion and deletion of cells and
editing options

● Insert

Comprises options like table format and style, inserting images and figures,
adding graphs, charts and sparklines, header and footer option, equation and
symbols

● Page Layout

Themes, orientation and page setup options are available under the page layout
option

● Formulas

Since tables with a large amount of data can be created in MS excel, under this
feature, you can add formulas to your table and get quicker solutions

● Data

Adding external data (from the web), filtering options and data tools are
available under this category

● Review

Proofreading can be done for an excel sheet (like spell check) in the review
category and a reader can add comments in this part

● View

Different views in which we want the spreadsheet to be displayed can be

edited here. Options to zoom in and out and pane arrangement are available
under this category
 55

Benefits of Using MS Excel

MS Excel is widely used for various purposes because the data is easy to save, and
information can be added and removed without any discomfort and less hard work.

Given below are a few important benefits of using MS Excel:

● Easy To Store Data: Since there is no limit to the amount of information that can be
saved in a spreadsheet, MS Excel is widely used to save data or to analyse data.
Filtering information in Excel is easy and convenient.
● Easy To Recover Data: If the information is written on a piece of paper, finding it
may take longer, however, this is not the case with excel spreadsheets. Finding and
recovering data is easy.
● Application of Mathematical Formulas: Doing calculations has become easier and
less time-taking with the formulas option in MS excel
● More Secure: These spreadsheets can be password secured in a laptop or personal
computer and the probability of losing them is way lesser in comparison to data
written in registers or piece of paper.
● Data at One Place: Earlier, data was to be kept in different files and registers when
the paperwork was done. Now, this has become convenient as more than one
worksheet can be added in a single MS Excel file.
● Neater and Clearer Visibility of Information: When the data is saved in the form of
a table, analysing it becomes easier. Thus, information is a spreadsheet that is more
readable and understandable.

Entering data in excel

Select a cell with a single click where you want to enter data; cell B3 is selected in the image
given below. Then double click in the cell to enter data. You can enter text, numbers and
formulas in the cell.

After entering data, you can press Tab key to move to the next column and can press Enter
key to move to the next row. You can press arrow keys for more options to move to other
cells.
 56

Deleting and replacing data

● To delete data select the cell containing the data and then press DELETE.
● To replace data just type directly over the top of the existing cell contents. The
new data will replace the old.

Using Undo and Redo

There will be times when you enter data only to realise you have made a bit of a mess of
things.

In Excel, you can enter the same data into several worksheets without retyping or copying
and pasting the text into each one. For example, you want to put the same title text into all
worksheets in your workbook. One way to do this is to type the text in one worksheet, and
 57

then copy and paste the text into the other worksheets. If you have several worksheets, this
can be very tedious.

An easier way to do this is to use the CTRL key to group worksheets. When worksheets are
grouped, whatever you do to one worksheet affects all other worksheets.

Newer versions

Office 2007 – 2010

1. Start Excel. A new, blank workbook appears.

2. Click the New sheet button at the bottom of the screen.

You can create as many worksheets as you want

3. Press and hold the CTRL key, and then click Sheet1, Sheet2, and so on till you
finish selecting all your worksheets.
This temporarily groups the worksheets. In the title bar, you should see the name
of the workbook followed by the word [Group].
4. Click in cell A1 in Sheet1, and then type:
This data will appear in each sheet.

TIP: To paste into multiple sheets at the same time, first paste the data into one of
the sheets, and then select the range that contains the data you want to paste to
the other sheets and use Fill >Across Worksheets. The values will be filled into
all the selected sheets.
5. Click Sheet2 and notice that the text you just typed in Sheet1 also appears in cell
A1 of Sheet2, and all the other worksheets.
 58

Sort data in an Excel worksheet

When sorting information in a worksheet, you can rearrange the data to find values quickly.
You can sort a range or table of data on one or more columns of data. For example, you can
sort employees —first by department, and then by last name.

How to sort in Excel

Select the data to sort

Select a range of tabular data, such as A1:L5 (multiple rows and columns) or C1:C80 (a
single column). The range can include the first row of headings that identify each column.

Sort quickly and easily

1. Select a single cell in the column you want to sort.

2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, click to perform an ascending
sort (from A to Z, or smallest number to largest).
 59

3. Click to perform a descending sort (from Z to A, or largest number to

smallest).

Sort by specifying criteria

Use this technique to choose the column you want to sort, together with other criteria such as
font or cell colors.

1. Select a single cell anywhere in the range that you want to sort.
2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, click Sort to display the Sort popup
window.

1. In the Sort by dropdown list, select the first column on which you want to sort.
2. In the Sort On list, choose Values, Cell Color, Font Color, or Cell Icon.
3. In the Order list, choose the order that you want to apply to the sort operation—
alphabetically or numerically, ascending or descending (that is, from A to Z (or Z
to A) for text, or lower to higher, or higher to lower for numbers).

FIND AND REPLACE FUNCTIONS

Find
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To find something, press Ctrl+F, or go to Home > Editing > Find & Select > Find.

Note: In the following example, we've clicked the Options >> button to show the entire Find
dialog. By default, it will display with Options hidden.

1. In the Find what: box, type the text or numbers you want to find, or click the arrow
in the Find what: box, and then select a recent search item from the list.

2. Click Find All or Find Next to run your search.

Replace

To replace text or numbers, press Ctrl+H, or go to Home > Editing > Find & Select >
Replace.
 61

1. In the Find what: box, type the text or numbers you want to find, or click
the arrow in the Find what: box, and then select a recent search item from
the list.

2. In the Replace with: box, enter the text or numbers you want to use to
replace the search text.

3. Click Replace All or Replace.

AUTOFILL FUNCTIONS

The following image shows a number in cell A1. We want to perform the following tasks:

● Copy the number of cell A1 to the range A2:A7 by using the AutoFill feature of
Excel.
● Show and explain the different alternatives of the AutoFill options box.
 62

The steps to perform the given tasks are listed as follows:

Step 1: Select cell A1. Hover the mouse over the lower-right corner of cell A1. A black plus
sign appears, as shown in the following image. This plus sign (shown within the red circle) is
the changed form of the fill handle, which appears as the cursor is placed on it.

Step 2: Drag the fill handle till cell A7. The range A2:A7 is filled with the number 1, as
shown in the following image.

Hence, Excel has copied the value of the initially selected cell (cell A1) to a series of cells
(A2:A7).

In the following pointers (step 2a to step 2g), the AutoFill options box is shown and its
alternatives are explained.
 63

Step 2a: The AutoFill options box is displayed immediately below the last cell, till which the
fill handle is dragged (in step 2). The same is shown in the following image.
 64

Step 2b: Click on the AutoFill options box. It displays various options. These options suggest
the way the range (to which the fill handle is dragged) will be filled.

Step 2c: The first option is “copy cells,” as shown in the following image. This option copies
the value of the initially selected cell to the entire selected range.
 65

Step 2d: The second option is “fill series.” This option works with numerical values or a mix
of numerical and textual values. It fills the range with a series of values based on the
sequence detected. Excel identifies a sequence when more than one data cell is selected.

For instance, cells A1, A2, and A3 contain 1, 2, and 3. Select these cells and drag the fill
handle downwards. The range is filled with a series of values incrementing by 1. This implies
the following:

● Drag the fill handle downwards or rightwards and select the “fill series” option. It fills
the range with an increasing order of numbers (like 4, 5, 6).
● Drag the fill handle upwards or leftwards and select the “fill series” option. It fills the
range with a decreasing order of numbers (like 0, -1, -2).

Note: Remember that if Excel does not identify a sequence with the selection of two or more
cells, one should select “fill series” from the AutoFill options box. With this selection, the
default values that have been filled in the range are overwritten with sequential numbers.
 66

Step 2e: The next option is “fill formatting only,” as shown in the following image. This
option applies the formatting of the initially selected cell to the selected range. No values are
entered in the selected range.

Note: The “fill formatting only” option is helpful in situations when formatting (of the
initially selected cell) needs to be copied but values need to be entered manually.

Step 2f: The fourth option is “fill without formatting,” as shown in the following image.

With this option, the value of the initially selected cell is copied to the selected range. If more
than one cell is selected initially, this option fills the range based on a pattern. However, the
formatting of the selected cell (or cells) is not copied.
 67

Step 2g: The fifth option is “flash fill.” This option fills the selected range automatically on
the basis of the pattern detected. It is usually used to extract values from a data cell or
combine the values of different data cells.

For instance, with flash fill, one can extract the middle name from the first, middle, and last
name contained in a cell. Likewise, one can combine the first and last names contained in
different cells.

For flash fill to work, one must enter the correct value (as desired) in the initial cell. As one
begins typing the entry in the subsequent cell, Excel senses a pattern and fills the remaining
range. Ensure that the output column (in which the desired value is entered) is adjacent to the
source column.

Flash fill works for both numerical and textual values. It also works for a combination of
numerical and textual values.

Note 1: The difference between “fill series” and “flash fill” is that the former identifies a
sequence of numbers while the latter identifies a pattern of the selected values.

Note 2: The flash fill feature is available in Excel 2013 and the subsequent versions.
 68

CREATING CHARTS

Create a Chart

1. Select the data you want to include in your chart.

Make sure to include your column names if you want them to be in the chart.

2. Click the Insert tab.

3. Select a chart type in the Charts group.
 69

To see all available chart types click the Charts dialog box launcher. The Insert Chart dialog
box appears, displaying every chart type that is available.

4. Click a chart subtype.

The chart appears in the worksheet and the Chart Tools appear on the Ribbon. The Chart
Tools include three new tabs—Design, Layout and Format—that help you modify and format
the chart

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

In statistics, the central tendency is the descriptive summary of a data set. The central
tendency is stated as the statistical measure that represents the single value of the entire
distribution or a dataset. It aims to provide an accurate description of the entire data in the
distribution.

A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central tendency
are sometimes called measures of central location.

The central tendency of the dataset can be found out using the three important measures
namely:

1. Mean.
 70

2. Median.

3. Mode.

The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different
conditions, some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others.
Measurement of Central Tendencies may be affected by the outliers.

MEAN (AVERAGE)

It is also called the calculated average of a dataset. You can say it is the most frequent
measurement of central tendency. In addition, It uses in both continuous and discreet dataset.
It is the sum of all the values in a data set divided by the total number of values in a dataset.
Mean can change if we add new or remove value.

How to calculate Mean in Excel?

In excel you can use the following function to find the mean or Average.

= AVERAGE(value1, [value2, ...])

The Value2 is optional. It will calculate the Mean of all the selected values in the dataset.
 71

You can see in the above figure, using the =Average(B2: B11) for calculating the mean of
the values in Column B, so the mean of B is 90.7.

MEDIAN

Median is the middle value in a given dataset. Data values must be sorted for calculating the
mean. If the values are random, then you have to first order it in ascending order to find the
median.

How to calculate the Median in Excel?

You can use the = MEDIAN(value1, [value2, …]) function for calculating the mean. The
value2 is optional.

For example, in the below figure I used the function =MEDIAN(B2: B11) for finding the
median of the dataset.

MODE

It is the most frequent occurrence of a value in a dataset. On a Histogram, Mode is the highest
bar in a bar chart or Histogram.
 72

How to calculate the Mode in Excel?

You can easily calculate mode in the excel using the function:

= MODE(value1, [value2, …]) . The value2 is optional.

For example, from the below figure : =MODE(B2: B11) and the Mode of the Data is 120.
that is the most occurrences of the number.

Descriptive statistics: measures of variability

Variability refers to how spread scores are in a distribution out; that is, it refers to the amount
of spread of the scores around the mean. For example, distributions with the same mean can
have different amounts of variability or dispersion.

How to calculate the standard deviation in Excel

Excel makes calculating standard deviation more manageable. But first, it’s important to
understand the six standard deviation formulas in Excel.
 73

To calculate the sample standard deviation, use formulas in this category: STDEV.S,
STDEVA, and STDEV.

To calculate the standard deviation for an entire population, use formulas in this category:

STDEV.P, STDEVPA, and STDEVP.

The term population means that you’re considering all the datasets in an entire population. If
using the entire population is unrealistic or impossible, using a sample from the population
(sample standard deviation) will work. Typically, you can find the standard deviation by
using the sample data to calculate the standard deviation and then infer the entire population.

Focusing on the more typical practice of using a sample of the data as opposed to the
population, these are the three formulas — explained:

1. STDEV.S. This formula is used when data is numeric, which means that it will ignore text
and logical values.

2. STDEVA. This formula is used when text and logical values are included in the calculation
along with numbers. Text and “FALSE” are read as 0, and TRUE is understood as 1.

3. STDEV. This formula is compatible with older versions of Excel (2007 or prior) but
completes the same function as STDEV.S (which is used in any Excel software after 2007).

Using the STDEV.S function

To reiterate, STDEV.S uses numerical values and ignores text and logical values.

The syntax of the STDEV.S function used in Excel is STDEV.S(number1,[number 2],…).

Number1. This number is a mandatory argument in the formula. The first number
corresponds to the first element of the sample. Instead of arguments separated by commas, a
named range, single array, or a reference to an array can be used here.
Number2. This is the optional argument in the formula. These can refer to a data point, a
named range, a single array, or a reference to an array. Up to 254 additional arguments can be
used.
 74

In practice

Say there’s a dataset for a range of weights from a sample of a population. Using the numbers
listed in column A, the formula will look like this when applied: =STDEV.S(A2:A10).

In return, Excel will provide the standard deviation of the applied data, as well as the average.
If the average was 150, and the standard deviation is 2, that would mean that most people in
the group were within the weight range of 150–2 or 150+2.

T test

What is the T-TEST Function?

The T.TEST Function is categorized under Excel Statistical functions. It will calculate the
probability that is associated with a Student’s T-Test. The function is commonly used to test
the probability of two samples that have underlying populations with the same mean.

Formula

=T.TEST(array1,array2,tails,type)

The formula uses the following arguments:

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1. Array1 (It is a required argument) – The first data set.

2. Array2 (It is a required argument) – The second data set.
3. Tails (It is a required argument) – Specifies if it is a one-tailed or two-tailed test. If
tails = 1, T-TEST uses the one-tailed distribution. If tails = 2, T-TEST uses the two-
tailed distribution.
4. Type (It is a required argument) – The type of t-test to perform:
● 1 – Performs a paired t-test.
● 2 – Two-sample equal variance t-test.
● 3 – Two-sample unequal variance t-test.

How to Use the T-TEST Function in Excel?

To understand the uses of the T.TEST function, let’s consider a few examples:

Example 1 – Perform a T-Test calculation in Excel

Suppose we are given the following data on the money spent by households in Europe and
the US. As the samples are independent of one another, we use the two-sample t-test. Let’s
say we want to test if the means between these two data-sets are significantly different, which
are Europe $X.XX and US $X.XX. We can use the T-test for that.

The value associated with the Student’s paired t-test with a one-tailed distribution for the two
arrays of data above can be calculated using the Excel function. The formula used is as
follows:
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We get the result below:

CORRELATION

What Is Correlation?

Correlation measures the linear relationship between two variables. By measuring and
relating the variance of each variable, correlation gives an indication of the strength of the
relationship.

To put it another way, correlation answers the question: How much does variable A (the
independent variable) explain variable B (the dependent variable)?

● Correlation is the statistical linear correspondence of variation between two variables.

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● In finance, correlation is used in several facets of analysis including the calculation of

portfolio standard deviation.
● Computing correlation can be time-consuming, but software like Excel makes it easy
to calculate.
Finding Correlation in Excel

There are several methods to calculate correlation in Excel. The simplest is to get two
datasets side-by-side and use the built-in correlation formula:

This is a convenient way to calculate a correlation between just two data sets. But what if you
want to create a correlation matrix across a range of data sets? To do this, you need to use
Excel's Data Analysis plugin. The plugin can be found in the Data tab, under Analyze.

Select the table of returns. In this case, our columns are titled, so we want to check the box
"Labels in first row," so Excel knows to treat these as titles. Then you can choose to output
on the same sheet or on a new sheet.
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Once you hit enter, the data is automatically made. You can add some text and conditional
formatting to clean up the result.

ANOVA ( Analysis Of Variance ):

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical formula used to compare variances across the
means (or average) of different groups. A range of scenarios use it to determine if there is any
difference between the means of different groups
For example, to study the effectiveness of different diabetes medications, scientists design
and experiment to explore the relationship between the type of medicine and the resulting
blood sugar level. The sample population is a set of people. We divide the sample population
into multiple groups, and each group receives a particular medicine for a trial period. At the
end of the trial period, blood sugar levels are measured for each of the individual participants.
Then for each group, the mean blood sugar level is calculated. ANOVA helps to compare
these group means to find out if they are statistically different or if they are similar.
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The outcome of ANOVA is the ‘F statistic’. This ratio shows the difference between the
within group variance and the between group variance, which ultimately produces a figure
which allows a conclusion that the null hypothesis is supported or rejected. If there is a
significant difference between the groups, the null hypothesis is not supported, and the F-
ratio will be larger.

ANOVA Terminology;

Dependent variable: This is the item being measured that is theorized to be affected by the
independent variables.

Independent variable/s: These are the items being measured that may have an effect on the
dependent variable.

A null hypothesis (H0): This is when there is no difference between the groups or means.
Depending on the result of the ANOVA test, the null hypothesis will either be accepted or
rejected.

An alternative hypothesis (H1): When it is theorized that there is a difference between

groups and means.

Factors and levels: In ANOVA terminology, an independent variable is called a factor which
affects the dependent variable. Level denotes the different values of the independent variable
that are used in an experiment.

Fixed-factor model: Some experiments use only a discrete set of levels for factors. For
example, a fixed-factor test would be testing three different dosages of a drug and not looking
at any other dosages.

Random-factor model: This model draws a random value of level from all the possible
values of the independent variable.

What is the Difference Between One Factor and Two Factor ANOVA?

There are two types of ANOVA.

One-Way ANOVA
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The one-way analysis of variance is also known as single-factor ANOVA or simple ANOVA.
As the name suggests, the one-way ANOVA is suitable for experiments with only one
independent variable (factor) with two or more levels. For instance a dependent variable may
be what month of the year there are more flowers in the garden. There will be twelve levels.
A one-way ANOVA assumes:

● Independence: The value of the dependent variable for one observation is independent
of the value of any other observations.
● Normalcy: The value of the dependent variable is normally distributed
● Variance: The variance is comparable in different experiment groups.
● Continuous: The dependent variable (number of flowers) is continuous and can be
measured on a scale which can be subdivided.

Full Factorial ANOVA (also called two-way ANOVA)

Full Factorial ANOVA is used when there are two or more independent variables. Each of
these factors can have multiple levels. Full-factorial ANOVA can only be used in the case of
a full factorial experiment, where there is use of every possible permutation of factors and
their levels. This might be the month of the year when there are more flowers in the garden,
and then the number of sunshine hours. This two-way ANOVA not only measures the
independent vs the independent variable, but if the two factors affect each other. A two-way
ANOVA assumes:

● Continuous: The same as a one-way ANOVA, the dependent variable should be

continuous.
● Independence: Each sample is independent of other samples, with no crossover.
● Variance: The variance in data across the different groups is the same.
● Normalcy: The samples are representative of a normal population.
● Categories: The independent variables should be in separate categories or groups.

One Way ANOVA In Excel:

The Data Analysis Toolpak in Excel

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If you’re analysing data in Excel, then it’s natural to make use of the tools that Microsoft
provides for you. One of the less obvious features in Excel is the Data Analysis Toolpak. The
Toolpak is an Excel add-in from Microsoft that’s included with Excel, but isn’t turned on.

Here’s how to turn it on in the Microsoft Windows operating system.

1. Choose File, then Options

2. In the Excel Options Window, choose Add-ins
3. Next to Manage, select Excel Add-ins and click Go
4. In the Add-ins window, select Analysis ToolPak and click OK.
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A new button on your Data ribbon will appear.

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With the Data Analysis Toolpak installed and your data in columns, you can perform the
following steps in Excel to get the results of the one-way ANOVA analysis.

1. Click the Data tab

2. Click Data Analysis

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3. Select Anova: Single Factor and click OK

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4. Next to Input Range click the up arrow

5. Select the data and click the down arrow

6. Click OK to run the analysis

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7. RESULTS:

CONCLUSIONS: As the p-value of 0.267 is greater than 0.05, the Null Hypothesis is
Accepted.
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SURANA EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

NAME: VARSHA KURUDUMALAI V.S

CLASS: M .Sc

Subject:1.6 Computer Applications in Psychology

TOPIC: Part 2
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SPSS SOFTWARE

SPSS is short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, and it’s used by various kinds of
researchers for complex statistical data analysis. The SPSS software package was created for
the management and statistical analysis of social science data. It was originally launched in
1968 by SPSS Inc., and was later acquired by IBM in 2009.

Officially dubbed IBM SPSS Statistics, most users still refer to it as SPSS. As the world
standard for social-science data analysis, SPSS is widely coveted due to its straightforward
and English-like command language and impressively thorough user manual.

SPSS is used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government

entities, education researchers, marketing organisations, data miners, and many more for
processing and analysing survey data. Most top research agencies use SPSS to analyse survey
data and mine text data so that they can get the most out of their research and survey projects.

In 1968, Norman H. Nie, C. Hadlai (Tex) Hull and Dale H. Bent, three young men from
disparate professional backgrounds, developed a software system based on the idea of using
statistics to turn raw data into information essential to decision-making.This revolutionary
statistical software system was called SPSS, which stood for the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences. Nie, Hull and Bent developed SPSS out of the need to quickly analyse
volumes of social science data gathered through various methods of research. The initial
work on SPSS was done at Stanford University with the intention to make it available only
for local consumption and not international distribution.

SPSS, or Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, started development in 1965 from a
group of researchers who were frustrated in serving the teaching and research needs of the
political science department at Stanford University. They had to use different programs to
perform their data analysis and write time consuming code with minimal documentation. To
streamline data analysis tasks, they began working on SPSS - an integrated system with
statistical programs built in. The first release was in 1968 as a batch processor that ran on
punch card systems. By the end of the '60s, SPSS grew to over 60 universities.

In the '70s, SPSS grew quickly as more users saw the value of a statistical software package.
By 1975, nearly 600 organisations - everything from universities to NASA - used SPSS. By
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this time, SPSS versions were released which expanded the analysis techniques. In the '70s,
SPSS contained descriptive statistics, simple frequency distributions, correlation, ANOVA,
multiple regression, and even scatter diagrams. SPSS also no longer required punch cards, but
was used on mainframes with a client terminal.

The growth of SPSS continued into the '80s. SPSS version 10 was dubbed SPSS-X for the
mainframe and introduced a light version that, for the first time, ran on IBM-compatible PCs.
It required MS-DOS 2.0 and at 3MB took nine floppy disks to install. The PC version set a
new standard for statistical software on personal computers and became immediately popular.
The age of analytics for everyone had begun.

In the '90s, the success of SPSS on the PC naturally led to the first version of SPSS for
Windows. Microsoft Windows and Macintosh versions were introduced. These releases
really took advantage of the point and click interface and in doing so made the software
approachable by more users. The release over the next few years introduced pivot tables,
right click menus, and the general linear model procedure. In addition in 1998, Clementine
joined the SPSS family and was later named SPSS Modeler. This brought data mining
techniques into the SPSS company. Along with other acquisitions, this evolved the SPSS
brand into a full featured descriptive and predictive solutions company.

In the 2000s, SPSS made some huge innovations:

● V10 introduced near unlimited file sizes, added Excel import, and a client-server
version.
● V14 introduced Integration with Python. This led to a more open environment
including .NET, Java, and compatibility with other apps for easy importing and
exporting of data.
● V16 introduced a new UI based on Java, and with this technology came drag and
drop, resizable windows, and the ability to simultaneously release across operating
systems and user languages.
● V16 also introduced integration with the R programming language.
● v18 saw a temporary name change to PASW (Predictive Analytics Software) to
reflect the growing product differentiation across the brand. SPSS also joined IBM
around this time.
● V19 restored the SPSS brand, much to user delight.
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The 2010s focused on addressing the needs of our users. Throughout this period, product
betas became a requirement to ensure our end users had the ability to provide feedback based
on each version. This user feedback led to the investments in Custom Tables, one click
importing and exporting, and stronger ties to open source found in version 24. Then, version
25 introduced Bayesian Statistics, attractive charts, and popular enhancements to our MIXED
procedures. User feedback also led to the creation of SPSS Statistics Subscription, the easiest
SPSS software ever to buy, set up, and manage.

The innovation of SPSS continues to this day. Both SPSS Statistics and SPSS Modeler have
announced major investments to make our software easier to use and more efficient.
SPSS software is used for editing and analysing all sorts of data available from scientific
research, clinical studies, customer databases, Google Analytics, etc. SPSS can open all file
formats that are commonly used for structured data such as spreadsheets from MS Excel,
plain text files, relational database, stata, SAS, etc. SPSS Statistics can read and write data
from ASCII text files, other statistics packages, spreadsheets, and databases.

Statistical output is a proprietary file format and the proprietary output can be exported to text
or Microsoft word, pdf, excel, and other formats. The typical workflow of SPSS software is
as follows:

● Opening data files in SPSS file format or others.

● Editing data such as computing sums and means over columns or rows of data.
● Creating tables and charts containing frequency counts or summary statistics
over cases and variables.
● Running inferential statistics such as one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA,
regression, correlation, factor analysis, etc.
● Saving data and output in different file formats.
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VARIABLE VIEW

SPSS designates a separate ‘data window’ that appears once data is either downloaded or
inputted manually. The data window has the name of the dataset on the very top left corner to
let you know what dataset it is, if you are working with multiple. There are two types of ways
to view data in SPSS and these can be changed using the “Data View” and “Variable View”
tabs on the very bottom left of the window. The “Data View” tab shows the variables in
columns and each observation in rows, which is most useful to look at the actual values
presented in the dataset. In “Variable View”, SPSS shows each variable as rows and has a
series of columns with more information about the variable such as “Name”, “Type”, and the
“Label” given.

The variable view tab displays information about the variables in your data. You can get to
the Variable View window in two ways:

● In the Data Editor window, click the Variable View tab at the bottom.
● In the Data Editor window, in the Data View tab, double-click a variable name at the
top of the column. This method has the advantage of taking you to the specific
variable you clicked.

The Variable View tab displays the following information, in columns, about each variable in
your data:

NAME
The name of the variable, which is used to refer to that variable in syntax. Variable names
can not contain spaces. Note that when you change the name of a variable, it does not change
the data; all values associated with the variable stay the same. Renaming a variable simply
changes the name of that variable while leaving everything else the same. For example, we
may want to rename a variable called Sex to Gender. To change a variable's name, double-
click on the name of the variable that you wish to re-name. Type your new variable name.
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TYPE
The type of variable (e.g. numeric, string, etc.). To change a variable's type, click inside the
cell corresponding to the “Type” column for that variable. A square "..." button will appear;
click on it to open the Variable Type window. Click the option that best matches the type of
variable.
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WIDTH
The number of digits displayed for numerical values or the length of a string variable. To set
a variable's width, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Width” column for that variable.
Then click the "up" or "down" arrow icons to increase or decrease the number width.

DECIMALS
The number of digits to display after a decimal point for values of that variable. Does not
apply to string variables. Note that this changes how the numbers are displayed, but does not
change the values in the dataset.
To specify the number of decimal places for a numeric variable, click inside the cell
corresponding to the “Decimals” column for that variable. Then click the “up” or “down”
arrow icons to increase or decrease the number of decimal places.

Example: If you specify that values should have two decimal points, they will display as 1.00,
2.00, 3.00, and so on.

LABEL
A brief but descriptive definition or display name for the variable. When defined, a variable's
label will appear in the output in place of its name.
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Example: The variable expgradate might be described by the label “Expected date of college
graduation".

VALUES
For coded categorical variables, the value label(s) should be associated with each category
abbreviation. Value labels are useful primarily for categorical (i.e., nominal or ordinal)
variables, especially if they have been recorded as codes (e.g., 1, 2, 3). It is strongly
suggested that you give each value a label so that you (and anyone looking at your data or
results) understands what each value represents.

When value labels are defined, the labels will display in the output instead of the original
codes.Note that defining value labels only affects the labels associated with each value, and
does not change the recorded values themselves.

Example: In the sample dataset, the variable Rank represents the student's class rank. The
values 1, 2, 3, 4 represent the categories Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, and Senior,
respectively. Let's define the category labels for the Rank variable in the sample data.

Under the column “Values,” click the cell that corresponds to the variable whose values you
wish to label. If the values are currently undefined, the cell will say “None.” Click the square
“…” button. The Value Labels window appears.
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Type the first possible value (1) for your variable in the Value field. In the Label field type
the label exactly as you want it to display (e.g., "Freshman"). Click Add when you are
finished defining the value and label. Your variable value and label will appear in the centre
box. Repeat these steps for each possible value for your variable. When all of the labels have
been defined, the Value Labels window should look like this:

Click OK at the bottom of the window.

If you wish to change or remove a value and label that you have added to the centre dialog
box, do the following:

● To change a specific value or label, highlight the value/label in the centre text box in
the Value Labels window. Now the selected value/label will be highlighted yellow.
Make changes to the selected value or label as needed. Click Change. The changes
will be applied to the value/label you highlighted.
● To remove a specific value/label, highlight the value/label in the centre text box.
Click Remove. The selected value/label will be removed from the centre text box.

MISSING
User-defined data values (or ranges of values) should be treated as missing. Note that this
property does not alter or eliminate SPSS's default missing value code for numeric variables
("."). This column merely allows the user to specify up to three unique missing value codes
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for the given variable; or, to specify a range of numbers to treat as missing, plus one
additional unique missing value code.

To set user-defined missing value codes, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Missing”
column for that variable. A square button will appear; click on it.

The Missing Values window appears.

Click the option that best matches how you wish to define missing data and enter any
associated values, then click OK at the bottom of the window.

Note that you may enter numbers or letters as discrete missing value codes in the "discrete
missing values" boxes.

Caution: If you have a dataset with string variables, blank cells are not automatically
recognized as missing values. In order for blanks to be recognized as missing values, you can
either:

● add a space character (Spacebar key) as a discrete missing value code (either in the
Variable View or using syntax), or
● use the Automatic Recode procedure to recode the string variable into a labelled,
numeric categorical variable with blanks re-coded into a special missing value code.
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The latter option works well if there are a limited number of unique string values, but is a
poor option if there are many unique variations in the strings (e.g. capitalization, spelling,
spacing).

COLUMNS
The width of each column in the Data View spreadsheet. Note that this is not the same as the
number of digits displayed for each value. This simply refers to the width of the actual
column in the spreadsheet.
To set a variable's column width, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Columns”
column for that variable. Then click the “up” or “down” arrow icons to increase or decrease
the column width.

ALIGN
The alignment of content in the cells of the SPSS Data View spreadsheet. Options include
left-justified, right-justified, or centre-justified.

To set the alignment for a variable, click inside the cell corresponding to the "Align" column
for that variable. Then use the drop-down menu to select your preferred alignment: Left,
Right, or Center.

MEASURE
The level of measurement for the variable (e.g., nominal, ordinal, or scale).

Some procedures in SPSS treat categorical and scale variables differently. By default,
variables with numeric responses are automatically detected as “Scale” variables. If the
numeric responses actually represent categories, you must change the specified measurement
level to the appropriate setting.

To define a variable's measurement level, click inside the cell corresponding to the
“Measure” column for that variable. Then click the drop-down arrow to select the level of
measurement for that variable: Scale, Ordinal, or Nominal.
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It is vital that you correctly define each variable's measurement level. This setting affects
everything from graphs to internal algorithms for statistical analysis. Incorrectly specifying
measurement level can have unintended and potentially disastrous effects on your results.

ROLE
The role that a variable will play in your analyses (i.e., independent variable, dependent
variable, both independent and dependent). Some options in SPSS allow you to pre-select
variables for particular analyses based on their defined roles. Any variable that meets the role
requirements will be available for use in such analyses. You can choose from the following
roles for each variable:

● Input: The variable will be used as a predictor (independent variable). This is the
default assignment for variables.
● Target: The variable will be used as an outcome (dependent variable).
● Both: The variable will be used as both a predictor and an outcome (independent and
dependent variable).
● None: The variable has no role assignment.
● Partition: The variable will partition the data into separate samples.
● Split: Used with the IBM® SPSS® Modeler (not IBM® SPSS® Statistics).

To define a variable's role in your analysis, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Role”
column for that variable. Then use the drop-down menu to select the role that variable will
take: Input, Target, Both, None, Partition, or Split.

There are two ways to sort data in SPSS:

1. Sort Cases
2. Sort Variables
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Sorting cases

Sorting cases allow users to reorder the sequence of the cases based on the value of one or
more variables.

● Quick sorting cases (only for sorting data based on a single variable)

In the Data View, right-click the name of the variable and select Sort Ascending or Sort
Descending.

● Sorting Cases (sorting data based on multiple variables)

1. From the menu, choose Data > Sort Cases. The “Sort Cases” dialog box will
appear.
2. Add the variable(s) you want to sort the data by to the Sort by box by double-
clicking the variable(s) in the left column. If you select multiple variables, the order
in which they appear on the Sort By list determines the order in which the cases are
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sorted. In this example, the data will first be sorted by age and then be sorted by
household income within categories of age.

3. Indicate the sorting order for each variable in the Sort By list by selecting
“Ascending” or “Descending” in the Sort Order area.
4. Optionally, you can save the sorted data in a new file by ticking Save file with
sorted data. In this way, the original data order can be kept.
5. Click OK to finish.

Sort variables

Sorting variables allow users to reorder the variables based on the variable attribute (variable
name, data type, width, etc.).

● Quick sorting variables

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In the Variable View, right-click the attribute column heading on which you want to sort the
variables and select Sort Ascending or Sort Descending.

● Sorting variables
1. From the menu, choose Data > Sort Variables. The “Sort Variables” dialog box
will appear.
2. Select the attribute
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3. Indicate the sorting order for each variable in the Sort By list by selecting
“Ascending” or “Descending” in the Sort Order area.
4. Optionally, you can save the original (pre-sorted) variable order in a custom variable
attribute.
5. Click OK to finish.
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Selecting cases

Step 1: Go to the Menu bar, select “Data” and then “Select Cases”.

Step 2: A new window called “Select Cases” will open.

Step 3: Tick the box called “If condition is satisfied” as shown in the figure below.

Step 4: Click on the button “If” highlighted in the above picture.

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Step 5: A new window called “Select Cases: If” will open.

Step 6: The left box of this dialog box contains all the variables from the data view. Choose
the variable (using the left mouse button) that you want to select cases for and use the
“arrow” button to move the selected variable to the right box.

Step 7: In this example, the variable gender (for which we want to select only men) is shifted
from the left to the right box. In the right box, write “gender=0” (since men have the value 0
code in this dataset).

Step 8: Click on Continue and then the OK button. Now, only men are selected (and the
women’s data values are temporarily filtered out from the dataset).
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Note: To “re-select” all cases (complete dataset), you carry out the following steps:

Step a: Go to the Menu bar, choose “Data” and then “Select Cases”.

Step b: From the dialog box of “Select Cases”, tick the box called “All cases”, and then click
on the OK button.

When you use the select cases tool in SPSS, a new variable called “filter” will be created in
the dataset. Deleting this filter variable, the selection will disappear. The “un-selected” cases
are crossed over in the data view windows.
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Note: The selection will be applied to everything you do from the point you select cases until
you remove the selection. In other words, all statistics, tables, and graphs will be based only
on the selected individuals until you remove (or change) the selection.

There is another kind of selection too. For example, the random sample of cases, based on
time or case range, and use the filter variable. The selected case can be copied to a new
dataset or unselected cases can be deleted. For this purpose choose the appropriate option
from the output section of the select cases dialog box.
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Compute Variable Function

Sometimes you may have a data set that doesn’t give you the specific statistic you need. For
example, you may have two counts for debt from credit cards and “other”, but you are more
interested in the total debt. Or, you may want to know the average score for a particular set of
variables. SPSS has a built in calculator that you can access in the Transform meu. SPSS
Compute Variable works just like a mini calculator within the SPSS windows. It will add,
subtract, find averages, and perform a whole host of other arithmetic functions. Once SPSS
has calculated the result, it will return those results in a new column at the end of the existing
data. Here’s how to use the compute variables function.

Steps

Watch the video for two examples (addition and finding the mean):

Step 1: Click “Transform”, then click “Compute Variable”.

Step 2: Give your new (target) variable name. This can be anything you like, but make sure to
adhere to SPSS naming conventions for variables.
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Step 3: Type in your request. For example, let’s say you wanted to add two variables:

1. Move one variable over to the “Numeric Expression” box.

2. Press the addition button (+) on the calculator.
3. Move the second variable over to “Numeric Expression” box.

Step 4: Click OK.

Step 5: Close the execution window by clicking the “x” in the top right.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND NORMALITY TESTING

Descriptive statistics are brief informational coefficients that summarize a given data set,
which can be either a representation of the entire population or a sample of a population.
Descriptive statistics are broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of
variability (spread). Measures of central tendency include the mean, median, and mode, while
measures of variability include standard deviation, variance, minimum and maximum
variables, kurtosis, and skewness.

To run the Descriptives procedure, select Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Descriptives.

The Descriptives window lists all of the variables in your dataset in the left column. To select
variables for analysis, click on the variable name to highlight it, then click on the arrow
button to move the variable to the column on the right. Alternatively, you can double-click on
the name of a variable to move it to the column on the right.
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Selecting the Save standardised values as variables checkbox will compute new variables
containing the standardised values (also known as Z scores) of each of the input variables.
Recall that the standardised value of a variable is computed by subtracting its mean and then
dividing By default, the Descriptives procedure computes the mean, standard deviation,
minimum, and maximum of the variable. Clicking Options will allow you to disable any of
the aforementioned statistics, or enable sum, variance, range, standard error of the mean (S.E.
mean), kurtosis, and skewness. You can also choose how you want the output to be
organised:

Variable list will print the variables in the same order that they are specified in the
Descriptives window.
Alphabetically will arrange the variables in alphabetical order.
Ascending means will order the output so that the variables with the smallest means are
first and the variables with the largest means last.
Descending means will order the output so that the variables with the largest means are
first and the variables with the smallest means are last.
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The Descriptives dialog window will let you enter any numeric
variables in your dataset -- including nominal and ordinal variables.
Means and standard deviations are not appropriate or meaningful
for nominal and ordinal variables. Make sure that you understand
how your variables are coded and what they represent before you
start your analysis.

OUTPUT

Here we see a side-by-side comparison of the descriptive statistics for the four numeric
variables. This allows us to quickly make the following observations about the data:

Some students were missing scores for the English test.

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The maximum scores observed on the English and the Reading tests exceed 100 points,
which was supposed to be the maximum possible score. This could indicate a problem
with data entry, or could indicate an issue with the scoring method. Before proceeding
with any other data analysis, we would need to resolve the issues with these
measurements.
The minimum Math score was far lower than the minimum scores for the other sections
of the test.
The averages of the English and Reading scores were very close.
Math had the lowest average score of the four sections, but the highest standard deviation
in scores.

When do we do normality test?

A lot of statistical tests (e.g. t-test) require that our data are normally distributed and therefore
we should always check if this assumption is violated.

Example Scenario

Given a set of data, we would like to check if its distribution is normal.

In this example, the null hypothesis is that the data is normally distributed and the alternative
hypothesis is that the data is not normally distributed. The dataset can be obtained here.

The data to be tested is stored in the first column.

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Step 1

Select “Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Explore”.

A new window pops out.

Step 2

From the list on the left, select the variable “Data” to the “Dependent List”.
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Click “Plots” on the right. A new window pops out. Check “None” for boxplot, uncheck
everything for descriptive and make sure the box “Normality plots with tests” is checked.

Step 3

The results now pop out in the “Output” window.

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Step 4

We can now interpret the result.

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The test statistics are shown in the third table. Here two tests for normality are run. For
dataset small than 2000 elements, we use the Shapiro-Wilk test, otherwise, the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test is used. In our case, since we have only 20 elements, the Shapiro-Wilk test is
used. From A, the p-value is 0.316. We can reject the alternative hypothesis and conclude
that the data comes from a normal distribution.

PARAMETRIC TESTS

A parametric test is a statistical test that assumes specific things about how the distribution of
the unknown parameter of interest will be distributed, and the test statistic is valid under these
assumptions. For instance, the parameter must have a normal distribution, act like an
independent variable (be the outcome of an independent process), be identically distributed,
and have a constant mean and variance for a significance test to be valid. The sample size is
generally large. Consequently, ensuring that the test is adequate in relation to the collected
data is an essential component of using it.

ONE SAMPLE T TEST

Used when the sample has no subdivisions like students and when there is a need to compare
the sample means to the population mean. The one-sample t-test is used to determine whether
a sample comes from a population with a specific mean. This population mean is not always
known, but is sometimes hypothesized.

1. Click Analyze > Compare Means > One-Sample T Test... on the main menu:
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2. You will be presented with the One-Sample T Test dialogue box, as shown below:

3. Transfer the dependent variable, dep_score, into the Test Variable(s): box by selecting
it (by clicking on it) and then clicking on the button. Enter the population mean
you are comparing the sample against in the Test Value: box, by changing the current
value of "0" to "4". You will end up with the following screen:
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4. . Click on the button. You will be presented with the One-Sample T

Test: Options dialogue box, as shown below:

5. Click on the button. You will be returned to the One-Sample T Test

dialogue box.

6. Click on the button to generate the output.

CONCLUSION: As the obtained t value is greater than the table value of, hence the data is
not significant.
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MANOVA
A one-way ANOVA is used to determine whether or not different levels of an explanatory
variable lead to statistically different results in some response variable.

For example, we might be interested in understanding whether or not three levels of

education (Associate’s degree, Bachelor’s degree, Master’s degree) lead to statistically
different annual incomes. In this case, we have one explanatory variable and one response
variable.

● Explanatory variable: level of education

● Response variable: annual income

A MANOVA is an extension of the one-way ANOVA in which there is more than one
response variable. For example, we might be interested in understanding whether or not level
of education leads to different annual incomes and different amounts of student loan debt. In
this case, we have one explanatory variable and two response variables:

● Explanatory variable: level of education

● Response variables: annual income, student loan debt

Because we have more than one response variable, it would be appropriate to use a
MANOVA in this case.

Step 1: Perform a MANOVA.

Click the Analyze tab, then General Linear Model, then Multivariate:
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In the new window that pops up, drag the variables income and debt into the box labelled
Dependent Variables. Then drag the factor variable education into the box labelled Fixed
Factors:

Lastly, click OK.

Step 2: Interpret the results.

Once you click OK, the results of the MANOVA will appear.
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INDEPENDENT SAMPLE T TEST

To run an Independent Samples t Test in SPSS, click Analyze > Compare Means >
Independent-Samples T Test.

The Independent-Samples T Test window opens where you will specify the variables to be
used in the analysis. All of the variables in your dataset appear in the list on the left side.
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Move variables to the right by selecting them in the list and clicking the blue arrow buttons.
You can move a variable(s) to either of two areas: Grouping Variable or Test Variable(s).

A Test Variable(s): The dependent variable(s). This is the continuous variable whose means
will be compared between the two groups. You may run multiple t tests simultaneously by
selecting more than one test variable.

B Grouping Variable: The independent variable. The categories (or groups) of the
independent variable will define which samples will be compared in the t test. The grouping
variable must have at least two categories (groups); it may have more than two categories but
a t test can only compare two groups, so you will need to specify which two groups to
compare. You can also use a continuous variable by specifying a cut point to create two
groups (i.e., values at or above the cut point and values below the cut point).

C Define Groups: Click Define Groups to define the category indicators (groups) to use in
the t test. If the button is not active, make sure that you have already moved your independent
variable to the right in the Grouping Variable field. You must define the categories of your
grouping variable before you can run the Independent Samples t Test procedure.
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D Options: The Options section is where you can set your desired confidence level for the
confidence interval for the mean difference, and specify how SPSS should handle missing
values.

When finished, click OK to run the Independent Samples t Test, or click Paste to have the
syntax corresponding to your specified settings written to an open syntax window. (If you do
not have a syntax window open, a new window will open for you.)

DEFINE GROUPS

Clicking the Define Groups button (C) opens the Define Groups window:

1 Use specified values: If your grouping variable is categorical, select Use specified values.
Enter the values for the categories you wish to compare in the Group 1 and Group 2 fields.
If your categories are numerically coded, you will enter the numeric codes. If your group
variable is string, you will enter the exact text strings representing the two categories. If your
grouping variable has more than two categories (e.g., takes on values of 1, 2, 3, 4), you can
specify two of the categories to be compared (SPSS will disregard the other categories in this
case).

Note that when computing the test statistic, SPSS will subtract the mean of the Group 2 from
the mean of Group 1. Changing the order of the subtraction affects the sign of the results, but
does not affect the magnitude of the results.

2 Cut point: If your grouping variable is numeric and continuous, you can designate a cut
point for dichotomizing the variable. This will separate the cases into two categories based on
the cut point. Specifically, for a given cut point x, the new categories will be:

● Group 1: All cases where grouping variable > x

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● Group 2: All cases where grouping variable < x

Note that this implies that cases where the grouping variable is equal to the cut point itself
will be included in the "greater than or equal to" category. (If you want your cut point to be
included in a "less than or equal to" group, then you will need to use Recode into Different
Variables or use DO IF syntax to create this grouping variable yourself.) Also note that while
you can use cut points on any variable that has a numeric type, it may not make practical
sense depending on the actual measurement level of the variable (e.g., nominal categorical
variables coded numerically). Additionally, using a dichotomized variable created via a cut
point generally reduces the power of the test compared to using a non-dichotomized variable.

OPTIONS
Clicking the Options button (D) opens the Options window:

The Confidence Interval Percentage box allows you to specify the confidence level for a
confidence interval. Note that this setting does NOT affect the test statistic or p-value or
standard error; it only affects the computed upper and lower bounds of the confidence
interval. You can enter any value between 1 and 99 in this box (although in practice, it only
makes sense to enter numbers between 90 and 99).

The Missing Values section allows you to choose if cases should be excluded "analysis by
analysis" (i.e. pairwise deletion) or excluded listwise. This setting is not relevant if you have
only specified one dependent variable; it only matters if you are entering more than one
dependent (continuous numeric) variable. In that case, excluding "analysis by analysis" will
use all nonmissing values for a given variable. If you exclude "listwise", it will only use the
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cases with nonmissing values for all of the variables entered. Depending on the amount of
missing data you have, listwise deletion could greatly reduce your sample size.

CONCLUSION: As the obtained t value is greater than the table value of, hence the data is
not significant.

PAIRED SAMPLE T TEST

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To run a Paired Samples t Test in SPSS, click Analyze > Compare Means > Paired-
Samples T Test.

The Paired-Samples T Test window opens where you will specify the variables to be used in
the analysis. All of the variables in your dataset appear in the list on the left side. Move
variables to the right by selecting them in the list and clicking the blue arrow buttons. You
will specify the paired variables in the Paired Variables area.

A Pair: The “Pair” column represents the number of Paired Samples t Tests to run. You may
choose to run multiple Paired Samples t Tests simultaneously by selecting multiple sets of
matched variables. Each new pair will appear on a new line.
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B Variable1: The first variable, representing the first group of matched values. Move the
variable that represents the first group to the right where it will be listed beneath the
“Variable1” column.

C Variable2: The second variable, representing the second group of matched values. Move
the variable that represents the second group to the right where it will be listed beneath the
“Variable2” column.

D Options: Clicking Options will open a window where you can specify the Confidence
Interval Percentage and how the analysis will address Missing Values (i.e., Exclude cases
analysis by analysis or Exclude cases listwise). Click Continue when you are finished
making specifications.

● Setting the confidence interval percentage does not have any impact on the calculation
of the p-value.
● If you are only running one paired samples t test, the two "missing values" settings
will produce the same results. There will only be differences if you are running 2 or
more paired samples t tests. (This would look like having two or more rows in the
main Paired Samples T Test dialog window.)
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CONCLUSION: As the obtained t value is greater than the table value of, hence the data is
not significant.

ONE-WAY ANOVA

One-way ANOVA is used to test if the means of two or more groups are significantly
different. One-Way ANOVA ("analysis of variance") compares the means of two or more
independent groups in order to determine whether there is statistical evidence that the
associated population means are significantly different. One-Way ANOVA is a parametric
test.
This test is also known as:

● One-Factor ANOVA
● One-Way Analysis of Variance
● Between Subjects ANOVA

The variables used in this test are known as:

● Dependent variable
● Independent variable (also known as the grouping variable, or factor)
● This variable divides cases into two or more mutually exclusive levels, or groups.

One Way ANOVA in SPSS Including Interpretation

In this tutorial, we’ll look at how to perform a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for
independent groups in SPSS, and how to interpret the result using Tukey’s HSD.

Quick Steps

1. Click on Analyze -> Compare Means -> One-Way ANOVA

2. Drag and drop your independent variable into the Factor box and dependent
variable into the Dependent List box
3. Click on Post Hoc, select Tukey, and press Continue
4. Click on Options, select Homogeneity of variance test, and press Continue
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5. Press the OK button, and your result will pop up in the Output viewer

The Data

We’re starting from the assumption that you’ve already got your data into SPSS, and you’re
looking at a Data View screen that looks a bit like this.

Our fictitious dataset contains a number of different variables. For the purposes of this
tutorial, we’re interested in whether level of education has an effect on the ability of a person
to throw a frisbee. Our independent variable, therefore, is Education, which has three levels –
High School, Graduate and PostGrad – and our dependent variable is Frisbee Throwing
Distance (i.e., the distance a subject throws a frisbee). The one-way ANOVA test allows us to
determine whether there is a significant difference in the mean distances thrown by each of
the groups.

One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

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1. To start, click on Analyze -> Compare Means -> One-Way ANOVA.

2. This will bring up the One-Way ANOVA dialog box.

To set up the test, you’ve got to get your independent variable into the Factor box (Education
in this case, see above) and dependent variable into the Dependent List box. You can do this
by dragging and dropping, or by highlighting a variable, and then clicking on the appropriate
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arrow in the middle of the dialog. After you’ve moved the variables over, you should click
the Post Hoc button, which will allow you to specify the post hoc test(s) you wish to run.

The ANOVA test will tell you whether there is a significant difference between the means of
two or more levels of a variable. However, if you’ve got more than two levels it’s not going
to tell you between which of the various pairs of means the difference is significant. You
need to do a post hoc test to find this out.

Post Hoc Tests

The Post Hoc dialog box looks like this.

You should select Tukey, as shown above, and ensure that your significance level is set to
0.05 (or whatever alpha level is right for your study).

Now press Continue to return to the previous dialog box.

Options

You should be looking at this dialog box again.

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Click Options to bring up the Options dialog box.

At the very least, you should select the Homogeneity of variance test option (since
homogeneity of variance is required for the ANOVA test). Descriptive statistics and a Means
plot are also useful.
 134

Once you’ve made your selections, click Continue.

At this point, you’re ready to run the test.

Review your options, and click the OK button. You’ll see the result pop up in the Output
Viewer.
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Since the f value is greater than 0.05 the data is not significant.

Two-Way ANOVA in SPSS

The two-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) is used to assess the effects of two independent
categorical variables (such as gender and college major) – both alone and in combination
with each other – on a continuous dependent variable (such as an exam score). In this tutorial
we show you how to perform and interpret the results of a two-way ANOVA in SPSS. We
also explain how to select follow up tests where these are appropriate.

This tutorial assumes that your study has: (1) a separate sample for each treatment condition
or population; and (2) an equal number of participants (or cases) in each group.

Quick Steps

1. Click Analyze -> General Linear Model -> Univariate

2. Click Reset (recommended)
3. Move your dependent variable to the Dependent Variable box
4. Move your two independent variables to the Fixed Factor(s) box
5. Click Options
6. Select Descriptive statistics, Estimates of effect size, and Homogeneity tests
7. Click Continue
8. Click Plots
9. Move the independent variable with the smallest number of levels to the
Separate Lines box
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10. Move the other independent variable to the Horizontal Axis box.
11. Click Add
12. Click Continue
13. Click OK

Assumptions of the Two-Way ANOVA

The assumptions of the two-way ANOVA are:

● The observations in your samples are independent of each other

● The dependent variable is approximately normally distributed in each of the
populations from which the samples are drawn. Please see our tutorial on
testing for normality in SPSS.
● Homogeneity of variance. Our tutorial includes a test for this assumption.

The Data

Our starting assumption is that you have imported your data into SPSS, and that you’re
looking at something like the data set below. (Check out our tutorials on importing data from
Excel or MySQL into SPSS).
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Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Take the following steps to perform a two-way ANOVA in SPSS.

Click Analyze -> General Linear Model -> Univariate as illustrated below.
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Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Take the following steps to perform a two-way ANOVA in SPSS.

Click Analyze -> General Linear Model -> Univariate as illustrated below.
 139

Select the Options button. This brings up the Univariate: Options dialog box.
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Under Display, select Descriptive statistics, Estimates of effect size, and Homogeneity
tests.

Click Continue to return to the Univariate dialog box.

Generate a Profile Plot of Your Group Means

Generating a profile plot (or line graph) of your group allows you to visualize your data
easily, and to assess whether there is an interaction between your two independent variables.

Select the Plots button. This brings up the Univariate: Profile Plots dialog box.
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Select one of your independent variables and use the arrow button to move it to the Separate
Lines box. Then select the other independent variable and use the arrow button to move it to
the Horizontal Axis box. Although you can move either variable to either box, we
recommend that you move the variable with the smallest number of levels (gender in our
example) to the Separate Lines box.
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Click Add. You will see that a plot of your two independent variables (Major*Gender in our
example) appears in the Plots box.
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Since the f valve is greater than 0.05 the obtained data is not significant.
CORRELATION
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Correlation is a statistical technique that shows how strongly two variables are related to each
other or the degree of association between the two. For example, if we have the weight and
height data of taller and shorter people, with the correlation between them, we can find out
how these two variables are related. We can also find the correlation between these two
variables and say that their weights are positively related to height. Correlation is measured
by the correlation coefficient. A (Pearson) correlation is a number between -1 and +1 that
indicates to what extent 2 quantitative variables are linearly related. a correlation of -1
indicates a perfect linear descending relation: higher scores on one variable imply lower
scores on the other variable.

● a correlation of 0 means there's no linear relation between 2 variables whatsoever.

However, there may be a (strong) non-linear relation nevertheless.
● A correlation of 1 indicates a perfect ascending linear relation: higher scores on one
variable are associated with higher scores on the other variable.

> Null Hypothesis - A correlation test (usually) tests the null hypothesis that the population
correlation is zero.

> Running a Correlation Test in SPSS

Let's first navigate to Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate as shown below.

Move all relevant variables into the variables box. You probably don't want to
change anything else here.
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Clicking Paste results in the syntax below. Let's run it.

> Correlation Output

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Conclusion- As a rule of thumb, a correlation is statistically significant if its “Sig.

(2-tailed)” < 0.05. The correlation between happiness and forgiveness is r = 0.003.
Since the obtained Pearson’s r value is lesser than the table value, the correlation is
significant. The correlation of happiness and kindness is r = 0.15. Since the
obtained Pearson’s r value is lesser than the table value, the correlation is
significant. The correlation of kindness and forgiveness is r = 0.159. Since the
obtained Pearson’s r value is lesser than the table value, the correlation is
significant.

REPEATED MEASURES
● ANOVA for repeated measures is useful when looking to compare the mean scores
between three or more groups on different observations. For comparing the means
between two groups, the sample T-Test is sufficient.
● One-way repeated measures ANOVA test is used when a repeated measure design
study consists of one independent variable while with the two-way repeated measures
ANOVA we use two predictors.
● To be able to conduct the repeated measures ANOVA test, the study repeated measure
design should consist of at least one categorical independent variable and one
continuous dependent variable.

Here are the steps to conducting one-way repeated measures ANOVA analysis in SPSS:

The General Linear Model > Repeated Measures... procedure below shows you how to
analyse your data using a repeated measures ANOVA in SPSS Statistics when the five
assumptions in the previous section, Assumptions, have not been violated. At the end of these
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13 steps, we show you how to interpret the results from this test. If you are looking for help
to make sure your data meets assumptions #3, #4 and #5, which are required when using
repeated measures ANOVA and can be tested using SPSS Statistics, you can learn more in
our enhanced guides (see our Features: Overview page to learn more).

Since some of the options in the General Linear Model > Repeated Measures... procedure
changed in SPSS Statistics version 25, we show how to carry out repeated measures.

Click Analyze > General Linear Model > Repeated measures... on the top menu, as shown
below:

You will be presented with the Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) dialogue box, as
shown below:
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In the Within-Subject Factor Name: box, replace "factor1" with a more meaningful name for
your within-subjects factor. For example, we replaced "factor1" with "time" because this is
the name of our within-subjects factor (i.e., time). Next, enter the number of levels of your
within-subjects factor into the Number of Levels: box. For example, our within-subjects
factor, time, has three levels, representing the three time points when our dependent
variable, CRP, was measured (i.e., pre-intervention, crp_pre, mid-intervention, crp_mid, and
post-intervention, crp_post). Therefore, we entered "3" into the Number of Levels: box, as
shown below:
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Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button and you will be presented with the following screen:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

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In the Measure Name: box, enter a name that reflects the name of your dependent
variable. Since our dependent variable is CRP, we entered "CRP", as shown below:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button and you will get the following screen:
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Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button and you will be presented with the Repeated Measures dialogue
box, as shown below:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Transfer crp_pre, crp_mid and crp_post into the "_?_(1,CRP)", "_?_(2,CRP)" and "_?
_(3,CRP)" placeholders respectively in the Within-Subjects Variables (time): box, by
highlighting all the variables in the left-hand box (by clicking on them whilst holding down

the shift-key), and then clicking on the top button. You will end up with the following
screen:
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Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button. You will be presented with the Repeated Measures:
Profile Plots dialogue box, as shown below:
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Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Transfer the within-subjects factor, time, from the Factors: box into the Horizontal Axis: box

by clicking on the top button. You will end up with the following screen:
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Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button. This will transfer "time" from the Horizontal Axis: box to the
Plots: box, as shown below:
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Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button and you will be returned to the Repeated Measures dialogue
box.

Click on the button and you will be presented with the Repeated Measures:
Estimated Margin Means dialogue box, as shown below:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

 156

Transfer time from the Factor(s) and Factor Interactions: box to the Display Means for: box

using the button. This will activate the Compare main effects checkbox (i.e., it will no

longer be greyed out). Tick this checkbox and select from the
drop-down menu under Confidence interval adjustment:. You will be presented with the
following screen:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button and you will be returned to the Repeated Measures dialogue
box.

Click on the button and you will be presented with the Repeated Measures:
Options dialogue box, as shown below:
 157

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

In the –Display– area, tick the Descriptive statistics and Estimates of effect size checkboxes.
You will be presented with the following screen:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Click on the button and you will be returned to the Repeated Measures dialogue
box.

Click on the button. This will generate the output.

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A repeated measures ANOVA with a Greenhouse-Geisser correction determined that mean

CRP concentration differed statistically significantly between time points (F(1.298, 11.663) =
26.938, P < 0.0005). Post hoc analysis with a Bonferroni adjustment revealed that CRP
concentration was statistically significantly decreased from pre-intervention to three months
(0.39 (95% CI, 0.24 to 0.54) mg/L, p < .0005), and from pre-intervention to post-intervention
 159

(0.68 (95% CI, 0.34 to 1.02) mg/L, p = .001), but not from three months to post-intervention
(0.29 (95% CI, -0.01 to 0.59) mg/L, p = .054).

NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS

Non-parametric test is a statistical analysis method that does not assume the population data
belongs to some prescribed distribution which is determined by some parameters. Due to this,
a non-parametric test is also known as a distribution-free test. These tests are usually based
on distributions that have unspecified parameters.

A non-parametric test acts as an alternative to a parametric test for mathematical models

where the nature of parameters is flexible. Usually, when the assumptions of parametric tests
are violated then non-parametric tests are used.

Some of the non-parametric test are:

● Mann Whitney U Test

● Sign Test

● Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test

● Kruskal Wallis Test

CHI SQUARE TEST

A chi-squared test (also chi-square or χ2 test) is a statistical hypothesis test used in the
analysis of contingency tables when the sample sizes are large. In simpler terms, this test is
primarily used to examine whether two categorical variables (two dimensions of the
contingency table) are independent in influencing the test statistic (values within the table).
The test is valid when the test statistic is chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis,
specifically Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof. Pearson's chi-squared test is used
to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expected
frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more categories of a contingency table.
For contingency tables with smaller sample sizes, a Fisher's exact test is used instead.
 160

In the standard applications of this test, the observations are classified into mutually exclusive
classes. If the null hypothesis that there are no differences between the classes in the
population is true, the test statistic computed from the observations follows a χ2 frequency
distribution. The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the observed frequencies would
be assuming the null hypothesis is true.

Steps in SPSS

Click Analyze > Descriptives Statistics > Crosstabs

You will be presented with the following Crosstabs dialogue box:

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Transfer one of the variables into the Row(s): box and the other variable into the Column(s):

box.
 162

Click on the statistics button. You will be presented with the following Crosstabs: Statistics
dialogue box and Select the Chi-square and Phi and Cramer's V options, as shown below:

Click on the cell button. You will be presented with the following Crosstabs: Cell Display

dialogue box:
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Select Observed from the –Counts– area, and Row, Column and Total from the –
Percentages– area, as shown below:

Click on the format button.You will be presented with the following:

Click on the ok button to generate your output.

Output:
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Mann whitney U test

The Mann–Whitney U test is the non-parametric alternative to the Independent-samples t-

test. The test is used to test for differences between two independent groups on ordinal data
or non-normal continuous data. Instead of comparing the means of the two groups, as in the
case of the t-test, the Mann-Whitney U Test compares medians. It then evaluates whether the
ranks for the two groups differ significantly. As the scores are converted to ranks, the actual
distribution of the scores does not matter.

Steps in SPSS
 165

STEP 1: Go to Analyse → Nonparametric Tests → Legacy Dialogs → 2 Independent

Samples

Step 2: The resulting dialog box is shown in Figure

Step 3: Two-Independent-Samples Test dialog box is displayed, asking for the Test Variable
(Service Quality) and Grouping Variable (Type). Add the respective variables into the
desired boxes.
 166

Step 4: Once the Grouping Variable Gender is added, Click Define Groups, Add 1 (Supplier)
into Group 1 box and add 2 (Customer) into Group 2 box and Press Continue.

Note. If you are unable to click on the Define Groups Button, first select the Grouping
Variable Box.
 167

Step 5: Make sure Mann-Whitney U checkbox is selected. The final dialog box should look
like one in figure

Step 6: Now Press OK

You will get the output.

Hypothesis: The distribution is the same across categories of gender

Conclusion: Retain the null hypothesis
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MEDIAN TEST

In 2 or more independent groups, when the outcome variable is ordinal and the independent
variable is nominal, we can not compare the mean values between the groups. However, we
can compare the medians between the groups.

In SPSS, we can compare the median between 2 or more independent groups by the
following steps:

Step 1. Open the dataset and identify the independent and dependent variables to use the
median test.

Step 2. Now, go to analyze, non-parametric tests and independent samples

Step 3. Then you see the following dialog box. Click objective and select "compare medians
across groups".

Step 4. Click on fields and you see the following dialog box. Move the dependent variable in
test fields and independent variable in groups.
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Step 5. Click on settings and you see the following dialog box. Under choose tests, select
customise tests and tick mark "median test (k samples)" and select the method of multiple
comparison. By default, it is set to all pairwise comparisons.

Step 6. Select test options and put the desired level of significance and confidence level. By
default, it is set 5% level of significance at 95% CI.

Step 7. Exclude or include (by default, it is excluded) the user missing values.

Step 8. Click ok and you will get the output.

Output:

Wilcoxon signed rank test

The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is the nonparametric test equivalent to the dependent t-test. As
the Wilcoxon signed-rank test does not assume normality in the data, it can be used when this
assumption has been violated and the use of the dependent t-test is inappropriate. It is used to
compare two sets of scores that come from the same participants. This can occur when we
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wish to investigate any change in scores from one time point to another, or when individuals
are subjected to more than one condition.

For example, you could use a Wilcoxon signed-rank test to understand whether there was a
difference in smokers' daily cigarette consumption before and after a 6 week hypnotherapy
programme (i.e., your dependent variable would be "daily cigarette consumption", and your
two related groups would be the cigarette consumption values "before" and "after" the
hypnotherapy programme). You could also use a Wilcoxon signed-rank test to understand
whether there was a difference in reaction times under two different lighting conditions (i.e.,
your dependent variable would be "reaction time", measured in milliseconds, and your two
related groups would be reaction times in a room using "blue light" versus "red light").

Steps in SPSS:

Step 1: Click Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Legacy Dialogs > 2 Related Samples... on the
top menu, as shown below:
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Step 2: You will be presented with the Two-Related-Samples Tests dialogue box, as shown
below:

Step 3: Transfer the variables you are interested in analysing into the Test Pairs: box.

Step 4: If you want to generate descriptives or quartiles for your variables, select them by
clicking on the Options button and ticking the Descriptive and Quartiles checkboxes in the –
Statistics– area. Also, you can decide how to deal with missing values. You will end up with
a screen similar to the one below:
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Step 5: Click on the Continue button. You will be returned to the Two-Related-Samples Tests
dialogue box.

Step 6: Click on the OK button. You will get the output.

Double click:
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KRUSKAL WALLIS TEST:

The Kruskal-Wallis test on ranks, also known as the one-way ANOVA on ranks or the
Kruskal-Wallis H test (after William Kruskal and W. Allen Wallis), is a non-parametric
technique for determining if samples come from the same distribution. It is utilized to
compare two or more distinct samples with similar or dissimilar sample sizes. The Mann-
Whitney U test, which is used to compare only two groups, is expanded by this method. The
one-way analysis of variance is the Kruskal-Wallis test's parametric counterpart (ANOVA).
The steps are as follows:

Step 1: Go to Analyze > Then go to Nonparametric Tests > Go To Independent Samples.

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Step 2 : This window will Appear

Now, go to Settings > Go to Choose Tests >Then Select Customize Tests > Then Choose
Kruskal Wallis 1 Way ANOVA(k sample)

Step 3 : Move to Fields > Put in your required Test field > Put in the Group you
want to run the test on. > Run the test.
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Step 4: Output will be obtained.

Step 5: Conclusions:
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Hypothesis : The distribution of Happiness is the same across categories of

education..

Decision : Retain the null Hypothesis.

FRIEDMAN TEST:

The Friedman test is the non-parametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA with repeated
measures. It is used to test for differences between groups when the dependent variable being
measured is ordinal. It can also be used for continuous data that has violated the assumptions
necessary to run the one-way ANOVA with repeated measures (e.g., data that has marked
deviations from normality). Steps for Friedman Test are as follows:
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Step 1 : Go to Analyze > Go To Non parametric tests > In Non Parametric tests,
choose Legacy Dialogs > Then go to K related samples.

Step 2 : This Window will Appear.

Enter The Test variables that are required > Select OK.

Step 3 : Output will be obtained.The differences between the groups can be seen.
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS:

Linear regression is the next step up after correlation. It is used when we want to predict the
value of a variable based on the value of another variable. The variable we want to predict is
called the dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome variable). The variable we are
using to predict the other variable's value is called the independent variable (or sometimes,
the predictor variable). For example, you could use linear regression to understand whether
exam performance can be predicted based on revision time; whether cigarette consumption
can be predicted based on smoking duration; and so forth.

Steps to be followed for linear regression are as follows -

Step 1 : Go To Analyze > Choose Regression > Select Linear.

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Step 2 : As soon as this window appears

Select the Dependent Variable ( required ) > Then Select the Independent Variabl
( required ) > Then choose the Statistics options on the right side.

Step 3: This window will open .

Now In Regression coefficient ( estimates ) > Then choose ( Durbin Watson ) in

Residuals > Descriptives > Continue.
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1) Scatter > ZPRED >ZRESD > Standard Residual Plot ( Histogram ) >
Continue.

2) Output.
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FACTOR ANALYSIS – DATA REDUCTION:

Factor analysis examines which underlying factors are measured by a (large) number of
observed variables.

Steps for Factor Analysis are as follows -

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1) Analyze > Dimensions/Data Reduction > Factor .

Factor analysis has no IVs and DVs, so everything you want to get factors for goes
into the list labeled ‘variables’.

To do a factor analysis, we need to select an ‘extraction method’ and ‘’rotation

method’. Hit the Extraction button to specify the extraction method.
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2) Descriptives > Statistics ( initial solution) > Correlation matrix

( coefficients ) > Continue..

3) Rotation > Method ( Varimax ) > Display ( Rotated Solution ) > Continue.
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4) Options > Coefficient display format ( select both ) > Continue.

5) Output.
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