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 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO
PHYSICS
Physics falls under a broader category of Science. Science is divided into three areas namely
Biology, Physics and Chemistry. The main objective of these subjects is to study and try to
understand the universe and everything in it. The three subjects are very much interrelated.

Specifically, Physics is a branch of science that deals with the study of matter and how it relates to
energy. What is matter? Matter is everything that we see and interact with which has mass and
occupies some space.

In trying to study the universe, Physicists in most cases endeavor to carry out experiments where
quantities are measured and then collected as data. Such data and observations made are then used
to study any logical pattern(s) to reveal any relationship between the data. Before the actual
experimentation, propositions can be made which are actually investigated by the experiment. This
is called a hypothesis. The data is taken through a process of analysis and interpretation and
conclusions drawn. The conclusion may or may not concur with the hypothesis earlier stated. In
case of any pattern between the quantities, this can be expressed in the form of a law, principle or
theory.

A law is a description of a relationship between quantities that manifests itself in recurring patterns
of events. Some of the laws we will be looking at include Hooke’s law, Ohm’s law, etc.

A theory is an explanation of phenomena in terms of most basic natural processes and

relationships. Theories are tentative but can help us affirm already known laws. When tested and
proved, a theory can become a law. A theory that has survived longer time is assumed to possess
some measure of truth.

Physics as a subject is divided into six broad branches as discussed below:

i. Mechanics

This branch deals majorly with motions under the influence of forces. Under this branch, we look
into details the aspects of linear, circular and oscillatory motions as well as motion of fluids.

ii. Optics

This branch takes a keen look at the behavior of light in various media.

iii. Electricity and magnetism

This branch looks at the interaction between electric fields and magnetic fields and the applications
of such interactions.

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 iv. Thermodynamics

This branch looks at how heat as a form of energy is transformed to/from other forms of energy.

v. Atomic Physics

This area of study is targeted at the behavior of particles of the nucleus and the accompanying
energy changes.

vi. Waves

It deals with the study of the propagation of energy through space.

Physics does not only relate the remaining two science subjects but also enjoys a relationship with
other subjects as well. For instance, it is the foundation of technological developmentin any
country.

The study of Physics can open up many avenues of professions including engineering, degree,
diploma or certificate courses.

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 TOPIC 2: MEASUREMENTS
2.1: Physical quantities

The study of physics deals mostly with physical quantities. It involves investigation, making
observations, collection of data and their analysis, interpretation and drawing conclusions.one
important aspect in data collection is taking measurements. When taking measurements, one must
first know the quantity to be measured and the unit for measuring it.

For purposes of uniformity, physical quantities have been assigned specific units which are
acceptable world over. These are referred to as International Standard Unit (SI Unit).

Physical quantities are categorised into two namely basic physical quantities and derived physical
quantities.

A basic physical quantity is a quantity that cannot be obtained by either multiplication or division of
other basic physical quantities. They are seven in number. The table below shows the seven basic
physical quantities, their symbols, SI units and the symbols to the units:

Basic physical quantity Symbol of quantity SI Unit Symbol of unit

Length L Metre m
Mass M Kilogram Kg
Time T Second S
Electric current I ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

A derived physical quantity is one which can be obtained by either multiplication or division of
other basic physical quantities. The table shows some of the derived physical quantities, how they
are obtained and their SI Units:

Derived physical quantity How it is calculated SI Unit Symbol of unit

Area Length*length Square metre m2
Volume Length*length*length Cubic metre m3
Pressure Force/area newton per square metre N/m2 or Pa
or pascal
Density Mass/ volume Kilogram per cubic metre Kg/m3

2.2: Length

Length can be defined as the distance between any two points. The SI unit of length is the metre
(m). Other multiples and submultiples of the metre are stated below:
Kilometre (km); 1m= 10-3km Centimetre (cm); 1m= 100cm

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Hectometre (Hm); 1m= 10-2Hm Millimetre (mm); 1m= 1000mm

Decametre (Dm); 1m= 10-1Dm Micrometre (μm); 1m= 106μm

Decimetre (dm); 1m= 10dm

Length can be estimated or measured accurately using appropriate measuring instrument. The
type of instrument to be used at any time depends on two factors:

- The object to be measured.

- The desired accuracy.

2.2.1: Estimation

This method involves comparing the object to be measured with another of standard measure. For
example, the height of a tall flag post can be compared with that of a wooden rod whose length is
known. Thus at any given time;

Height of flag post/ height of rod = length of shadow of post/ length of shadow of rod

From this expression, the height of the flag post can be estimated. Suppose the height of the rod=
1m, length of shadow of rod= 120cm and length of shadow of post= 480cm, then the height of the
flag post is given by;

Hp/ 100cm =480cm/120cm

Hp= 100*4 = 400cm

Also, the thickness of a sheet of paper may be estimated by taking several sheets of the paper and
measuring their thickness then dividing by the number of sheets of paper;

Thickness of a sheet of paper= thickness of n papers/ number of papers, n.

2.2.2: Accurate measurement

To measure length accurately, the following instruments can be used:

a) Metre rule

A metre rule is marked in centimetres. It is marked 0 and 100cm at its extreme ends. If some space
is left before 0cm and 100cm mark then it is referred to as a ruler.

0 100cm 0 100cm

(a) Metre rule (b) Ruler

The smallest scale division of a metre rule is 0.1cm (1mm). The smallest scale division of any
instrument is known as its accuracy. Thus the accuracy of a metre rule is 0.1cm.

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When using a metre, one must ensure the following:

- That the object to be measured is in contact with the metre rule.

- That one end of the object is at 0cm mark.

- That the eye is perpendicular to the scale so as to avoid parallax error.

b) Vernier callipers

A vernier calliper is more accurate compared to a metre rule. It has two scales; the main scale and
vernier scale. It has an accuracy of 0.01cm compared to that of a metre rule of 0.1cm. It also has two
jaws; the inside jaws and outside jaws. The object whose length is to be measured is placed
between the outside jaws.
Inside jaws

Main scale Vernier scale

Outside jaws

Consider a section of the scale shown below:

Main scale

2 3 cm

0 10

Vernier scale

The smallest scale division of the main scale is 0.1cm. The whole of the vernier scale is of length
9mm (0.9cm) which is sub-divided into ten equal divisions. Therefore each division of the vernier
scale represents 0.09cm. The accuracy of the callipers is given by the difference between the two
least readings;

i.e. accuracy of a vernier calliper = 0.1 – 0.09 = 0.01cm

The reading by the vernier callipers can be obtained in three steps:

Step 1: Reading of the main scale. Take the reading of the main scale just before the zero mark of
the vernier scale i.e. main scale reading= 2.1cm.

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Step 2: Reading of the vernier scale. Check which mark on the vernier scale coincides exactly with a
mark on the main scale i.e 2nd mark. Vernier scale reading= (nth mark*0.01) cm.

Step 3: Adding the two readings.

Therefore for the figure above, the reading= 2.1 + (2*0.01)

= 2.1+0.02

= 2.12cm

c) Micrometer screw gauge

Adjusting screw Spindle Thimble scale

Anvil Sleeve scale Ratchet

Thimble

A micrometer screw gauge can be used to measure very small distances accurately like measuring
the diameter of a thin wire. The accuracy of a micometer screw gauge is 0.01mm. It also has two
scales; sleeve scale and a thimble scale. The sleeve scale is marked in millimetres while the thimble
scale is divided into either 50 or 100 equal divisions.

-+
mm 0 5 25 mm 0 5 80

20 75

(a) Thimble having 50 divisions (b) Thimble having 100 divisions

The distance moved by the spindle in one complete rotation of the thimble is called a pitch.

In (a), the spindle advances or retreats by 0.5mm per complete rotation of the thimble;

50 divisions on the thimble scale= 0.5mm

And 1 division= 0.5mm/50 = 0.01mm

In (b), the spindle moves through 1mm per complete rotation of the thimble.

Similarly, 100 divisions= 1mm

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Hence 1 division= 1mm/100 = 0.01mm

So whether the thimble has 50 or 100 divisions, the least reading of the micrometer screw gauge
remains the same i.e 0.01mm.

Taking measurements using the micrometer screw gauge also involves three steps:

Step 1: Taking the sleeve scale reading. Read the observable mark at the edge of the thimble in mm.

Step 2: Taking the thimble scale reading. Read off the mark on the thimble scale that coincides
directly with the centre line of the sleeve scale.

Hence the thimble scale reading= (nth mark * 0.01) mm.

Step 3: adding the two readings. The sum of the two readings gives the reading by the micrometer
screw gauge.

Example 2.1

1. State the reading indicated in each case:

15 65

0 5 5 10

10 60

(a) (b)

a) Reading =7.5 + (12*0.01)

= 7.5+0.12 = 7.62mm

b) Reading = 12 + (62*0.01)

= 12+0.62 = 12.62mm

2.2.3: Zero error of a vernier calliper and micrometer screw gauge

When the jaws of the vernier calliper are closed without any object between them then the zero
marks of the main scale and that of the vernier scale should coincide. In this case the calliper is said
to have no zero error.

0 1cm

0 10

However, when the two zero marks do not coincide then the calliper has a zero error. When the
zero of the vernier scale is found to the left of the zero of the main scale, the calliper is said to have a
negative zero error. If the instrument is used with this error, then the reading obtained will be

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lower than the actual value. To get the actual reading the error must be added to the instrument’s
reading.
0 1 cm

0 10

Zero error= - (3*0.01) = -0.03cm

If the zero of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale, the calliper has a positive
zero error.
0 1 cm

0 10

Zero error= + {0 + (1*0.01)} = +0.01cm

If the I calliper is used with such an error, the reading obtained will be higher than the actual value.
Hence the error should be subtracted from the reading to get the correct value.

Similarly, when the micrometer screw gauge is closed without any object between its anvil and
spindle and the 0mark of the thimble scale fails to coincide with the centre line of the sleeve scale
then it is said to have a zero error. Note that the edge of the thimble should also be in line with the
zero mark of the sleeve scale when taking the zero error.
5 0

0 0 0 5 0 95

(a)No error (b) A negative zero error (c) A positive zero error

In (b), the error= - (3*0.01) = -0.03mm

In (c), the error = + (4*0.01) = +0.04mm.

Generally, when the signs of the zero errors are taken into account, all zero errors are subtracted
from the instrument’s reading to give the correct reading.

Example 2.2

1. A micrometer screw gauge was used to measure the diameter of a thin wire. The reading is as
shown in the figure below:

mm 0 5 55

50

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State the diameter of the wire if the micrometer had:

a) A negative zero error of 0.22mm

Correct reading = instrument’s reading – zero error

= 7.52-(-0.22)

= 7.52+0.22 = 7.74mm

b) A positive zero error of 0.10mm

Correct reading= 7.52-(+0.10)

= 7.52-0.10 = 7.42mm

2.3: Area

Area is defined as the measure of surface. Its SI Unit is the square metre (m2). Other units of area
include cm2, km2, hectares etc. area can also be estimated or calculated accurately. The area of
regular shapes can be calculated from known formulas;

e.g. area of a triangle= ½(base*height)

Area of a rectangle= length *width

Area of a circle= πr2

The area of irregular shapes can be estimated by counting the number of small squares which are
covered by the irregular object. Not that in this case the area of each small must be known. Consider
the figure below of an irregularly- shaped object.

The number of complete squares covered by the shape= 14

The number of incomplete squares covered by the shape=19

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Therefore, the number of complete squares covered by the shape is approximately (14+ 19/2) =
23.5 squares.

Suppose the area of one square is 1cm2, then the area of the shape is approximately;

Area= 23.5*1 = 22cm2.

2.4: Volume

Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. It’s measured in cubic metre (m3). Other
commonly used units include cm3, ml, litre etc.

2.4.1: Volume of regularly shaped objects

Volumes of regularly shaped objects can be calculated from known formulas. Generally, the volume
a regular object is given the product of its cross section area by the height.

Volume = cross section area * height

2.4.2: Voume of liquids

Volumes of liquids can be measured using specific instruments. These include the measuring
cylinder, volumetric flask, beaker, burette and pipette. Note that liquids have no definite shapes but
take the shape of the container in which they are put.

2.4.3: Volume of irregularly shaped objects

Volumes of irregularly shaped solids can be obtained by displacement method. This may involve
using a measuring cylinder or a eureka can.

Using a measuring cylinder.

The cylinder is first filled with water upto a certain level and its volume read off. Then the object
whose volume is required is immersed in the water completely. The new level is read off. The
volume of the object is equal to the difference between the two readings.
Vf

Vi

Using the eureka can

The can is first filled with water until it overflows through the spout. After the flow has stopped,
carefully immerse the object and collect the water which flows out through the spout using a

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measuring cylinder. Wait until the last drop comes out and then read off the volume of the water
collected. This is equal to the volume of the solid immersed since it has been displaced by the solid.

These two methods only work when the solid:

- Does not react with water.

- Does not absorb water.

- Can sink in water (denser than water).

2.4.4: Volume of a floating object

The same method of displacement is used but with a sinker. It involves three steps:

1. Fill the eureka can with water.

2. Carefully immerse the sinker and note the volume of water it displaces.

3. Fill the eureka can again and now immerse both the sinker and the floating object. Note the
new volume of water displaced.

The difference between the two volumes gives the volume of the floating object.

2.5: Mass

Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. It is measured in kilogram. Other commonly used units
include gram, milligram and tonne.

1kg= 0.001ton

1kg= 1000g

1kg= 1000000mg

Mass of a body depends on the number of particles it has and its size. Hence the mass of a body is
the same everywhere since the number of particles in a body is always constant. Mass is measured
using a beam balance. There are other types of balances which may be used to measure mass. These
include the top pan balance and a lever balance.

2.6: Density

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance;

Density= mass/volume

The SI Unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre. The other commonly used unit is gram per
cubic centimetre (g/cm-3). The symbol of density is rho (ρ).

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The density of a regularly shaped object can be obtained by first finding its mass and volume
separately and then substituting in the formula, ρ= m/v.

Example 2.3

1. An object of mass 50.1g has a density of 16.7gcm-3. What is the volume of the object?

ρ= m/v

Therefore, v= m/ρ =50.1g/16.7gcm-3

=3cm3

2.6.1: Density bottle

This is a special glass bottle that can be used to determine the density of liquids and certain solids
like lead shot. The bottle has its capacity indicated on its surface.

a) Density of a liquid using a density bottle

The empty bottle with its stopper is first weighed and its mass noted, say m1. It is then filled with
the liquid, stopper replaced and wiped carefully. It should always be held by its neck to avoid
unnecessary heating and expansion of the bottle. The bottle is then weighed and the mass noted,
say m2.

(a) Empty bottle (b) Bottle filled with water

The difference between the two volumes is equal to the volume of the liquid in the bottle. Suppose
the capacity of the bottle is V, then the density of the liquid is given by:

Density of liquid= (m2-m1)/ V.

b) Density of a solid (lead shot) using a density bottle.

The empty bottle is first weighed and its mass noted; m1. Some lead shot are added into the bottle
and weighed again. Let the mass of the bottle and lead shot be m2. Hence the mass of lead shot is
(m2-m1). Water is then added into the bottle until it is completely filled. The new mass of the bottle
and its contents noted. Let the mass of bottle, lead shot and added water be m3. Thus the mass of
water added is (m3-m2).

Since the density of water is 1gcm-3, the volume of water added to the bottle is given by;

Vw= m/ρ = (m3-m2)/1 = (m3-m2).

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Suppose the capacity of the bottle is V, then the volume of the lead shot is given by;

VL= V- Vw = V - (m3-m2).

And the density of lead shot = (m2-m1)/ {V - (m3-m2)}.

Note:

1. There should be no air bubbles in the liquid being used to fill the bottle.

2. The solid being used in (b) above should be one that does not dissolve in and react with
water.

Example2. 4

1. The mass a 50cm3 density bottle is 10.0g when empty and 60.0g when filled with copper
turnings upto a certain level. Some water is added into the bottle until it is full. The mass of
the bottle and its contents is found to be 90.0g. Determine the density of the copper
turnings.

Mass of copper turnings= 60.0 – 10.0= 50.0g

Mass of water added= 90.0 – 60.0= 30.0g

Since ρ of water= 1gcm-3

The volume of water added= 30.0/1 = 30cm3

Therefore, the volume copper turnings=50 – 30= 20cm3.

Hence density of copper turnings=50g/20cm3= 2.5gcm-3.

2.6.2: Density of mixtures

The density of mixture is the mass of the mixture divided by its volume;

Density of mixture= mass of mixture/ volume of mixture.

The density of a mixture always lies between the densities of its constituent substances.

Example 2.5

1. 1800cm3 of fresh water of density 1000kgm-3 is mixed with 2200cm3 of sea water of density
1025kgm-3. Calculate the density of the mixture in gcm-3.

Volume of mixture= 1800 + 2200= 4000cm3

Mass of fresh water= 1800 * 1= 1800g

Mass of sea water = 2200 * 1.025= 2255g

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 Hence density of mixture = (1800+2255) g/ (1800+2200) cm3

= 4055/4000 = 1.01375gcm-3

2.7: Time

Time is the measure of duration of an event. The SI Unit of time is the second (s). time can also
be measured in microseconds (μs), milliseconds (ms), minutes (min), hours (hr), days, weeks,
months, years etc. time can be measured using stop watches or stop clocks. A stop watch is
more accurate compared to stop clock.

2.8: The oil drop experiment

The aim of this experiment is to estimate the size of an oil molecule. When a drop of oil is placed
on the surface of clean water, it spreads out into a uniform circular patch. The oil lowers the
surface tension of water whose particles then pull away from the oil.

The patch is assumed to have a thickness equal to the thickness of the oil molecule. The oil drop
is also assumed to be a perfect sphere. Thus its volume is given by 4/3(πr3). For clarity of the
patch, some lycopodium powder is gently sprinkled of the surface of water.

So, volume of an oil drop= volume of patch.

4/3(πr3) = πrp2t;

Where r= radius of the oil drop,

rp= radius of patch.

t= thickness of the oil molecule.

In the experiment, a number of assumptions are made. These include:

- Volume of an oil drop is equal to the volume of the patch.

- The oil drop is a perfect sphere.

- The patch is perfectly circular and one molecule thick.

- The oil drop is one molecule thick.

The knowledge of the oil drop experiment can be used to determine the extent of
environmental damage as a result of oil spillage from ships in large water bodies.

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 TOPIC 3: FORCE
Force is defined as a push or a pull on a body.si unit of force is the newton (N).force is a vector
quantity i.e. has both magnitude (size) and direction.

3.1: Effects of force on a body

✓ Sets a body into motion.

✓ Can stop a moving body.

✓ Can increase or reduce the speed of a moving body.

✓ Can change the direction of a moving body.

✓ May deform (change the shape of) a body.

Force is represented by a straight line with an arrow, which shows the direction in which it acts.
One newton is the force which gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

3.2: Types of force

Force can be categorized in two ways. These are:

• As either a push or a pull

• As either contact or non-contact force

Contact forces are those forces between bodies which are in contact e.g. action and reaction, viscous
drag, friction etc. Non-contact forces act between bodies at a distance e.g. gravitational force,
magnetic force, electrostatic force etc.

Below are some common types of forces:

3.2.1: Gravitational force

It is the force that attracts all objects towards the centre of the earth. It is unique in every planet.
The earth’s gravitational force is that force of attraction between the earth and the body. The pull of
gravity on a body towards the centre of the earth is called its weight. Weight varies from place to
place although its mass remains constant.

The weight of a body is the product of its mass and the gravitational force acting on the body i.e.
weight =mass *gravitational force.

3.2.2: Tension

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When a string is stretched or compressed at both of its ends, it experiences a force called tension. A
stretched or compressed material will tend to regain its original shape when the stretching or
compressing force is withdrawn. Materials that do not break after stretching or compression is said
to be elastic.

3.2.3: Upthrust

When an object is immersed in a fluid (liquid/gas), there is always an opposite upward force acting
on it. This is called upthrust force.

NB. There is no upthrust force in a vacuum.

Upthrust force = Weight of object when in air -- Weight of the object when immersed in fluid (Apparent weight of the object)

3.2.4: Friction force

This is the force that tends to oppose the motion of one object over another when they are in
contact. Friction force is useful in many ways for instance during walking, writing, applying brakes,
lighting a match stick, etc. Friction in fluids is called viscous drag or simply viscosity.

3.2.5: Magnetic force

A magnet can either attract or repel a magnetic material. This force of attraction or repulsion is
called magnetic force. Materials that are not affected by a magnet are said to be non-magnetic
materials.

3.2.6: Electrostatic force

This is the force of attraction or repulsion between static charges. Like charges repel while unlike
charges attract. Electrostatic force is evident in the following cases:

A plastic pen or ruler rubbed on dry air picks up small pieces of paper placed on a table.

Such a pen can attract a stream of water from a water tap.

A glass window wiped using a dry piece of cloth on a dry day immediately attracts dust particles.

Brushed shoes attract dust particles.

When combing a dry hair, a cracking sound is produced.

All these are as a result of attraction between the formed charges and the opposite charges.

3.2.7: Centripetal force

This is the force that constraints a body to maintain a circular path as it move. It is usually directed
towards the centre of the circle.

3.2.8: Action and reaction

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Action and reaction are equal and opposite forces. When a block of wood rests on a table its weight
is exerted on the table. This is action force. The table on the other hand exerts an equal upward
force on the block of wood. This is reaction force and it prevents the block from sinking down below
the table.

3.2.9: Cohesive and adhesive force

Cohesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of the same kind e.g. force between
water molecules. Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different kinds e.g.
force between water molecule and the surface of glass.

For instance when a molecule of water is put on a clean glass surface, the water spreads on (wets)
the glass surface. This is because there is greater adhesive force between water and glass molecule
than the cohesive force between the water molecules. However, when the glass surface is waxed,
the water forms spherical balls. This is because for a waxed surface, the adhesive force between
water and glass is lower than the cohesive force between water molecules.

Mercury on the other hand will form spherical balls both on a clean and waxed glass surface. This is
because cohesive force between mercury molecules is greater than adhesive force between
mercury and glass molecules. Waxing the glass surface in this case even lowers the adhesive force
further.

Cohesive and adhesive force can be used to explain the meniscus of water and mercury in a glass
tube.

Water Mercury

Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)

In fig (i), greater adhesive force between glass and water makes water to rise up the narrow glass
tube by capillary action so that as many water molecules as possible can be in contact with glass.
Hence the meniscus of water curves downwards. The narrower the glass tube the higher the level of
water.

In fig (ii), cohesive force between the mercury molecules is greater than the adhesive force between
mercury and glass. Mercury thus sinks down the tube so that its molecules can stick together.
Hence the meniscus of mercury curves upwards from the glass surface. The narrower the tube, the
lower the level of mercury in the tube.

3.2.10: Surface tension

The cohesive force between the molecules of a liquid gives it some strength. The surface can thus
resist stretching. Surface tension is the force that makes the surface of the liquid to behave like a
fully stretched elastic skin.

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Surface tension allows light insects to rest over water without sinking. a steel razor blade or needle
floats on water if placed carefully but sinks when soap solution or kerosene is placed around it.
Also if one end of the needle is pressed into the water, it breaks the surface tension and the needle
sinks.

Molecular explanation of surface tension

Consider two molecules, A and B shown below:

A molecule A deep in the water is surrounded by other molecules from all sides. The net force on
this molecule is thus zero i.e. the forces cancel out. A molecule B at the surface has fewer molecules
on the upper part. The inward resultant force on B thus causes the surface of water to be under
tension.

Note:

Different liquids have different strengths of surface tension.

Activity 1

1. Describe the behavior of soap bubble when blown to the wider end of a funnel.

2. Explain why a glass tumbler can be filled with water above the brim without pouring out.

3. Explain why brush bristles would spread when it is dipped in water but cling together when
taken out of water.

3.3: Factors affecting surface tension

3.3.1: Temperature

When the temperature of a liquid is increased the kinetic energy of its molecules is also increased.
The inter-molecular distance increases lowering the cohesive force between the liquid molecules.
Consequently the surface tension of the liquid is reduced.

3.3.2: Impurities

The presence of impurities in a liquid lowers its surface tension. Examples of impurities include
kerosene and detergents like soap solution.

3.4: Mass and weight

Mass is defined as the quantity of matter in a substance. Weight on the other hand is the pull of
gravity on an object. Weight of a body depends on the mass of the body and the gravitational field
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strength at the place. The earth is flatter at the poles such that the distance between the centre of
the earth and the poles is shorter than the radius of the earth at the equator. This implies that the
force of attraction between the surface of the earth and its centre is greater at the poles than at the
equator. Hence a body will weigh more at the poles than at the equator.

The table below summarizes the differences between mass and weight:

Mass Weight

Is the quantity of matter in a body Is the pull of gravity on a body

Measured in kilogram Measured in newton

Constant/same everywhere Varies from place to place

Measured by a beam balance Measured by spring balance

Scalar quantity Vector quantity

A scalar quantity is a quantity that can be described in terms of magnitude (size) only eg speed,
distance, area etc while a vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction e.g.
displacement, velocity, momentum etc.

Example 3.1

1. A body weighs 75N on the earth’s surface. Calculate its mass in grams if g= 10 N/kg.

W=mxg

m=W/g= 75N/10Nkg-1

=7.5kg=7500g

2. A man weighs 900N on earth and 150N on the moon. If the earth’s gravitational field
strength is 10N/kg, determine the moon’s gravitational field strength.

Mass on earth= W/g=900N/10Nkg-1

=90kg=mass on the moon

Gravitational field strength on the moon=W/m=150N/90kg

=1.67N/kg

3.5: Measurement of force

The most common instrument for measuring force is the spring balance. It uses the principle of
extension when there is a stretching force. Some spring balances are calibrated in newtons (N)
while others are calibrated in kilogram or even gram. In the latter case, it is advisable to convert the
kg or g into newtons.

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Two or more spring balances can be assembled to act as one spring balance. When the springs are
joined in series, the combined extension will be the sum of the individual spring extension.

However, when they are connected in parallel, the springs will share the load. The combined
extension therefore will be the extension of one spring divided by the number of such springs in
parallel.

Example 3.2

1. The figure below shows two identical spring balances supported as shown:

A B

8kg

State the reading on each spring balance.

Each spring will read =80/2=40N

2. Three identical arranged as shown below were used to support a load of weight 20N. If the
beam has a weight of 1N and each spring would extend by 1cm if a load of weight 4N is
suspended from it, determine the extension of each spring.

A B

20N

Extension in spring A= Extension in spring B={(21/2)x1cm}/4N =2.265cm

Extension in spring C= (20Nx1cm)/4N =5cm

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 TOPIC 4: PRESSURE
4.1: Introduction

Pressure is defined as the compressive force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area;

i.e. pressure= force/area

The SI unit of pressure is newton per square metre (N/m2). Pressure can also be expressed in
pascals (Pa);

1N/m2=1Pa

Atmospheric pressure is sometimes expressed as mmHg, cmHg or atmospheres.

For a given amount of force, the smaller the area of contact the greater the pressure exerted. This
explains why it would be easier for a sharp pin to penetrate a piece of cardboard than a blunt one
when the same force is used.

4.2: Pressure in solids

A solid resting on a horizontal surface exerts a normal contact force equals to its weight. The
pressure of the solid on the surface depends on the area of contact.
Area of contact, A

Weight, W

Example 4.1

1. A man whose mass is 90kg stands on a floor.

a) If the area of contact between his feet and the floor is 0.0368m2, determine how much
pressure he able to exert on the floor.

P= F/A = 900N/0.0368m2

=24,456.5217N/m2.

b) What pressure will he exert on the floor if now he stands on one foot?

P=900N/(0.0368/2) =48,913.0435N/m2

4.3: Pressure in fluids

A fluid is a term that refers to either liquids and gases. The set up below can be used to illustrate
pressure in fluids:

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 C

The lower hole A is observed to throw water the farthest, followed by hole B and C the closest. This
indicates that pressure at A is greater than that at B and pressure at B is greater than that at C.

Conclusion

Pressure in fluids increases with depth i.e. the greater the depth the higher the pressure it exerts.

This explains why the walls of a dam are made wider downwards.
Wider wall

A diver under water experiences pressure due to the weight of water above him plus the
atmospheric pressure above the water surface. The deeper the diver, the greater the pressure.

When a liquid is poured into a set of connected tubes of different shapes, it rises up until the levels
are the same in all the tubes.

4.4: The fluid pressure formula

Consider a liquid of density ρ in a container of uniform cross-section area A, such that the depth of
the liquid in the container is h;
Cross sectional area, A

Liquid Depth, h

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Volume of the liquid = A*h

Mass = volume * density

=Ahρ

Weight of the liquid = mass * gravitational field intensity= force exerted

=Ahρg

From the definition of pressure, P= F/A

= Ahρg/A

= hρg

It is thus clear that pressure in fluids is directly proportional to the height of the column h, the
density of the fluid ρ and the gravitational field strength g.

Note: Pressure in fluids does not depend on the cross section area of the container which holds it.

Example 4.2

1. Calculate the pressure exerted by a column of kerosene of 850mm. take the density of
kerosene= 800kgm-3.

P= hρg =0.85m x 800kgm-3x10N/kg

= 6800Pa

4.5: Transmission of pressure in fluids

The figure below shows a liquid under pressure due to the force F acting on the plunger.
P

Piston

F P

Assuming that the holes are identical, when the plunger is pushed forward, the liquid squirts out
through the holes with equal force. If the piston area is A, then the pressure developed is F/A. this
pressure is transmitted equally to all parts of the liquid. This is called Pascal’s principle. The
principle states that pressure applied at one part of a liquid is transmitted equally to all other parts
of the enclosed liquid. Gases can also transmit pressure in a similar way provided they are
incompressible.

The working of hydraulic machines is based on Pascal’s principle.

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4.6: Atmospheric pressure

The term atmosphere refers to the air surrounding the earth. The weight of air above the earth’s
surface exerts pressure on the earth. This pressure is called atmospheric pressure. The presence of
atmospheric pressure can be demonstrated by the crushing can experiment;

Cold water

Boiling water

The can is filled with water then heated for several minutes. After sometime, the can is sealed and
then cooled by running cold water over it.

When the water is heated, steam is produced which displaces air in the can. When cold water is run
over it, steam condenses leaving a vacuum in the can. Pressure inside is thus reduced below the
external atmospheric pressure. Hence the can crushes inwards.

Atmospheric pressure is also very vital when using a drinking straw. By sucking through a drinking
straw the pressure inside is reduced. The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid
overcomes the pressure inside the straw. The pressure difference and hence the resultant force
pushes the liquid up the straw.

4.7:Measurement of pressure

Atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called a barometer. The following are some
types of barometers:

• A mercury barometer
Torricelian vacuum

MercuryPatmh

Atmospheric pressure can support a liquid column in a tube. One end of the tube is closed and the
tube is filled with mercury. When inverted and with the open end below the liquid surface in the
container. The atmospheric pressure (Patm ) on the open surface is transmitted by the liquid to the
base of the liquid column and supports its weight.

With the liquid column h, the atmospheric pressure can be determined from the equation;

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Pressure = hρg

Where h- is the height of the liquid column

ρ- Density of the liquid (mercury)

g- Gravitational field strength

At sea level atmospheric pressure can support approximately 76cm column of mercury equivalent
to approximately 10m column of water. Mercury is thus preferred as a barometric fluid since it
gives a shorter and measurable column compared to water.

In general, atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. The value of atmospheric pressure at sea
level is called the standard atmospheric pressure and is at times referred to as one atmosphere.

Pressure at sea level =hρg =0.76m*13600kg/m3 *10N/kg

= 103,360N/m2

If there is air trapped in the space above the mercury column then the barometer is faulty. This
space above the mercury column is called toricellian vacuum. To test whether this space has some
air trapped, the test tube is tilted until it is at the same level with the mercury column when the
tube is upright. If the space is truly a vacuum, the test tube will be completely filled with mercury
while if it has trapped air a space will still remain at the top.
A B C

Space having air

Normally the toricellian vacuum contains some little mercury vapour.

Note that this barometer is not readily portable.

• A manometer

This is a U-shaped tube open on both ends. One end is connected to a source of gas whose pressure
is to be determined. The other arm is open to the atmosphere. This creates a pressure difference
which displaces the manometer liquid.
Trapped gas Patm

Pg h

A B

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The points A and B are at the same level and as such experience the same amount of pressure. The
pressure at A is the gas pressure while that at B equals the pressure due to the liquid column plus
atmospheric pressure;

Pg = PA + hρg

• Fortin barometer

Scale

Screw for adjusting the scale

Mercury Protective brass tube

Ivory pointer

Glass Leather bag

The fixed ivory index with a sharp point acts as the zero mark of the main scale. Before taking any
reading the level of the mercury in the reservoir must first be adjusted until the tip of the ivory
index just touches the surface of mercury.

The height of mercury column is then read from the main scale .this reading is then used to
calculate the pressure at the place. Any change in the atmospheric pressure causes the level of
mercury in the reservoir to move up or down, hence the adjustment of the ivory index is necessary.

• Aneroid barometer

This type of barometer is more portable.

Pointer

Scale Coiled spring

Partial vacuum Corrugated metal box

Lever

Strong spring

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When the pressure outside the corrugated metal box is reduced, the box expands setting the levers
into motion. However, when the pressure outside increases, the box reduces in volume. The
resultant movements of the springs and levers moves the pointer across the scale recording the
value of the atmospheric pressure.

The aneroid barometer can also be used to measure heights. For instance, altimeters are aneroid
barometers used in aircrafts to measure heights.

• Pressure gauge

Pressure gauges are also easily portable. It is commonly used to measure gas pressure, tyre
pressure, etc. It consists of a coiled flexible metal tube. When the pressure inside the tube increases,
the tube uncoils. The movement of the tube is magnified by the lever and gear mechanism which
then moves the pointer across the scale.

Scale Pointer Lever and gear system

Flexible metal tube

4.8: Applications of pressure

1. A bicycle pump
Barrel Air

Valve

Upstroke Washer

The leather washer is very flexible and works both as a valve and a piston. During the upstroke, air
in the barrel expands and its pressure reduced below the atmospheric pressure outside. The
pressure difference and hence the resultant force acting downwards pushes the air past into the
barrel. The valve remains closed due to the high pressure in the tube.

During down stroke, air in the barrel is compressed raising its pressure. This high pressure presses
the leather washer against the wall of the barrel hence no air leaks out. When the pressure of the air
in the barrel overcomes that inside the tube, the air is forced through the valve into the tube. The
work done in compressing the air in the barrel generates some heat raising the temperature of the
barrel.

2. The hydraulic machines

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These machines apply Pascal’s principle in their working. They include the following machines:

a) Hydraulic lift
F1
F2
Piston (area A1) Piston (area A2)

When a force F1 is exerted on the smaller piston of cross section area A1, the pressure developed
(F1/A1) is transmitted by the liquid to the larger piston of cross section area A2 and is able to
support a load F2.Alternatively, the pressure exerted on the liquid by the larger piston can be
expressed as F2/A2. If the system is in equilibrium, then F1/A1 = F2/A2.

b) Hydraulic brake system

Master cylinder

To other wheels

Slave cylinder Foot pedal

Brake lining Drum

Brake shoe

Spring

The force applied on the foot pedal exerts pressure on the master cylinder. This pressure is
transmitted equally by the brake fluid to the slave cylinder. The pistons of the slave cylinder are
then forced to open outwards. This opens the brake shoe. The brake lining then presses the drum,
resisting the rotation of the wheel. When the force on the foot pedal is released, the return spring
pulls back the brake shoe and the wheel can rotate once again .The pressure exerted on the master
cylinder is transmitted equally to all the four wheels and so the braking force is uniform
In order for the brake system not to fail, the liquid used should have the following properties;

✓ Be incompressible.
✓ Have low freezing point and high boiling point.
✓ Should not corrode parts of the brake system.

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3. The lift pump

The lift pump relies on the atmospheric pressure to raise water from a borehole or well. It has two
valves, A and B.
Upstroke

Force

A
Piston Plunger

Patm hPatm
B

To start the pump, water must be poured on top of the piston, a process called priming. This creates
an air-tight seal around the piston and in valve A. The pump is operated by means of a lever. It has
two cycles, upstroke and down stroke.

During upstroke

When the plunger moves up during upstroke, valve A closes due to the pressure of water above it
plus the weight of the plunger. At the same time, air above valve B expands and the atmospheric
pressure on the surface of water pushes water past valve B into the barrel. The plunger is moved up
and down until the region between A and B is filled with water. Water above the piston is then lifted
out through the side tube.

During down stroke

During downstroke, valve B closes due to its weight plus pressure of water above the piston.

Limitation of the lift pump.

The atmospheric pressure can only support a column of water of about 10mm i.e. Normal
atmospheric can raise water to a maximum height of 10m.

In practice, this height is usually below 10m.This due to;

✓ Low atmospheric pressure in places at high altitudes.

✓ Leakages at the valves and piston.

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4. The force pump.
Upstroke Downstroke

R Trapped air
Q
Q
P

In this design, the pressure used to raise water is created by the person operating the pump handle.
The pump handle moves a piston in the cylinder, which is placed within 10m of the water level i.e.
10m or below [h].The cylinder is connected to a chamber.

Upstroke.
During upstroke, air above valve P expands and its pressure falls below atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure on the water surface pushes water up past valve P into the barrel.
The pressure above valve Q is atmospheric pressure and hence this valve remains closed during
this stroke.

Down stroke

During down stroke, valve P closes. Increase in pressure in water in the barrel opens valve Q and
water is forced into the chamber R. As water fills the chamber, some air is trapped and compressed
at the upper part.

In the next upstroke, valve Q closes and the compressed air forces water up the delivery pipe
ensuring a continuous flow of water as the valves open and close.

NB: The height to which water can be raised is affected by two factors, namely:

➢ The strength of the person pumping i.e. the force applied during the down stroke
➢ The ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand the pressure of the long column
of water in the chamber R.

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5. Siphon

PAtm

A B

The pressure at A and B is the same and equal to the atmospheric pressure. The pressure at C is the
atmospheric pressure plus the pressure due to the column of water, h.

Pc =Patm + hρg

The pressure of the surrounding air at C is atmospheric pressure. This creates a pressure
difference. The resultant downward force due to this pressure difference causes water to flow out
of the end C. The water column doesn’t break due to strong cohesive force between water
molecules.

For the siphon to work, the following conditions must be met:

• The end C must be below the surface of the liquid to be emptied, A.

• The tube must first be filled with the liquid having NO bubble in it.
• One end of the tube must be in the liquid
• The tube must not rise beyond the barometric height of the liquid from the surface of the
liquid.

Note that a siphon can work in a vacuum provided a pressure difference is created.

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 TOPIC 5: PARTICULATE
NATURE OF MATTER
5.1: Introduction

Matter – is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter exists in three states namely; solid,
liquid and gas.

Experiment

Aim: to demonstrate that matter is made up of smaller particles

Apparatus: Beakers, potassium permanganate crystals, water.

Procedure

i. Pour water into the beaker till it is half full

ii. Dissolve some potassium permanganate crystals until the solution is purple

iii. Transfer half the solution into another beaker and fill it with water

iv. Continue the process with other beakers, comparing the colour of the solution through each
dilution.

Observation

1st dilution last dilution

The colour of the solution fades away through each dilution until the solution appears colourless.

This shows that the particles of potassium permanganate are spread out evenly in the water. Each
dilution spreads them out further as the water molecules increase in number. Hence the purple
colour fades away with each dilution until it becomes colourless.

Conclusion

Potassium permanganate is made up of tiny particles.

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Also, when some salt particles are put in a flask and water added, it is observed that after shaking
the flask to dissolve the salt, the volume of the final solution is less than the original volume of the
water plus undissolved salt. This is because salt particles fitted into some spaces between the water
molecules. Hence the particles of the solution are more packed together, reducing the volume of the
solution. This also indicates that the particles of water and those of salt differ in size.

5.2: Brownian motion

Brownian motion refers to the irregular movement of light particles when they are knocked by
heavier bodies.

Experiment 1

Aim: To demonstrate Brownian motion in liquids

Apparatus: Beaker, hand lens, pollen grains (chalk dust), transparent lid.

Procedure

i. Pourwater into the beaker about ¾ full.

ii. Sprinkle pollen grains on the surface of the water.

iii. Cover the beaker with a transparent lid.

iv. By the use of a hand lens, observe the behavior of the pollen grains on the water surface.

Observation

The pollen grains suspended in the water are in constant random motion.

The pollen grains are constantly knocked by smaller invisible particles of water from all sides. The
net force on the pollen grain at any instant makes it to move with an irregular pattern. This is called
Brownian motion.

Experiment2

Aim: to demonstrate Brownian motion in air (the smoke cell experiment)

Apparatus: A drinking straw, smoke cell, microscope and a bright light source

Procedure

i. Burn one end of the straw and let the smoke fill the smoke cell from the other end.

ii. Remove the straw and cover the cell using the cover plate.

iii. Illuminate the cell and with the use of a microscope observe the behavior of the smoke
particles in the smoke cell.

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Observation

Bright specks which are in continuous random motion are observed.

The bright specks are smoke particles scattering light. The random motion is due to constant
collision between smoke particles and invisible air particles and also with walls of the cell.

The above findings can be summarized by the kinetic theory of matter which states: matter is
made up of tiny particles which are in continuous random motion.

5.3: States of matter

Matter exists in three states which are interconvertible through either heating or cooling.

5.3.1: Solids

In solid state, the particles are closely packed together due to strong cohesive force between them.
They vibrate in their fixed positions. Hence solids have definite shape and volume. When the
temperature of the solid is raised, the vibration becomes rapid. At a certain temperature the
particles of the solid break away from the structure of the solid and the solid is said to have melted.
This temperature is called the melting point of the solid.

5.3.2: Liquids

The particles of a liquid are generally not as close as in solids. The attractive force between the
liquid particles is weaker than solids’. Hence liquids have neither definite shape nor volume but
take the shape of the container.

The density of a liquid is a little less than that of its liquid. This is because the liquid occupies more
space than its own solid. Hence solid materials sink in their own liquids.

When a liquid is heated to a certain temperature, it changes to a gas. This temperature is known as
its boiling point and the process is called vaporization.

A liquid can sometimes lose its energy and fall back to solid state. This is called freezing.

5.3.3: Gases

In gases, the particles are far apart with the weakest cohesive force. For this reason gases are highly
compressible. Gases have densities which are much less than those of their respective liquids and
solids.

Gas particles can sometimes lose their energy and fall back to liquid state. This is called
condensation.

NB: certain solids change directly to gas when heated while some gases can be cooled directly to
solid. This process is called sublimation.

Melting Boiling

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 Freezing Condensation

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Sublimation

5.4: Diffusion

Diffusion is defined as the process by which particles move from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration.

➢ Diffusion in liquids can be demonstrated by putting a potassium permanganate crystal at

the bottom of a beaker of water. After some time the water is observed to turn deep purple
at the bottom and light purple near the top.

Also when a saturated copper II sulphate solution is added to water in a beaker, initially the water
layer floats on top of the copper II sulphate solution due to its lower density. After some time the
boundary disappears and the two form a homogeneous pale blue mixture.

When warm liquids are used in the illustrations above, similar observations would be made but
after a shorter time. This suggests that temperature speeds up the rate of diffusion.

➢ Diffusion in gases is faster than in liquids due to their lower density, high kinetic energy
and weaker cohesive forces (or larger intermolecular distance). Diffusion in gases can be
investigated by setting up two gas jars, one filled with air and the other with bromine gas as
shown below.
A B

Bromine gas Air

After some time a pale brown gas mixture is observed in both the jars. The bromine gas
spreads into jar B while air particles also spread into jar A.

NB: The rate of diffusion will be slower when the gas jars were set upright. This is because the
denser gas will tend to remain at the base and the lighter one up.

This experiment should be carried out in a fumed cupboard or fume chamber.

➢ Diffusion in solids is very slow but can occur between two metals like gold and lead.

5.4.1: Rate of diffusion

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The rate of diffusion between ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas can be investigated by the set
up below.

Cotton wool soaked in conc. ammonia solution Cotton wool soaked in conc. hydrochloric acid

White deposit

After some time, a white deposit of ammonium chloride is formed near the end with the
hydrochloric acid. This indicates that ammonia gas diffuses faster than hydrochloric acid gas. Note
that ammonia gas is lighter compared to hydrochloric acid gas.

Conclusion

The rate of diffusion depends on the density of the substance and the temperature.

5.4.2: Diffusion through porous materials

Porous pot

Hydrogen gas

A porous pot has very fine holes through which hydrogen gas diffuses into the pot while air diffuses
out. The level of water in the tube falls as hydrogen diffuses into the pot. If hydrogen is supplied for
a longer time, bubbles of hydrogen gas will be observed from the end in the water.

When the gas supply is stopped, hydrogen gas diffuses out of the pot as air diffuses into the pot and
the level of water in the tube rises.

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TOPIC 6: THERMAL EXPANSION
6.1: Introduction

Temperature – it is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body on some chosen scale. It is

measured using a thermometer. The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K). Other units include
degrees Celsius (0C), Fahrenheit, F. Temperature is a basic physical quantity as well as a scalar
quanity.

6.2: Temperature scale

The scale of a thermometer is obtained by selecting two temperatures called fixed points; the lower
fixed point and the upper fixed point. The lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice.
It is taken to be 00C. The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water at
normal atmospheric pressure. It is taken to be 1000C. The temperature of steam is used since
impurities do not affect its temperature but will raise the boiling point of water. The range between
these two points is then divided into equal divisions.

On the Kelvin (absolute) scale, 00C is at 273 K while 1000C is at 373 K. Hence to convert 0C to K, add
273 to the temperature in 0C.

Activity 6.1

1. Convert the following into Kelvin:

a) 350C b) -1110C c) -273 0C

2. Convert the following into 0C:

a) 123 K b) 323 K

6.3: Types of thermometers

A thermometer is designed according to the purpose for which it is required. The following are
some of the commonly used thermometers:

6.3.1: Liquid-in-glass thermometer

Stem

Liquid thread

Bulb

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In this thermometer the liquid expands up a capillary tube when the bulb is heated. The liquid used
in this thermometer should posses the following qualities for the thermometer to be effective:

✓ Be easily visible

✓ Expand and contract uniformly

✓ Have a wide range of temperature i.e high boiling point and low freezing point

✓ Be sensitive to small temperature changes

✓ Should not wet the glass

The most commonly used liquid is mercury although coloured alcohol can also be used. Water does
not meet all the above desirable properties. The table below compares mercury and alcohol as a
thermometric liquid:

Mercury Alcohol

Has high b.p, 3570C Has low b.p, 780C

Relatively high freezing point, -390C Low freezing point, -1150C

Good thermal conductor Poor thermal conductor

Has regular expansion Has a slight irregular expansion

Does not wet the glass Wets the glass

Easily visible Ii coloured to make it easily visible

These thermometers are commonly used in normal laboratories.

6.3.2: A clinical thermometer

This is a special thermometer used to measure human body temperature. It has a short scale
between 35—430C. This is because the optimal body temperature is 370C. It has a constriction to
prevent back flow of the mercury into the bulb. This is to allow time to take the reading. After use
the thermometer is shaken to return the mercury back to the bulb.

Methylated spirit can be used to sterilize the thermometer after use.

6.3.3: Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer

Saturated vapour

Oil

Maximum index

Bulb Minimum index

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 Mercury

It is used to record minimum and maximum temperatures of a given place. When the temperature
of the surrounding rises, the oil in the bulb A expands pushing the mercury which in turn pushes up
the oil in the other arm. This compresses the vapour above the oil and the maximum index is
pushed up to the maximum position. This is the maximum temperature.

When the temperature falls, the oil contracts back into the bulb. Mercury flows back pushing the
minimum index to the minimum position. This gives the minimum temperature.

After taking the readings, the indices are pulled down to the level of the mercury using a magnet.

6.3.4: A bimetallic thermometer

It is made up of a coiled bimetallic strip whose one end is fixed and the other end connected to a
pointer. Commonly used metals are brass and invar. When the temperature rises brass expands
more than invar. The strip thus curls forcing the pointer to move over a calibrated scale.

6.4: Expansion in solids

A solid can expand in three ways:

❖ Linear expansion; increase in length

❖ Superficial expansion; increase in surface area

❖ Cubic expansion; increase in volume

Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled. During expansion the volume increases,
density decreases but mass remains the same. Expansion in solids can be demonstrated by the ball
and ring experiment.

When both the ball and ring are at room temperature, the ball easily passes through the ring but
when the ball is heated it does not go through the ring. When left in contact for some time the ball
finally passes through the ring again.

On heating the ball expanded and so could not go through the ring. After sometime it went through
because the ball lost some of its heat to the ring which then expanded while the ball slightly
contracted.

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Different solids like metals will expand at different rates when exposed to the same amount of heat
for the same duration. This can be investigated by the bar and gauge experiment.

One end of the metal bar is fixed while the other end is kept in contact with the pointer. Any slight
expansion of the bar is magnified by the long pointer and can be read from the scale. The
experiment is then repeated using bars of other materials. The pointer readings are then used to
compare their rates of expansion.

In the above experiment, the following parameters must be kept constant:

✓ Length of the rods

✓ Diameter / thickness of the rods

✓ Source of heat

✓ Duration of heating

The measure of the tendency of a material to expand is called its expansivity. The ability of a
material to expand when heated is referred to as its linear expansivity.

Linear expansivity, α = expansion (change in length)/ {original length * temperature change}

The SI unit of linear expansivity is per Kelvin (K-1).

Linear expansivity of a substance may also be defined as the fraction of its original length by which
a rod of the same substance expands per Kelvin rise in temperature.

Example 6.1

1. Consider a brass rod of length 50.2 cm at 16.60C. if the rod is heated until a temperature of
99.50C where its new length is 50.279 cm, determine the linear expansivity of brass.

Linear expansivity, α = e/l0*ΔT = (50.279-50.20) cm/50.2 cm * (99.5-16.6) K

= 0.079/50.2-82.9

= 1.9 * 10-5 K-1

The table below shows some substances with their linear expansivities:

Material Linear expansitivty ( * 10-5) K-1

Aluminum 2.6

Copper 1.68

Brass 1.9

Iron 1.2

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Steel 1.1

Concrete 1.1

Platinum alloy 0.9

Glass 0.85

Invar 0.1

silica 0.042

The knowledge of linear expansivity is used in designing various materials to ensure that they are
able to operate well under varying thermal conditions. For instance ordinary glass has a higher
linear expansivity than a pyrex glass. When hot water is put in an ordinary glass, it breaks but when
a pyrex glass is used it does not crack. The pyrex glass has lower linear expansivity and cannot
suffer very large forces of expansion while the ordinary glass does as it undergoes temperature
changes.

In building and construction, concrete is always reinforced using steel because both have the same
linear expansivity.

6.5: Bimetallic strip

It is formed when two metals of different linear expansivities are riveted together e.g. brass and
iron or brass and invar. When the temperature of the strip is raised, brass expands more than iron.
Hence the strip curves with brass curving outwards and iron inwards. When the temperature falls,
brass again contracts more than iron and the strip curves with brass now on the inner side and
brass on the outer side.

6.6: Applications of expansion and contraction in solids

6.6.1: Railway lines

Railway lines are fixed with gaps to allow for expansion when temperature rises. The bolt holes are
also oval in shape for the same reason. Another way of creating room for expansion in railway lines
is by planing the ends of the rails so that they are able to overlap during expansion.

6.6.2: Telephone/electricity wires

Telephone and electricity wires are loosely fixed during installation to allow for contraction during
cold weather.

6.6.3: Steam pipes

Pipes carrying steam from boilers are fitted with expansion loops to allow for expansion and
contraction. Without the loop the pipe is likely to break due to the resultant force as a result of

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expansion and contraction. It is necessary that oil companies make this allowance when
constructing fuel pipelines.

6.6.4: Steel bridges

In the construction of steel bridges, one end is fixed while the other end is placed on rollers. This is
to allow for expansion and contraction.

6.6.5: Rivets

Rivets are fitted when hot and then hammered flat. On cooling, the rivet contract, pulling the two
plates firmly together.

6.6.6: Thermostat

It is a device that can be used to control the temperature of a room. It uses a bimetallic strip. It is
connected to a heater circuit. When the temperature of the room rises beyond the set value, the
bimetallic strip expands and bends away breaking the contact. Hence the heater circuit is switched
off.

The strip cools and contracts and the contact is remade switching on the heater circuit. The setting
knob is used to adjust the temperature at which the thermostat is switched on and off.

Other uses of the thermostat include controlling the temperature of electric iron, cookers and
fridge, fire alarms and car indicators.

6.7:Expansion and contraction in liquids

The rate expansion in liquids is more than in solids because the particles are slightly far apart.
When temperature increases, the liquid molecules gain more energy increasing their rate of
movement. The weak bonds between these molecules are further weakened. The molecules thus
expand and occupy more space. Expansion in liquids can be demonstrated by the set up below:

Liquid

When heated, the level of the liquid in the glass tube first drops and then starts rising. This initial
fall in the level is because the glass was heated first and expanded. Later the liquid received the heat
energy and expanded hence the rise in the level.

Just like solids, liquids expand at different rates. In order to investigate this, a number of identical
flasks are filled with different liquids ensuring that their initial levels are the same in the glass
tubes. For a fair comparison, the tubes should be identical i.e. of same diameter. The flasks are then

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simultaneously immersed in a bath of hot water. The bath of water should be stirred continuously
to ensure that temperature is uniform.

It will be observed that the level of the liquids in the tubes differ after some time. If water, alcohol
and methylated spirit were used, it would be observed that methylated spirit expanded the most,
followed by alcohol and water the least.

6.8: Expansion in gases

Gases have the highest rate of expansion because their particles are very far apart and are held by
very weak forces. When heated, they gain more energy and move farther apart occupying more
space. It can be shown by a round bottomed flask fitted with a glass tube in a tight-fitting cork. The
flask is first inverted with the glass tube dipped in water. By use of the palms, the flask is warmed
for some time.
Air

It will be observed that the level of water in the tube drops and if warmed for a longer time, bubbles
are observed escaping from the end of the tube in water. This shows that air expanded on heating
and needed more space, hence the drop in the level of water in the tube and the bubbles.

If the heat is withdrawn, the level of the water rises again in the tube. Expansion and contraction in
gases is the basis of the formation of land and sea breezes.

6.9: The Unusual expansion (anomalous) expansion of water

It is normal experience that substances expand on heating and contract on cooling. But for water,
this is never to be between the temperatures 00C and 40C. Water can exist as a solid (ice), liquid
(liquid water) and as a gas (steam).

At temperatures below 00C, water exists as a solid, occupying a bigger volume. When heated, it
expands just like any other solid up to 00C. At 00C, ice melts at constant temperature. Melting is
accompanied by a decrease in volume by about 8%. Beyond 00C, water contracts further up to 40C.
Therefore water has minimum volume at 40C and hence maximum density which is slightly higher
than 1 g/cm3.

Above 40C, water expands like any other liquid. This behavior of water is described as anomalous,
unusual, or irregular.

The variation of volume with temperature and density with temperature when water is heated is
illustrated by the graphs below:

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6.9.1: Effects of anomalous expansion of water

a. Biological importance

During cold weather, the temperature of lakes and ponds drops and water contracts, becomes
denser and sinks. A circulation of water is thus set up until all the water attain maximum density i.e.
at 40C. If further cooling occurs (below 40C), then any water below 40C will stay at the top due to its
lower density. At 00C, ice forms on top and this acts as an insulator to the layers below. Hence the
warmth underneath can sustain aquatic life and thus the aquatic animals and plants can survive
there.

b. Icebergs

Ice has a slightly lower density, about 0.92 g/cm3, than that of water and hence it floats with a small
portion above the water surface. The rest and a bigger portion of the ice rests under water. This is
called an iceberg. Icebergs pose a great danger to ships as the submerged parts cannot be seen
easily by navigators.

c. Weathering of rocks

Water sometimes finds its way into cracks within the rocks. When such water freezes during cold
weather, it expands forcing the rock to break into smaller pieces. This is very important for
agriculture as soil is formed.

d. Bursting of water pipes

At times the water flowing through a pipe may freeze when it passes through a cold region. The
water thus contracts, expanding and this may lead to pipe bursts if expansion allowances were not
catered for.

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 TOPIC 7: HEAT TRANSFER
7.1: Heat and temperature

Heat may be defined as a form of energy that flows from a hot body to a cold body. Its SI unit is the
joule (J). When a body loses heat its temperature is lowered while when a body gains heat its
temperature rises. If two bodies which are at the same temperature are in contact, there is NO net
heat transfer and the bodies are said to be at thermal equilibrium. No instrument can measure
directly the amount of heat on a body.

Temperature on the other hand is the measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Its SI
unit is the Kelvin (K). The most commonly used unit is degrees Celsius ( 0C). Heat energy can only
flow if there is a temperature difference between the two bodies.

7.2: Modes of heat transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer namely conduction, convection and radiation.

7.2.1: Conduction

Conduction is mainly prominent in solids. When a solid is heated, say from one end, the other end
also becomes hot after some time. The means by which the heat is conducted to the other end can
be explained by two theories:

a) Particle/atomic vibration

When a material is heated from one end, the heat energy entering the material increases the
vibration of the particles/atoms at that end. These atoms also set the other neighboring atoms into
vibration transferring the energy to the other end.

b) Free/mobile/delocalized electrons

Generally metals have free electrons which move all over the metal body. Heat energy supplied at
one end of the material increases the kinetic energy of the electrons which then transfers this
energy to the other end.

The ability of a material to conduct heat is called thermal conductivity. Materials that easily conduct
heat are referred to as good conductors e.g. most metals. This is because metals conduct both by
atom vibration as well as movement of free/delocalized electrons. This is why cooking utensils,
soldering irons are made from metals. Non-metals are generally bad conductors of heat because
they do not have free electrons.

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The set up below can be used to compare thermal conductivity of different materials:
Hot water

Wax

The order in which wax on the rods fall is the order of thermal conductivity of the materials i.e. the
rod from which wax first falls is the best thermal conductor and decreases in that order. It is
important to ensure the following when doing this comparison:

- Use same length of the rods with the same length in the hot water.

- Keep the temperature of the water bath uniform

- Use same thickness or amounts of wax

Below is a table of good and bad conductors:

Good thermal conductors Bad thermal conductors

Silver Concrete

Copper Glass

Aluminum Brick

Brass Asbestos paper

Zinc Rubber

Iron Wood

Lead Water

Mercury Air

NB:

▪ During thermal conduction, heat flows through materials without the materials shifting or
moving.

▪ Thermal conduction requires a material medium.

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 Factors affecting thermal conduction in solids

Temperature difference between the ends of the material

More heat flows when the temperature difference is large.

Cross-section area

The thermal conductivity of a thicker material is higher than that of a thinner one of the same
material. This is because the number of free electrons (metals only) per unit length of the thicker
material is higher than that of a thinner one. Also, the number of atoms vibrating per unit length of
the thicker material is higher than that of a thinner one.

Length of the conductor

Heat energy reaches the other end of a shorter conductor faster than a longer one. Heat travels in a
conductor along imaginary lines known as lines of heat flow. These lines diverge away from the hot
end and therefore as the length of the conductor increases, some of the energy is ‘dropped’.

Nature of the material

Some materials are good conductors while others are bad conductors e.g. copper is a better
conductor compared to iron.

The above four factors can be combined together in the following equation:
Rate of heat flow = thermal conductivity of the material, k * Cross-section area, A * Temp. Difference, Δθ

Length, l

Lagging

This involves covering good conductors with bad one (insulators) with the aim of minimizing heat
loss to the surroundings. For instance pipes used to convey hot water from boilers are normally
covered using thick asbestos material.

Conduction in liquids

Conduction in liquids is not as pronounced as in solids. Liquids are generally poor thermal
conductors with the exception of a few like mercury and some electrolytes (e.g. salt solution). Note
that mercury exists as a liquid at room temperature. Thermal conductivity of water may be
investigated by the set up below:
Steam

Ice wrapped in a wire gauze

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Ice wrapped in wire gauze is placed at the bottom of a boiling tube containing water and heated
from the top. It is observed that as water at the boils producing steam, the ice remains unmelted.
This shows that heat did not reach the bottom even having been aided by the wire gauze which is a
good conductor. In this experiment:

- The boiling tube is made of glass which is a poor thermal conductor and thus limits the
possible heat conduction down the tube by glass.

- The ice is wrapped in wire gauze to ensure that it does not float on water. Wire gauze is a
good thermal conductor but still the ice did not melt, indicating that there is very little, if
any, heat conducted down by water.

- Heating water at the top eliminates the possibility of heat transfer to the ice by convection.

Although liquids are poor thermal conductors, some liquids are better conductors than others. This
can be investigated by the set up below:
Asbestos shield to prevent direct heating

Heat Copper rod

Region ofmelted wax Wax

Mercury Water

The test tubes are coated with a uniform layer of wax. When the rod is heated as shown, the wax on
the test tube with mercury is observed to melt downwards after sometime. Later on, wax on the
other test tube started melting but very slowly.

In conclusion, mercury is a better thermal conductor compared to water. Note that the heating
should be done at the centre for a fair result. Also, the region of the rods in the liquids should be the
same.

Conduction in gases

Gases are the worst thermal conductors. This is because they have larger intermolecular distance
minimizing collision between their molecules. This can be verified by the set up below:
Hot region

Unburnt gas region

Match stick

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A match stick held in the unburnt gas region of a flame is never ignited by the heat from the hot
region above it. This shows that gases are poor thermal conductors.

Applications of good and poor conductors

• Cooking utensils, soldering iron and boilers are made of metals because they are good
thermal conductors. In some cooking utensils, their handles are covered using bad heat
conductors such as wood, plastic

• Integrated circuits (ICs) and transistors in electronic devices are normally fixed to a heat
sink; a metal plate with fins. This is to conduct away undesired heat which may otherwise
affect the operation of the device.

• Fire fighters put on protective clothing made from asbestos material to keep them safe
while putting out fires. Film actors involved in stunts involving burning also put on similar
clothing.

• Birds flap their wings after getting wet in order to introduce air pockets in their feathers.
Air is a poor thermal conductor and hence reduces heat loss from their bodies. The same
applies to wool, fur, and thatch on roofs. Soft board ceiling have many air pockets than
concrete one hence its preference to the concrete ceiling.

• When heating liquids using a glass beaker, the beaker is usually placed on a wire gauze. A
wire gauze is a good heat conductor and hence spreads out the heat to a larger area of the
beaker. If the gauze was not used, heat would only be concentrated on a small area and the
beaker may crack as a result.

• In some buildings where the inside temperature is to be stabilized, double walls are
constructed with an insulator like glass wool or foam plastic between them. Also, double
glazed windows have air trapped between the two glass sheets.

7.2.2: Convection

It is a process by which heat is transferred in fluids. The term fluid refers to both liquids and gases.
In this case heat transfer is by actual movement of the fluid itself. When a portion of liquid at the
bottom of a container is heated, the particles there acquire more energy and expand. Since its mass
does not change, the liquid in that portion becomes less dense and rises to the top. Cold, heavy
portion of the liquid move down to replace the warm rising portion. A circulation of hot and cold
water sets up a convectional current. Heat transfer in this manner is called convection.

However, if heated from top no convection current is set up. This is because hot, lighter liquid
cannot sink down below the cold, heavy liquid.

To show convection in liquids, a beaker is filled with water and some crystals of potassium
permanganate placed at one corner of the beaker.

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 Trace of purple coloration

Potassium permanganate Water

Heat

When heated from the position shown, a purple coloration is observed to rise from the potassium
permanganate crystal forming a loop. Hence when a liquid is heated, it rises and a cold one
descends to replace it. This movement of the liquid forms convection currents.

Convection in gases can be demonstrated using the set up below:

Smoke

Smoldering rug

B Path of smoke A

Candle

A smoldering straw/ rug burning on one end is used to introduce smoke through chimney A into
the box. After sometime, the smoke is observed to exist through chimney B. however, when the
candle is put off, NO smoke is sucked into the box.

The candle heats up the air above it which then expands and rises up chimney B. cold , heavy air is
drawn in through chimney A to replace the rising warm air. It carries along with it smoke particles.
Hence smoke exists through chimney A so long as the candle is burning and the produces smoke.

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Applications of convection

I. The domestic hot water system

Valve

Main inlet Expansion pipe

Overflow pipe To taps

Cold supply tank Hot water

Storage tank A

Cold water descend C Hot water rises

Cold water Boiler

Heat

Water is heated up in the boiler, expands thereby becoming less dense. It then rises up tube A. cold
water descends to the boiler through the return pipe B. The force of gravity helps in pushing the
cold water down from the cold water tank to the boiler. The storage tank thus contains hot water
on the upper part and cold water on the lower part. The valve controls the amount of water in the
cold water tank. The overflow pipe helps in removing excess water from the cold water tank.

The pipes conveying hot water, the boiler and the storage tank are normally lagged to minimize
heat loss through conduction.

II. House ventilation

Generally windows of houses are normally put closer to the floor and ventilation holes/openings
high up in the walls. Air expelled by the house occupants is warm, lighter and thus rises and escapes
through the ventilation openings. Cold, fresh heavier air flows into the room through the windows
and doors to replace the escaping air. Thus a continuous circulation of air is set up in the room.

In certain modern houses, air conditioning devices are fitted to bring about forced convection of air,
giving out cold dry air and absorbing warm moist air.

III. Car engine cooling system

A car engine gets heated as it operates. This heat must be disposed of to ensure the engine remains
efficient. The engine is normally surrounded by a metallic water jacket connected to the radiator.
The metal surface conducts away heat from the engine to the water. Water is heated up causing
convection currents. The hot water is pumped into the radiator with thin copper fins that further
conducts the heat away from the water. Fast moving air flowing between the fins speeds up the
cooling process.

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 IV. Land and sea breeze.

This is a natural occurrence. A mass of water takes a much longer time to be heated up to the same
temperature as a nearby land. It also loses heat slowly compared to land. It is on this argument that
land and sea breezes are formed.

During the day, land gets heated much faster than a nearby mass of water. The mass of air just
above the land is thus heated faster, expands and rises due to its reduced density. Cold air from
above the water e.g. sea, drifts towards the land to replace the warm rising air. This is termed as sea
breeze.
Cold air descends Warm air rises

Sea Land

At night, the land cools faster than the sea. The air above the sea will be at a higher temperature. It
expands and rises up due to its low density. Cold air from the land drifts towards the sea to replace
the warm rising air. This constitutes a land breeze.

Warm air rises Cold air descends

Sea Land

7.2.3: Radiation

It is the flow of heat energy from one point to another by means of electromagnetic waves. It
requires NO material medium. These waves are able to pass through a vacuum. Energy from the sun
reaches the earth’s surface by radiation. All bodies emit and absorb radiant energy (radiation). A
body emitting thermal radiation can also emit visible light when it is hot enough. The higher the
temperature of a body the greater the amount of radiant energy it can emit. Thermal radiation can
be reflected and causes a heating effect. The amount of radiant energy absorbed by a body depends
on the nature of its surface. Dull/ black surfaces are good absorbers than shinny/ polished surfaces.
This can be illustrated by the set up below:
Wax Dull surface

Cork

Source of heat Polished surface

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After some time, the cork on the dull surface is observed to fall off first once the wax melts. The one
on the polished surface takes longer to fall off. This shows that dull surfaces are good absorbers of
radiation than polished surfaces. The radiation falling on the polished surface is partly absorbed
and partly reflected.

Generally, good heat absorbers are also good emitters/ radiators. Hence black/ dull surfaces are
good emitters while polished surfaces are poor emitters. Note that poor emitters (polished
surfaces) are good reflectors.
A black/dull surface B

Air Air

Polished surface Black/dull surface

x x

LimbA Limb B

Coloured water

After some time, the level of water in limb A is observed to rise while that in limb B falls. The boiling
tube B receives more heat than A. Hence the air in B expands pushing the water in limb B down.
This is a proof that dull surfaces are good emitters.

Applications of thermal radiators

1. Kettles, cooking pans and iron boxes have polished surfaces to minimize heat loss through
radiation.

2. Petrol tanks are painted silvery bright to reflect away as much heat as possible.

3. Buildings which are whitewashed or painted using bright colours remain cool even during
hot conditions because the bright colours reflect much of the sun’s radiation. In cold
regions, it is the inner walls and roofs which are painted with bright colours and the outer
walls with dull colours. In very hot countries, people do put on white clothing because they
reflect much light.

4. Solar concentrators

Concave reflectors concentrate light that fall on them to a common point. The temperature at this
point may be high enough to boil water.

5. Green house effect

A green house acts as a heat trap by preventing the reflected radiation from the earth’s surface from
passing through glass. High energetic short wavelength radiation from the sun passes through glass
without being absorbed. Inside the greenhouse, this heat is absorbed by the earth and the objects in

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it. These objects in turn emit long wavelength radiation of low amount of energy that cannot
penetrate glass. This raises the temperature inside the greenhouse. This is called greenhouse effect.

Greenhouses provide optimum conditions for plants in cold regions. In the atmosphere especially at
the lower layers, the gases and air pollutants suspended behave like glass, trapping the long
wavelength reflected radiation. This may raise the temperature of the atmosphere to some
dangerous levels, a phenomenon known as global warming.

6. Solar heater

A solar heater uses radiation from the sun to heat water. It comprises a coiled blackened copper
pipe resting on a blackened insulating surface. Radiation from the sun passes through glass and
absorbed by the copper pipes. Copper conducts this heat to the water flowing through it.

7. A thermos (vacuum) flask.

A vacuum flask is designed to keep its contents at a constant temperature by minimizing heat
transfer into or out of the flask. It has a double wall; silvered to prevent heat loss or heat gain
through radiation. Between the two walls is a vacuum which is a perfect insulator and minimizes
heat loss through conduction and convection. The cork/lid minimizes heat loss through convection.

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 TOPIC 8: RECTILINEAR
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT AND
REFLECTION AT PLANE
SURFACES
8.1: Light

Light is a form of energy that enhances vision. Certain objects are able to produce their own light
and are called luminous or incandescent objects. They include the sun, stars, burning candle, etc.
however, most objects cannot produce their own light and can only be seen when light falling on
them is reflected. Such objects are referred to as non-luminous objects. They include the moon,
planets, plants, walls, clothes, etc.

The path along which light energy travels is called a ray of light. It is usually represented by a line
with an arrow to show the direction of travel. A group or bundle of light rays is called a beam of
light.

Different objects behave differently when light fall on them. For instance, some objects do not allow
light to pass through them totally. Such objects are said to be opaque, e.g. brick walls, metals, wood,
etc. some allow light through them and one can see through them. These are said to be transparent
and they include ordinary car windscreen, normal glass window panes. Some on the other hand
allow light to pass through them but one cannot see through them. They are called translucent
objects and they include greased paper, some glass panes, etc.

8.2: Rectilinear propagation of light.

This is a property of light which suggests that light travels in a straight line. To investigate this,
three cardboards each with a hole at its centre are arranged such that the holes are along a straight
line. Light from a lit candle on one side of the cardboards is seen from the other end as shown in (a)
below. However, when one of the cardboards is displaced, light is cut off as shown in (b).

a)

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 b)

Another way of demonstrating rectilinear propagation of light is by placing an opaque object along
the path of light. A shadow is formed whose nature depends on the size of light source, size of the
object and the distance between the distance between the object and the source of light.
Screen

Penumbra

Shadow

Object

Umbra

When the light source is small e.g. a point source, the shadow formed is uniformly dark and is called
umbra. However, when the light source is large, the shadow formed will have a partial shadow
along its edges. This is called penumbra. Note that points within the umbra receive NO light at all
while points within the penumbra receive some amount of light but not as much as it would if the
obstacle was not there.

8.3: Eclipses

An eclipse occurs when there is partial or total disappearance of either the sun or moon when
viewed from the earth. There are three types of eclipses namely; the solar eclipse, annular eclipse
and lunar eclipse.

8.3.1: Solar eclipse

It is also called eclipse of the sun. It occurs when the moon passes between the sun and the earth.
Since the sun is bigger than the moon, both the umbra and penumbra are formed.
Penumbra
Sun
Earth E

Umbra

Sometimes the tip of the moon umbra fails to reach the surface of the earth. This is called an
annular eclipse.

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E
Moon Penumbra

Earth

Umbra

Note that solar eclipse is very rare. This is because the Moon’s orbit around Earth is inclined at an
angle of just over 50 to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic) i.e. the path of the
moon around the earth is not a perfect circle.

8.3.2: A lunar eclipse/eclipse of the moon

It occurs when the earth is between the moon and the sun. The shadow cast by the earth prevents
light from the sun from reaching the moon i.e. during the lunar eclipse the moon passes through the
earth’s umbra. This eclipse occurs only at night when there is a full moon.

Earth Moon

Umbra
Sun
E

Penumbra

8.4: The pin-hole camera

It is a closed box which is painted black on the inside. It has a small hole on one face and a screen
made of a translucent paper on the opposite face. The object to be viewed is placed in front of the
face with the hole.
Pinhole screen

Image

Object

Object distance, u

Image distance, v

The rays from the object fall on the screen forming an inverted image. The inner part of the camera
is painted black so as to prevent reflection of the light. The size of the image formed depends on the
distance of the object from the pinhole, u and the distance of the screen from the pinhole, v. if the
camera is moved nearer the object, the image becomes bigger.

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When the hole is made larger the image becomes blurred (not clear). This is because many rays of
light will be allowed to the screen, each forming its own image. The result is overlapping images or
blurred image.

Generally, a pinhole camera forms a real and inverted image.

One advantage of the pinhole camera is that it forms focused images of both far and near objects.

A pinhole camera has some limitations which include:

- It cannot take motion pictures.

- Its exposure time is too long due to the size of the hole.

The ratio of the image size to the object size is referred to as magnification.

i.e. magnification, m= image size/object size

It can also be shown that magnification is the ratio of the image distance to the object distance.

i.e. magnification, m= image distance, v/object distance, u

Magnification has no units.

Example 8.1

1. The distance between the pinhole and the screen in a pinhole camera is 20cm. a student
uses the camera to form an image of a person 4m away. The person’s height is 140cm. what
is the height of the image? Determine the magnification.

v/u = hi/ho

hi = (140cm*20cm)/400cm = 7.0cm

m=v/u = 20/400 =0.05

2. A lamp of height 6cm stands in front of a pinhole camera at a distance of 24cm. the camera
screen is 8cm from the pinhole. What is the height of the image of the lamp on the screen?

v/u = hi/ho

hi= (6cm*8cm)/24cm = 2cm.

8.5: Reflection of light

When a ray of light strikes a surface, part of it bounces off. When the surface is smooth or highly
polished, all incident light is reflected back uniformly. This is called regular/specular
reflection.

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 A rough surface on the hand results in an irregular/diffuse reflection.

8.5.1: Terms used

Incident ray- is a ray travelling from the source to the reflecting surface.

Reflected ray- is the ray that bounces off from the reflecting surface.

Normal- is a line drawn perpendicularly at the point where the incident ray strikes the reflecting
surface.

Angle of incidence- is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.

Angle of reflection- is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

ir

8.5.2: LAWS OF REFLECTION

There are two laws of reflection of light:

i. The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal.

ii. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on the
same plane.

8.6: Images formed by a plane mirror.

The figure below shows how a plane mirror forms images of objects placed in front of them:

Object Image

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Generally, an image formed by a plane mirror has the following characteristics:

- It is virtual i.e. not formed by actual intersection of real rays.

- It is erect/upright.

- It is the same size as the object.

- It is laterally inverted i.e. the sideway turning effect.

- It is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror i.e. image
distance = object distance.

8.6.1: Rotation of a mirror through an angle

Consider a ray incident on a plane mirror as shown below. The angle of incidence is 250.

250

Rotating the mirror through 100 about the point of incidence in the clockwise direction, the result is
as shown in below:

550 350

100

The new angle reflection is 350 from 250.

When the mirror is rotated through 100 about the point of incidence in the anticlockwise direction,
the result is as shown below:

150

The new angle of reflection is 150.

8.6.2: Mirrors at an angle

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The number of images formed by two plane mirrors placed at an angle to each other depends on
the angle of inclination. The number of images formed by such an arrangement can be calculated
from the formula; n= 3600/θ – 1

Where n- the number of images formed

Θ- Angle of inclination of the mirrors.

Example 8.2

1. At what angle should two mirrors be inclined to form:

a) 17 images?

17= 360/θ -1

18*θ=360

Θ=360/18 =200

b) 29 images?

Θ=360/30 =120

8.7: Applications of reflection at plane surfaces

1. The kaleidoscope

It comprises of two plane mirrors inclined at an angle of 600 inside a tube. It has a ground-glass
plate to admit light. A piece of brightly coloured glass is placed on the glass plate. This acts as an
object. When one looks down the tube, five images of the object are seen which together with the
object form a symmetrical pattern in six sectors.

I2 I1

600

I3 I4 I5

A kaleidoscope may be used by designers to obtain ideas on systematic patterns.

2. The periscope

This is an object that can be used to view objects over obstacles. It consists of two plane mirrors
facing each other at an angle of 450. It is used to in submarines and also to watch over crowds.

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Object

Eye

Image

A periscope in general forms erect (upright) and virtual images. Periscopes used in submarines are
more elaborate, in which prisms are used instead of plane mirrors and the tube supporting them
incorporates a telescope to extend the range of vision.

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 TOPIC 9: ELECTROSTATICS I
9.1: introduction

Electrostatics refers to the study of static charges. Some of the cases illustrating the effects of static
charges include:

a) When a plastic ruler or pen is rubbed on the hair, it picks up small pieces of paper when it is
brought closer to them.
b) When a glass window pane is wiped using a dry piece of cloth on a dry day, it immediately
attracts dust particles.
c) When a nylon cloth is taken off the body, a cracking sound is produced.

The above observations result from the formation of static charges. These charges are as a result of
friction between the rubbed surfaces. Generally when a glass rod is rubbed using silk, it gains
positive charges while when a polythene rod is rubbed using fur or cloth, it gains negative charges.

There are two types of charges namely negative and positive charge. When the number of negative
and positive charges in any material are the same then the material is said to be neutral. When
there are more positive charges than negative charges, the body is said to be positively charged
while if there are more negative charges than the positive charges, the body is said to be negatively
charged.

The origin of charge can be traced back to the atom. An atom consists of smaller particles namely
protons (positively charged), electrons (negatively charged) and neutrons (neutral in nature- has
no charge). Protons and neutrons are found at the nucleus while electrons are found on the energy
levels around the nucleus. For any atom, the number of protons equal to the number of electrons.
Hence an atom is neutral.

9.2: Basic law of electrostatics

This law states that unlike charges attract while like charges repel.

9.3: charging a material

There are three ways of charging a body namely by induction, contact method or by separation.

9.3.1: Induction method

This method involves three main steps as illustrated below:

++
++
+
++
++
++ +
++ - -
--
++ --
e- ++ ++
-- - -
++ -- ++ ++
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- +
- + ++ +
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+
+ +
+
 i) ii) iii)

In step (i), a positively charged glass rod is brought close to a suspended polystyrene ball. The
negative charges will be attracted towards the side with the glass rod while the positive charges are
repelled away.

The ball is then earthed by touching it with the finger on the side away from the glass rod as shown
in (ii) above. Electrons will flow from the earth to neutralize the positive charges on the ball.

In step (iii), the finger is withdrawn first and then the glass rod. The negative charges repel each
other thereby spreading all over the ball. Hence the polystyrene ball becomes negatively charged.

Note that when a body is charged by induction method, it acquires an opposite charge to that of the
inducing charge.

9.3.2: Contact method

++ ++

++

++ ++
++ --
++ ++
+ +
++ - -
++ ++
++ + +

(i) (ii) (iii)

A positively charged glass rod is brought into contact with a suspended polystyrene ball and then
withdrawn. When the glass rod is rolled on the polystyrene ball, the induced negative charges on
the ball are neutralized. When the glass rod is withdrawn, the positive charges are redistributed all
over the ball. Hence the ball becomes positively charged.

Note that when a body is charged by contact method, it gains the same charge as the charging
material.

9.3.3: Separation method

Two spheres are placed in contact so that they form a single conductor. A negatively charged rod is
then brought close to but not touching one of the spheres as shown below in figure (i) below.

- -
-
-
-
+ -
+ - - + + - -
-
+ -
+ - - + + - -
- -
-
-
-
- +
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+
+
+
 (i) (ii) (iii)

With the rod in position, the contact between the two spheres is broken as in (ii) above. When the
rod is finally withdrawn, the charges on the individual spheres are redistributed and they
eventually acquire opposite charges as shown in (iii) above.

9.4: The gold-leaf electroscope

Brass cap

Metal rod

Insulator Meta casing

Plate Earth connection

Gold/aluminium leaf

9.4.1: Charging a microscope

A microscope can be charged by either induction or contact method.

i. Induction method

e-

(a) (b) (c) (d)

When a negatively charged polythene rod is brought near the cap of uncharged electroscope,
positive charges are attracted to the cap leaving negative charges on the plate and leaf. The leaf thus
diverges.

With the rod in position, the electroscope is earthed by touching the cap. Electrons then flow from
the electroscope to the earth. The leaf momentarily falls but when the finger and the rod are
withdrawn in that order, the positive charges are redistributed throughout the electroscope and the
leaf diverges again.

Assignment 9.1

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 1. Describe how to charge an electroscope negatively by induction method.

ii. Contact method

(a) (b) (c)

The negative charges on the electroscope are attracted to the cap and neutralized leaving positive
charges on the plate and leaf. Hence the leaf diverges. When the rod is withdrawn the positive
charges are redistributed all over the electroscope.

Note that when an electroscope is charged by contact method, it acquires the same charge as that of
the charging material.

Assignment 9.2

1. Describe how to charge an electroscope negatively by contact method.

9.4.3: Uses of the electroscope

a) To distinguish between a conductor and an insulator.

When a conductor is brought into contact with a charged electroscope, the leaf falls. When the
electroscope is positively charged, electrons flow from the earth through the material to the
electroscope to neutralize the positive charges. When the electroscope is negatively charged,
electrons flow through the material to the earth. Hence the leaf falls.

However, for an insulator there will be no effect on the leaf divergence of the electroscope.

b) To test the quantity of charge on a charged body.

The degree of leaf divergence is proportional to the quantity of charge on a body i.e. the higher the
quantity the larger the divergence.

c) To detect the presence of charge on a body.

When a charged body is brought close to the cap of an electroscope, the behavior of the leaf will
determine whether the body is charged or not. This will be looked at in the next point. However,
when an uncharged body is brought close to the cap of a charged electroscope; either positively or
negatively, the leaf divergence reduces while if the electroscope is uncharged, they will be no effect
on the leaf divergence.

d) To test the sign of the charge on a charged body.

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In this case, the initial charge on the electroscope must be known. When a body having an opposite
charge is brought near the cap of the electroscope, the leaf divergence decreases due to
attraction.When a similar charge is brought near the cap, the leaf divergence increases due to
repulsion. This is summarized in the table below:

Charge on electroscope Charge on the body Effect on leaf divergence

+ + Increase

- - Increase

+ - Decrease

- + Decrease

+/- Uncharged Decrease

9.5: Charge distribution on the surface of a conductor

The quantity of charge per unit area of the surface of a conductor is called charge density. The
charge distribution on a conductor depends on the shape of the conductor. Generally, the charge
concentration on a spherical conductor is uniform while that on a sharp point is high.

The high charge concentration at sharp points makes it easier to gain or lose charges. The effects of
high charge concentration at sharp points can be seen in the following cases:

9.5.1: Electric wind

When a highly charged sharp point is brought close to a candle flame, the flame is observed to drift
away as if there was wind. The high charge concentration at the sharp point ionizes the
surrounding air producing both positive and negative charges. Opposite charges are attracted to the
point while similar charges are repelled away from the point blowing away the flame.

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If the point is brought very close, the flame splits into two; one part moves towards the point and
the other part away from the point. This is because a flame has both positive and negative ions. The
negative ions are attracted towards the point while the positive ions are repelled away from the
point.

9.5.2: Lightning arrestors

When clouds move in the atmosphere, they rub against the air particles and produce a large amount
of static charges by friction. These charges induce large amounts of the opposite charge on the
earth. Hence a high potential difference is created between the earth and cloud. This makes air to be
a charge conductor. The opposite charges attract each other and neutralize, causing thunder and
lightning. Lightning can be very destructive to buildings and other structures.

Lightning arrestors are used to safeguard such structures. It consists of a thick copper plate buried
deep under the ground. The plate is connected by a thick copper wire to the spikes at the top of the
building. The arrestor assumes the same charge as the earth. At the spikes, a high charge density
builds up and a strong electric field develops between the cloud and the spikes. The air around the
spikes is ionized. The opposite charges attract each other and neutralize. Excess electrons flow to
the ground through the thick copper wire.

It is for this reason that people are advised not to take shelter under trees when it is raining.

9.6: Applications of static charges

• Electrostatic precipitator

One of the causes of air pollution globally is increased industrialization. Some industries have
indeed responded to this challenge by installing electrostatic precipitators which are found within
the chimneys.

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An electrostatic precipitator consists of a cylindrical metal plate fixed along the walls of the
chimney and a wire mesh suspended through the middle.

The plate is charged positively by connecting it to a high voltage, approximately 50,000V and the
wire mesh charged negatively. As a result, a strong electric field exists between the plate and the
wire mesh. The ionized pollutant particles get attracted; some to the plate and others to the wire
mesh.

The deposits are removed occasionally. The same principle is used in fingerprinting and
photocopying.

• Spray painting

The nozzle of the spraying can is charged. When spraying, the paint droplets acquire similar charge
and spread out finely due to repulsion. As the droplets approach a metallic body, they induce
opposite charge which then attracts them to the metal surface. This ensures that little paint is used.

9.7: Dangers of static charges

When a liquid flows through a pipe, its molecules rub against each other and against the walls of the
pipe and become charged. If the liquid is flammable like petrol, it is likely to cause sparks or even
explosion. This can also happen to fuels when they are packed in plastic containers.

It is therefore advisable to store fuels and other flammable liquids in metallic containers so that any
charges generated can continually leak out. This also explains why long chains hang underneath
fuel tankers as they move.

9.8: Electric field

This is the region around a charged body where its influence (attraction and repulsion) can be felt.
It is represented lines of force called electric field lines. The direction of an electric field is the
direction in which a positive charge would move if placed at that point.

Electric field lines have the following properties:

• Originate from a positive charge and terminate at a negative charge

• Do not cross each other i.e. do not intersect
• Are parallel at uniform field, close together at strong fields and widely spaced at weaker
fields.

9.8.1: Electric field patterns

The electric field pattern between two charged bodies obeys the law of electrostatics. Below are
some patterns between charged bodies:

(a) (b)

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(c) Neutral point

NB

At the neutral point, the resultant effect is zero.

9.9: Capacitors

A capacitor is a device used for storing charge. It consists of two or more metal plates separated by
a vacuum or a material medium (insulator). This material is known as a ‘dielectric’. Other materials
that can be used as a dielectric include air, plastic, glass e.t.c. the symbol of a capacitor is shown
below:

There are three main types of capacitors namely paper capacitors, electrolytic capacitors and
variable capacitors. Others include plastic, ceramic and mica capacitors.

9.9.1: Charging a capacitor

Experiment: To charge a capacitor

Apparatus :Uncharged capacitor of 500µF, 6.0V power supply, rheostat, voltmeter, milliammeter,
switch, connecting wires and a stop watch.

mA

Procedure

i. Set up the apparatus as shown above.

ii. Close the switch and record the values of current, I at various time intervals. Tabulate
your values in the table below:

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 Time, t(s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Current, I( mA)

It ( mAs)

iii. Plot a graph of current, I against time, t

iv. Plot a graph of It against time.

Observations

The charging current is initially high but gradually reduces to zero. A graph of current, I against
time appears as shown below:

I (mA)

t (s)

The charging current drops to zero when the capacitor is fully charged. As the p.d. across the
capacitor increases the charge in the capacitor also increases up to a certain value. When the
capacitor is fully charged, the p.d across the capacitor will be equals the p.d of the source.

A graph of p.d across the capacitor against time is exponential. A graph of It against time is also
exponential.

p.d (V) It (mAs)

t (s) t (s)

NB

The product It represents the amount of charge in the capacitor.

9.9.2: Discharging a capacitor

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 Experiment: To discharge a capacitor

Apparatus :A charged capacitor, resistor, galvanometer, switch and connecting wires.

C
G

Procedure

- Set up the apparatus as shown above.

- Close the switch and record the values of current at various time intervals in the table
below.

Time, t(s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Current, I ( mA)

- Plot a graph of current, I against time, t.

Observations

The value of current is seen to reduce from maximum value to zero when the capacitor is fully
discharged. The galvanometer deflects but in the opposite direction to that during charging.

During discharging, the p.d. across the capacitor reduces to zero when the capacitor is fully
discharged. The graphs below show the variation between current, I and time, t and between
the p.d across the capacitor and time, t.
+

I (mA) p.d (V)

t (s)

t (s)

A graph of charge in the capacitor, Q against time, t during discharging also appears like that of
p.d against time i.e. p.d across the capacitor is directly proportional to the charge stored.

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 9.10: Capacitance

Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the measure of the charge stored by the capacitor per
unit voltage; C = Q/V

Hence Q = CV

Recall: Q = It

Therefore Q= CV = It

The SI Unit of capacitance is the farad, F. A farad is the capacitance of a body if a charge of one
coulomb raises its potential by one volt.

Other smaller units of capacitance are: microfarad (µF), nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (Pf).

i.e. 1 µF = 10-6 F

1 nF = 10-9F

1 pF = 10-12F

9.10.1: Factors affecting capacitance of a capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends on three factors, namely:

- Area of overlap of the plates, A

- Distance of separation, d between the plates

- Nature of the dielectric material

Experiment: To investigate the factors affecting capacitance

Apparatus: 2 aluminium plates, K and L of dimensions 25cm * 25cm,Insulating polythene support,

uncharged electroscope, Glass plate, earthing wireand a free wire.

K L

Procedure

- Fix the plates on the insulating support so that they stand parallel and close to each other as
shown above.

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 - Charge plate K to a high voltage and then connect it to the uncharged electroscope. Earth
the second plate, L.

- While keeping the area of overlap, A the same vary the distance of separation, d and observe
the leaf divergence.

- While keeping the distance of separation, d constant vary the area of overlap, A and observe
the leaf divergence.

- While keeping both the area of overlap and the distance of separation, d constant introduce
the glass plate between the plates of the capacitor and observe what happens to the leaf.

Observations

1. When the distance of separation is increased the leaf divergence also increased.

2. When the area of overlap is increased the leaf divergence decreased.

3. When the glass plate is introduced between the plates, the leaf divergence increased.

Note that the leaf divergence here is a measure of the potential, V of plate K. Hence the larger
the divergence the greater the potential and thus the lower the capacitance ( since C = Q/V, but
Q is constant).

Conclusion

From the above observations, it follows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area
of overlap between the plates and inversely proportional to the distance of separation. It also
depends on the nature of the dielectric material.

C ∝ A/d

C = εA/d where ε is a constant called permittivity of the dielectric material (epsilon).

If between the plates is a vacuum, then ε = ε0, known as epsilon nought and is given by 8.85 * 10-
12 Fm-1. Hence C = ε0A/d

Example 9.1

1. How much charge is stored by a 300μF capacitor charged up to 12V? give your answer in (a)
μC (b) C {ans. 3600μC/0.0036C}

Solution

a) Q= CV = 300 * 12 =3600μC b) 3600 * 10-6 =0.0036C

2. What is the average current that flows when a 720μF capacitor is charged to 10V in 0.03s?

{ans. 0.24A}

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 Solution

Q = CV =It

I= 720 * 10-6 *10 / 0.03 =0.24A.

3. Find the separation distance between two plates if the capacitance between them is 4.0 * 10-
12C and the enclosed area is 2.0 cm2. Take ε0 = 8.85 * 10-12Fm-1. { d = 4.425 * 10-4 m}

Solution

C = ε0A/d

d = 8.85 * 10-12 * 2.0 * 10-4 / 4.0 * 10-12

= 4.425 * 10-4 m

9.10.2: Arrangement of capacitors

a) Series arrangement

Consider three capacitors; C1, C2 and C3 arranged as shown below:

C1 C2 C3

V1 V2 V3

Recall V = V1 + V2 + V3 and Q = CV

When capacitors are connected in series, the charged stored in them is the same and equals
the charge in the circuit.

i.e. Q = Q1 = Q2 =Q3

Therefore V1 = Q /C1, V2 = Q /C2, and V3 = Q /C3

V = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3

Dividing through by Q, we obtain V/Q = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

Since V/Q = 1/C

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

Where C is the combined capacitance.

In a special case of two capacitors in series, the effective/combined capacitance,

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 C = C1C2/ (C1 + C2).

b) Capacitors in parallel

When capacitors are arranged in parallel, the potential drop across each of them is the
same.
C1

C2

C3

Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V, Q3 = C3V

The total charge, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

Q = C1V + C2V + C3V = V (C1 + C2 + C3)

Dividing through by V, we obtain Q / V = C1 + C2 + C3

Since C = Q/V,

C = C 1 + C2 + C 3

Hence the combined capacitance for capacitors in parallel is the sum of their capacitance.

Example 9.2

1. In the circuit below, calculate:

a) The effective capacitance of the capacitors

b) The charge on each capacitor

c) The p.d across the plates of each capacitor

6V

12µF 24µF

Solution

a) C = 12 * 24 / 12 + 24 =8µF

b) Q1 = Q2 = CV = 8 * 6 = 48μC

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 c) V1 = 48/12 = 4V, V2 = 48/24 = 2V

2. The figure below shows an arrangement of capacitors connected to a 10V d.c supply.

Determine: a) The combined capacitance of the arrangement

b) The total charge in the circuit

( ans. 0.7778μF,7.778μC)

a) CBD =3*3/3+3 = 1.5μF

CAE = 2+1.5 = 3.5μF

C = 3.5*1/3.5+1 = 0.7778μF

b) Q = CV = 0.7778*10 = 7.778μC.

Assignment 9.3

The figure below shows part of a circuit connecting 3 capacitors. Determine the effective
capacitance across AC.
B

10μF 15μF

A C
5μF

9.10.3: Energy stored by a capacitor

During charging, the addition of electrons to the negatively charged plate involves doing
work against the repulsive force. Also the removal of electrons from the positively charged
plate involves doing some work against the attractive force. This work done is stored in the
capacitor in the form of electrical potential energy. This energy may be converted to heat,
light or other forms. A graph of p.d, V against charge, Q is a straight line through the origin
whose gradient gives the capacitance of the capacitor.

p.d (V)

Charge, Q (C)

The area under this graph is equal to the work done or energy stored in the capacitor.

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 i.e. E = ½ QV but Q = CV

Hence E = ½ CV2 =Q2 /2C

Example 9.3

1. The figure below shows two capacitors connected to a 12V supply

12V 12μF 6μF

Determine: a) the effective capacitance of the circuit

b) Charge on each capacitor

c) Energy stored in the combination

{ans. 18μF, 72μC, 2.196 * 10-3J}

a) 12+6 = 18μF b) Q1= 12*12 =144μC c) E= ½ CV2 =1/2 *18*10-6*122 =2.196*10-3J

2. In the figure below, calculate the energy stored in the combined capacitor.
2μF 3μF

2V

{ ans. 2.4*10-6)

C = 2*3 /2+3 =1.2μF

E = ½ *1.2 *10-6 *22 = 2.4 * 10-6 J

9.10.4: Application of capacitors

a) Rectification (smoothing circuits)

In the conversion of alternating current to direct current using diodes, a capacitor is used to
maintain a high d.c. voltage. This is called smoothing or rectification.

b) Reduction of sparking in the induction coil

A capacitor is included in the primary circuit of the induction coil to reduce sparking.

c) In tuning circuits

A variable capacitor is connected in parallel to an inductor in the tuning circuit of a radio receiver.
When the capacitance of the variable capacitor is varied , the electrical oscillations between the

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capacitor and the inductor changes. If the frequency of oscillations is equal to the frequency of the
radio signal at the aerial of the radio, that signal is received.

d) In delay circuits

Capacitors are used in delay circuits designed to give intermittent flow of current in car indicators.

e) In camera flash

A capacitor in the flash circuit of a camera is charged by the cell in the circuit. When in use, the
capacitor discharges instantly to flash.

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 TOPIC 10: CURRENT
ELECTRICITY
10.1: Introduction

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charges.

i.e. current, I= amount of charge Q/time of flow, t

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A). Other smaller units include milliampere (mA) and
microampere(µA):

1A= 103mA

1A= 106µA

Charge is usually measured in units called coulomb(C). When a switch in an electrical circuit is open
the circuit is referred to as an open circuit and when it is closed such that current flows, it is said to
be closed. So current only flows in a closed circuit. Though electrons flow from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal of a cell, the conventional current direction is from positive to
negative terminal of a cell.

The charge of an electron is e coulomb. If n electrons pass through a point in a circuit, the total
charge Q crossing that point is given by:

Q= ne

Therefore I= Q/t = ne/t

Generally, the charge of an electron is -1.6*10-19C. In calculations, the negative sign is always
ignored.

Example 10.1

1. If the current in a circuit is 2A, calculate:

a) The charge that crosses a point in the circuit in 0.6s.

I=Q/t

Q=2*0.6 =1.2C

b) The number of electrons crossing the point per second. Take e=1.6*10-19C.

I=Q/t = ne/t

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 1.2/0.6 = (n*1.6*10-19)/0.6

n= 1.2/ (1.6*10-19) = 7.5*1018 electrons.

2. A charge of 180C flows through a conductor for 3 minutes. Calculate the current flowing
through the conductor.

I=Q/t =180/ (3*60)

= 1A

10.2: Common electrical symbols

Below are some of the commonly used electrical devices and their symbols:

+ - A mA V
A
A cell Ammeter Milliammeter Voltmeter

OR
G
A galvanometer A bulb/ filament a.c power supplyA witch

A fixed resistor A variable resistor A rheostat A capacitor

OR

A fuseWires crossing with connectionWires crossing with no connection

10.3: Electromotive force (emf), potential difference (terminal voltage) of a cell and internal
resistance

For charges to flow through a conductor, work must be done to overcome the resistance offered by
the conductor. Some work is also done to drive charges through the cell itself. The energy required
to do this work must be supplied by the cell itself. The maximum energy available per coulomb
between the terminals of a cell when there is no resistance i.e. in an open circuit is referred to as its
electromotive force (emf).

On the other hand, the potential difference between the terminals of a cell is the energy per
coulomb between its terminals when supplying current i.e. in a closed circuit. It is also called
terminal voltage.

V2
V1

V1= the electromotive force of the cell

V2= potential difference/ terminal voltage

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Generally, emf of a cell is larger than the terminal voltage.

The difference between the emf and terminal voltage is due to the resistance offered by the cell
itself. This resistance by the cell is called internal resistance. The work done per coulomb to
overcome internal resistance is known as the lost volts.

i.e. lost volts= emf-terminal voltage.

10.4: Arrangement of cells

➢ Suppose three cells each of emf 1.5V are connected in series, then the total emf of the circuit
is the sum of the emf of the three cells.

In series arrangement of cells, a positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
terminal of the next cell.The current flowing through the circuit will be higher and hence the bulb
would be brighter than when it would have been a single cell.

➢ In parallel connection of cells, all the positive terminals are connected together and all the
negative terminals also connected together.

In this case, the bulb uses an emf equivalent to the emf of one cell. The current flowing in the circuit
will also be lower. The advantage this method of connection has over series connection is that it can
supply current for a longer time.

10.5: Arrangement of electrical components

Electrical devices can also be connected in series or parallel or even a combination of the two.
Consider three bulbs connected as shown below:

(a) (b)

In (a), the bulbs have been connected in series. In this case, the current flowing through the bulbs is
the same and is equal to the circuit current. The sum of the voltage drop across the bulbs is equal to

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the total circuit voltage. When one bulb is faulty, the remaining bulbs will stop working since the
circuit will be incomplete.

In (b) where the bulbs have been connected in parallel, the voltage drop across the bulbs is the
same and is equal to the voltage supplied by the cell. The sum of the current through the individual
bulbs is equal to the circuit current. The advantage of this method of connection is that when one of
the bulbs is faulty the remaining bulbs will still be working. This method is commonly used in
wiring of lighting circuits in houses.

10.6: Measurement of voltage and current

In the laboratory, voltages are measured using a voltmeter while current is measured using an
ammeter or a milliammeter. The voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the components
where potential difference is to be measured. They offer very high resistance to the flow of current.
Thus very negligible current flows through it.

Ammeters on the other hand are connected in series with the other components where current is to
be measured. This is because they have very negligible resistance and hence does not interfere with
the current.

+ v
-

+
A
-

Note that the positive terminal of the voltmeter or ammeter is always connected to the positive
terminal of the cell or battery.

10.7: Conductors and insulators

A conductor is a material that allows free flow of charges through it e.g. copper, silver, aluminium,
etc. There are also those materials which do not allow flow of charges through them e.g. dry wood,
plastic, rubber etc. They are generally referred to as insulators. Conductors are further categorized
as either good or poor conductors. The good conductors are generally metals and they conduct
electric current at a faster rate. This is made possible by the fact that metals have numerous free
electrons moving within themselves. An example of a poor conductor is graphite. Such conductors
possess less number of free electrons and hence conduct slowly. Insulators do not have free
electrons at all.

There are also a group of materials whose electrical conductivity lies between that of a conductor
and an insulator i.e. they conduct only when under certain conditions. Examples of such materials
include silicon and germanium. They are referred to as semiconductors.

Some liquids (solutions) are also very good electrical conductors like dilute sulphuric acid, sodium
chloride and potassium hydroxide.

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10.8: Sources of electricity

Below are some of the common sources of electricity:

- Chemical cells

- Generators

- Solar cells

In this topic, we are going to look at chemical cells.

1. Chemical cells

These cells rely on chemical reactions to produce electromotive force. Chemical cells are of two
types:

- Primary cells

- Secondary cells.

❖ Primary cells

These are further grouped into a simple cell and a dry cell.

a) A simple cell

A simple cell consists of two plates; zinc plate which is the negative plate and copper which is the
positive plate and dilute sulphuric acid as the electrolyte.
mA

Zinc Copper

_ +

Dilute sulphuric acid

With the switch open, bubbles can be observed around the zinc plate indicating that the reaction
between zinc and the acid is faster than that between copper and the acid. When the switch is
closed the milliammeter deflects and the bulb lights, a sign that current is flowing in the circuit.

When zinc reacts with the acid, zinc forms an ion by liberating electrons which flow through the
connecting wire to the copper plate.

Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

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Meanwhile the dilute sulphuric acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and sulphate ions (SO42-).
The hydrogen ions from the acid will move to the copper plate where they are neutralized by the
electrons from the reaction between zinc and the acid. The result is formation of hydrogen gas
bubbles around the copper plate.

H+ (aq) + 2e- H2(g)

The process of formation of hydrogen gas bubbles around the copper plate is called polarization.
This will make it difficult for electrons to flow and hence the size of the current goes down and the
bulb becomes dim. Polarization can be minimized by adding a depolarizer e.g. potassium
dichromate. The depolarizer should be one which does not react with the electrolyte.

Also as the zinc reacts with the acid, it dissolves and exposes the hidden impurities of carbon and
iron. These impurities promote the reaction between zinc and the acid. The zinc is therefore eaten
up even when there is no current being supplied i.e. in an open circuit. This is called local action. It
can be minimized by using pure zinc or applying a layer of mercury on the zinc plate. The process
is called amalgamation.

Polarization and local are referred to as cell defects.

b) Dry cell

It is called leclanché cell. The electrolyte has been replaced with ammonium chloride paste while
the electrodes are now carbon rod as the positive terminal and zinc casing as the negative
terminal. The carbon rod is surrounded by manganese (IV) oxide mixed with carbon powder.
Metal cap Seal and insulator

Carbon rod (positive) Manganese (IV) oxide and carbon powder

Ammonium chloride paste Zinc case (negative)

When the cell is working, zinc is converted to zinc chloride liberating hydrogen ions. The hydrogen
ions are neutralized by the electrons from the reaction between zinc and ammonium chloride and
hydrogen gas is produced. Oxygen from manganese (IV) oxide combines with the hydrogen
produced to form water. Hence polarization is minimized. However, the water formed makes the
cell to be wet. Carbon powder acts as a catalyst since it is used to quicken the working of
manganese (IV) oxide.

In order to minimize local action, pure zinc should be used or it should be coated using mercury.
Note that local action cannot be completely eradicated.

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A new dry cell has an emf of 1.5V and cannot be renewed once its energy is exhausted. A dry cell
should always be stored in a dry place.

❖ Secondary cells

Before use a secondary cell is first charged using electricity. The energy is stored in chemical form.
When the cell is in use, the stored energy is converted to electrical energy. There are two commonly
used secondary cells:

- Lead-acid accumulator

- Alkaline accumulator

a) Lead-acid accumulator

It is the most reliable, long lasting and cost-effective secondary cell. It consists of a number of cells
connected in series. Several cells connected in series forms a battery. The positive plate is lead (IV)
oxide while the negative plate is spongy lead. The plates are very close to one another and are
separated by insulating sheets to keep them out of contact.

The current carrying capacity of the battery depends on the surface area and the number of plates
in the cell. The larger the surface area the higher the amount of charge it can store. The capacity of
the cell is also directly proportional to the number of plates.

The electrolyte comprises 64% water of relative density 1.00 and 36% sulphuric acid of relative
density 1.84. When the accumulator is working (discharging), water is produced which lowers the
relative density of the acid. When completely discharged, the relative density of the acid is 1.18. In
order to regain its energy, the accumulator is recharged using direct current. In this case, the
positive terminal of the charging unit is connected to the positive terminal of the accumulator.
mA
+ _ DC Source

+ -
-

Recharging a lead-acid accumulator

The maximum amount of energy an accumulator can store when fully charged is referred to as its
capacity. It is calculated in ampere-hour (Ah);

i.e. capacity= current in ampere * time in hours.

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Note that the internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the linear dimensions of the
plates.

Example10.2

1. What is the capacity of a cell which can supply current of 250mA for 4hours?

Capacity= 250/1000 * 4 = 1Ah.

2. The charge stored by a cell A of plate dimensions 0.2m*0.2m is 108000C.

a) What charge is stored in cell B of plate dimensions 0.4m*0.4m?

Charge stored by A/Charge stored by B = Area of plate A/ Area of plate B

108000C/QB = (0.2*0.2)/ (0.4*0.4)

QB = (108000*0.16)/0.04 = 432000C.

b) What is the ratio of internal resistance of cell A to that of cell B?

Resistance of A α 1/ length of A

And resistance of B α 1/ length of B

Therefore, resistance of A/ resistance of B = length of B/ length of A

= 0.4m/ 0.2m =2:1

Care for the lead-acid accumulator

1. The level of the electrolyte should always be maintained above the plates. This can be done
by topping up using distilled water.

2. Never draw large current from the accumulator for a longer time since this can weaken the
electrodes.

3. Never leave the accumulator in a discharged condition for a long time.

4. Always keep the terminals clean.

5. Never put the accumulator directly on the ground. Instead rest it on some insulator.

c) Alkaline accumulator

This accumulator uses alkaline solution as the electrolyte e.g. potassium hydroxide. Some common
types of alkaline accumulators include a nickel-iron and nickel-cadnium accumulators. These
accumulators are preferred where large current may be required for emergency e.g. in hospitals.

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Advantages of alkaline accumulator over lead-acid accumulator

1. Large current can be drawn from them over a short time.

2. Minimal maintenance is required.

3. They are easily portable (lighter).

4. They can be kept in a discharged state for a longer time without ruining the cells.

Disadvantages of alkaline accumulator over lead-acid accumulator

1. Their initial cost is very high i.e. expensive.

2. They have a lower emf per cell.

10.9: How to use an ammeter and voltmeter

▪ Connect the positive terminal of the ammeter/ voltmeter to the positive terminal of the
battery.

▪ Ensure that the pointer is initially at zero i.e. there is no zero error. If there is a zero error,
correct it before using the instrument.

▪ Select an appropriate scale to use.

▪ Avoid parallax error taking readings i.e. view the scale normally.

10.10: Ohm’s law

This law relates the current flowing through a conductor and the voltage drop across that section of
the conductor. The law states: the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided temperature and other
physical factors are kept constant. The following set up can be used to investigate Ohm’s law:
A

- Close the switch and adjust the current flowing through the conductor T using the rheostat
to the least possible value. Record the corresponding voltmeter reading.

- Increase the current in steps recording the corresponding voltmeter readings. Record your
values in the table below:

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 Current I (A)

Voltage V (V)

- Plot a graph of voltage against current. Hence determine the slope of the graph.

A graph of voltage against current is a straight line through the origin. Hence voltage drop
across the conductor is directly proportional to the current through it;

Voltage (V)

∆V Slope= ∆V/ ΔI= resistance R

ΔI

Current I (A)

Vα I

V/I = constant

The constant is known as resistance R of the conductor T under investigation.

Thus, V/I= R

Or V= IR.

Hence the slope of a voltage—current graph is equal to the resistance R of the conductor T.
electrical resistance can be defined as the opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of
electric current. It is measured using an ohmmeter.

The SI Unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω). Other units include kilo-ohm (kΩ) and mega-
ohm (MΩ);

1Ω= 10-3kΩ

1Ω= 10-6MΩ

Materials which obey Ohm’s law are said to be ohmic materials while those which do not obey
the law are said to be non-ohmic materials. The graph of voltage against current for non-ohmic
materials is a curve or may be a straight line but does not pass through the origin.

The inverse on resistance is called conductance;

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 Conductance= 1/ resistance R.

Example 10.3

1. Calculate the current flowing through a 8Ω device when it is connected to a 12V supply.

I= V/R

I= 12V/8Ω =1.5A

10.10.1: Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor

There are three main factors that affect the resistance of a conductor:

a) Temperature

Increase in temperature enhances the vibration of the atoms and thus higher resistance to the flow
of current.

b) Length of the conductor L

The resistance of a uniform conductor increases with increase in length.

c) Cross section area A

A conductor having a wider cross section area has more free electrons per unit length compared to
a thin one. Hence a thicker material has a better conductivity than a thinner one. Generally,
resistance varies inversely as the cross section area of the material.

Therefore, at a constant temperature resistance varies directly as the length and inversely as the
cross section area of the conductor;

RαL/A

R= (A constant * L/A)

Or simply, AR/L= constant

The constant is called the resistivity of the material;

Resistivity ϱ= (cross section area A * resistance R) / length L.

Resistivity is measured in ohm-metre (Ωm).

Example 10.4

1. A wire of resistance 3.5Ω has a length of 0.5m and cross section area 8.2 * 10-8m2. Determine
its resistivity.

Resistivity ϱ= AR/L = (8.2*10-8m2*3.5Ω)/0.5m

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 = 5.74*10-7Ωm

2. Two conductors A and B are such that the cross section area of A is twice that of B and the
length of B is twice that of A. If the two are made from the same material, determine the
ratio of the resistance of A to that of B.

R= ϱL/A

Therefore, RA= ϱALA/AA

And RB= ϱBLB/AB

Where LB=2LA

AB= 1/2AA

And ϱA= ϱB

Hence RA=ϱALA/AA and

RB= 2ϱALA/0.5AA = 4ϱALA/AA

Thus RA/RB=ϱALA/AA = 1/4

4ϱALA/AA

RA: RB= 1:4

10.11: Resistors

A resistor is a specially designed conductor that offers a particular resistance to the flow of electric
current. There are three main groups of resistors:

a) Fixed resistors- offer fixed values of resistance. They have colour bands around them.

b) Variable resistors- offer varying resistance e.g rheostat and potentiometer.

c) Non-linear resistors- the current flowing through these resistors does not change linearly
with the voltage applied. Examples include a thermistor and light-dependent resistor (LDR).

10.11.1: Measurement of resistance

Three methods may be used:

a) Voltmeter- ammeter method

In this method, the current flowing through the material and voltage across its ends are measured
and a graph of voltage against current plotted. The slope of the graph gives the resistance offered by
the material.

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 b) The wheatstone bridge method

A wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors and a galvanometer connected as shown below:
I1

R1 R2
I1 G

I2

R3 I2 R4

The values of three out of the four resistors must be known. The value of one of the resistors is
adjusted to a point that the galvanometer does not deflect. At this point, the voltage drop across R1
is equal to that across R3. Similarly, the voltage drop across R2 is equal to that across R4. Note that
the current flowing through R1 is equal that through R2. Also, the current through R3 is the same to
that through R4.

Therefore, I1 R1= I2R3…………………………. i

I1 R2= I2R4…………………………. ii

Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get;

R1/R2= R3/R4

This method is more accurate compared to the voltmeter- ammeter method since the voltmeter has
some resistance against the flow of current and thus takes up some voltage.

c) The metre bridge method

This method relies on the fact that resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

R1 R2

L1 K L2

P Q

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The values of R1 and R2 must be known. Suppose at point K the galvanometer does not deflect, then
the voltage drop across R1 equal the voltage drop across the section L1. Similarly, the voltage drop
across R2 equals the voltage drop across the section L2. If the current through R1 and R2 is I1 and that
through the section L1 and L2 is I2, then;

I1R1= I2L1 ………………………….. i

I1R2=I2L2 …………………………… ii

Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get;

R1/R2= L1/L2

Example 10.5

1. In an experiment to determine the resistance of a nichrome wire using the metre bridge, the
balance point was found to be at the 40cm mark. Given that the value of the resistor to the
right is 30Ω, calculate the value of the unknown resistor R.
R 30Ω
G

A C B

LAC/LCB = R/30Ω

40cm/60cm = R/30Ω

R= (30*40)/60 = 20Ω

10.11.2: Resistor networks

a) Series network

When resistors are arranged in series the same current pass through each one of them. Consider
three resistors connected as shown below:
R1 R2 R3

I V1 V 2 V 3

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From Ohm’s law, V= IR.

The voltage drop across R1; V1= IR1

The voltage drop across R2; V2 =IR2

The voltage drop across R3; V3=IR3

And the total circuit voltage V= V1+V2+V3.

Thus V= IR1+IR2+IR3=I(R1+R2+R3)

V/I =(R1+R2+R3)

But V/I = R

Thus the combined circuit resistance R=R1+R2+R3.

Generally, the effective resistance of resistors arranged in series is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.

b) Parallel network

When resistors are connected in parallel, the same voltage is dropped across them. Consider three
resistors connected as shown below:
V

R1

R2

I R3

Suppose the current flowing through R1 is I1, through R2 is I2 and through R3 is I3 then:

The voltage drop across R1; V1=I1R1

The voltage drop across R2; V2=I2R2

The voltage drop across R3; V3=I3R3

But V1= V2= V3= V and I=I1+I2+I3

Therefore, I=V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3

I/V = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)

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But I/V= 1/R.

Hence 1/R= 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

R is the combined circuit resistance.

Special case of two resistors in parallel

It follows that 1/R= 1/R1+1/R2

1/R= (R1+R2)/R1R2

Hence the effective resistance R= R1R2/ (R1+R2).

Generally for n resistors arranged in parallel, the effective resistance of the arrangement is given
by; 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+…………..+1/Rn

NOTE: when a circuit comprise of both series and parallel connections, the arrangement is
systematically reduced to a single resistor.

Example 10.6

1. The figure below shows 3 resistors.

5Ω3Ω

8Ω

12V

Calculate:

a) The effective resistance of the circuit.

R= (8+5+3)Ω = 16Ω

b) The total current in the circuit.

I=V/R = 12V/16Ω = 0.75A

c) The voltage drop across each resistor.

V8Ω= 0.75*8 = 6.0V

V5Ω= 0.75*5 =3.75V

V3Ω=0.75*3 =2.25V

2. Three resistors are connected as shown below:

5Ω

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 3Ω

6Ω

12V

Calculate:

a) The total resistance of the circuit.

1/R= 1/5+1/3+1/6

1/R= (6+10+5)/30 =21/30

R= 30/21 = 1.4286Ω

b) The current through each resistor.

I5Ω=12V/5Ω=2.4A

I3Ω=12V/3Ω=4.0A

I6Ω=12V/6Ω=2.0A

3. The figure below shows five resistors and 6.0V supply.

4Ω

6V 1Ω 2Ω 3Ω

0.2Ω

Calculate:

a) The effective resistance of the circuit.

R2,3Ω=(2*3)/(2+3) = 1.2Ω

R4,1.2,0.2Ω=4+1.2+0.2 =5.4Ω

R= R1,5.4Ω=(1*5.4)/(1+5.4) = 0.8438Ω

b) The total circuit current.

I=V/R =6V/0.8438Ω =7.1107A

10.11.3: Internal resistance r

When a cell supplies current in a circuit, the potential difference between its terminals is
observed to be lower than its electromotive force (emf). This difference is due to the
internal resistance of the cell. Some work must be done to overcome this resistance and so

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 the drop in the emf of the cell is responsible for this. The difference is referred to as the lost
volt and is given by Ir.

i.e. lost volts= emf-terminal voltage

Or simply emf= terminal voltage + lost volts

The mathematical equation connecting emf, circuit current, external resistance and internal
resistance of the cell is given by:

E= IR + Ir= I(R+r).

Internal resistance of a cell can be obtained experimentally. In such an experiment, the

following data was obtained:

Current I(A) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8

Voltage V(V) 1.43 1.30 1.19 1.09 0.82 0.58

When a graph of Voltage V against current I is plotted, the graph will appear as shown
below:

emf

Voltage (V)

ΔV

ΔI

Current I (A)

The slope of the graph= -r (-internal resistance) while the y-intercept= emf of the cell.

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