ECT 300 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

TOPICS FOR EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY COMPONENT

1. Communication process and learning
2. Verbal and non verbal communication
3. Visual literacy
4. Print and non print media
5. Systematic planning for the use of instructional media
6. Educational broadcasting
7. Community Resources for learning
8. Management of learning resource centres
9. Distance Education
TOPICS FOR MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING AND MEDIA PRACTICALS COMPONENTS
1. Introduction to micro ( peer ) teaching
2. Lecturing skill
3. Questioning and reinforcement
4. Set induction and stimulus variation
5. Small group work and use of examples
6. Use of the chalkboard
7. Preparation of graphic materials
8. Preparation of sound recordings
9. 3 dimensional materials
UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND LEARNING
1.1 What this unit is about
Teaching and learning presupposes an interaction between two or more entities. One entity has the information to pass across while the second one
steadies herself/himself to receive the information. The process of communication is a complex one and it is therefore imperative that all trainee teachers
understand the complex interactions between the entities involved. This unit attempts to analyze the various models and theories of human
communication with the view of identifying the major components and how they interrelate to each other. The unit will also consider the various barriers
to effective classroom communication.

1.2 What will you learn in this unit

By the time you get to the end of this unit you should be able to:
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1. Define communication
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using models to discuss communication
3. Describe the various models of communication
4. Identify and describe the main components of communication
5. Identify the categories of barriers to effective communication
6. Identify and discuss barriers to effective classroom communication .

1.3 Definitions of Communication and learning

The study of communications dates back to the beginning of human civilization. The first communication theories were developed by Plato and Aristotle
during the 5th century BC ( Trenholm , 1991).It became a recognized field of study in the 1940‟s with the development of models describing the
communication process.
Communication can be defined as “ a process by which verbal and non-verbal symbols are sent , received and given meaning‟. It can also be said to be the
social process by which we come to understand and live with each other through the deliberate use of sign symbols with intent to affect others , our
environment and ourselves. It is also the process of creating a meaning between two or more people ( Tubbs and Moss, 1994, p.6). Communication process
has no beginning and no end. It can be said to be a continually changing process ( Tubbs and Moss 1994, p.14). The process continues , the participants
adjust their messages to fit their changing understanding of one another.
The word communication has roots in the Latin word communis which means common. Therefore in a teaching /learning situation commonness is created
between the teacher and the pupils . In essence it involves bridging the gap between the teacher and the learners.
Learning can be defined as
 A persisting change in human performance or performance potential … brought about as a result of the learner‟s interaction with the environment (
Driscoll 1994, p. 8-9 ).
 A relatively permanent change in a person‟s knowledge or behavior due to experience. ( Mayer 1982 . p. 1040 )
 An enduring change in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion , which results from practice or other forms o f experience. ( Shuell ,
1986 , p.412)
 A complex mix of intelligence, motivation, psychological factors and even brain chemistry. It is a continual process of assimilating , integrating and
differentiating new experiences and information so that it makes a difference in behavior or attitudes ( Hamachek D. E . p.219 )
Though measurement and observation of learning pose a challenge , it is important and helpful to identify the common criteria used to signify that learning
has taken place. Schunk ( 1991, p.2) outlined the process of learning in the following way
 A change , or the capacity for such a change occurs in the learner‟s behavior
 The change , or its capacity results from practice or other forms of experience like observations
 The change , or its capacity endures over time and is not due to fatigue, drugs or illness
1.4 Models of communication
A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality that seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process and the
relationships between them.

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1.4.1 Advantages of using models in explaining concepts
Models have the following advantages when used to explain concepts :
 Models have an organizing function by ordering and relating systems to each other and by providing us with images of wholes that we might
otherwise not perceive
 Models help in explaining by providing in a simplified way information which would otherwise be complicated and ambiguous
 Models make it possible to predict outcomes
 Models aid in the discovery of new facts about any concept i.e they serve a heuristic function
1.4.2 Disadvantages of using models in explaining concepts
Models have the following disadvantages when used to explain concepts :
 They tend to limit users within confines
 They tend to represent communication as a one way process , thus denying circularity , negotiability and openness of communication
 Models are inevitably incomplete , oversimplified or involve some concealed assumptions
1.4.3 Examples of models of communication
Communication is based on the relationship between two parties whereby through common understanding and acceptance an exchange of various human
elements are experienced. There are various models that attempt to explain the concept communication.
1.4.3.1 Lasswell’s Formula ( 1948)
Harold Lasswell came up with the Lasswellian formula which takes the form of a statement “ WHO says WHAT, in which CHANNEL , to WHOM and with
what EFFECTS. In the statement WHO refers to the source of the signals, WHAT refers to the message being passed , CHANNEL refers to the means or
media through which the message is passed, WHOM refers to the receivers of the message and EFFECTS refer to the impact of the message.
The Lasswellian model is similar to what Aristotle proposed over 2300 years ago.
The Lasswellian model implies that communication is a persuasive process. It also assumes that messages always have effects and was therefore ideal as a
propaganda tool during the post World War II era. The model has no feedback and is linear.
Braddock (1958) improved Lasswell‟s model by asking “ Under what circumstances” and “ For what purpose” is the communication taking place.
1.4.3.2 Claude Shannon and Warren Weavers ( 1949)
The machine technologies and telecommunications systems developed during the 1940‟s led to the mathematical model by Shannon and Weavers that were
designed to provide precise description of the mechanics of transmitting a message, without regard to the content or meaning of the message. . Shannon
worked for the Bell Telephone Laboratory and his theories and model relate primarily to this field by asking “ How much of the transmitted message will be
destroyed by noise between the transmitter and the receiver”. The model is linear and is one way. Noise in this context is defined as anything that reduces
the clarity or accuracy of the message as it moves from the source to the receiver via the transmitter. The noise distorts the message.
1.4.3.3 C E Osgood and Wilbur Schramn (1954)
The model by Osgood and Schramn put communication in the human context and focused on the meaning of a message as a vital aspect of the process. This
is a circular model that concentrates on the behavior of the main actors i.e the sender and the receiver. The sender and the receiver exchange roles as the
communication process goes on. The two skills of visual literacy are in use namely encoding and decoding. Encoding involves creating a verbal signal out of
a visual image while decoding involves forming a visual image out of a verbal signal. Interpretation by t he sender involves organizing further messages in
light of the feedback received while interpretation by the receiver involves digesting the message and organizing the feedback.
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Schramn remarked “ We are little switchboard centres handling and rerouting the great endless current of information „.
1.4.3.4 David Berlo
David Berlo‟s model emphasizes the psychological nature of communication in respect of how it affects both the sender and the receiver in any
communication transaction. The model is commonly known as the S-M-C-R model of communication. The components of this model are explained as
follows:
S stands for Source which must have the following attributes. The source must have communication skills , have favourable attitudes towards the receiver,
must be knowledgeable and operate within some acceptable socio-cultural context.
M stand for Message . This is content which must be coded and treated properly.
C stands for channel which corresponds to the five senses namely seeing , hearing , touching , smelling and tasting.
R stands for Receiver who must have attributes similar to the source.
1.4.3.5 Tubbs and Moss (1994)
They presented a version of the transactional model . In this model communication occurs when two or more individuals send messages to one another and
receive messages from one another using one or more channels . The messages are subject to distortion. Filters in the sender ( e.g inadequate vocabulary,
lack of organization or clarity, biases ) distort a message as it is sent. Filters in the receiver ( e.g fatigue, daydreaming , limited knowledge about the topic )
distort a message as it is received. Other notable models have been advanced by
1.4.4 Essential components of communication
Its possible for the sake of analysis to break down the communication process into its components but this would be largely arbitrary as in actuality the
process has no discrete parts. From the above highlighted models various essential components can be identified. They are discussed here under.
1.4.4.1 Source
The source is the encoder and creator of messages. In class, sources of information comprise the teacher, pupils, textbooks, handouts, and resource materials.
The teacher is the main source as s/he categorizes and organizes messages according to the understanding level of the pupils.
For the source to carry out this function it must be motivated. The source originates the messages for the purposes of affecting the receiver in certain ways
that s/he wishes to accomplish the set goals by actively involving the receiver. Sometimes the source doesn‟t actually originate the messages but simply re-
organizes already existing ones. In carrying out this function , the source must use a code i.e a language which must be meaningful and acceptable to the
receiver.
In summary the source has four distinct roles
 Determining the meaning of a message
 Encoding the meaning into a message
 Sending the message
 Perceiving and reacting to the receiver‟s responses.
1.4.4.2 Receiver
The receiver decodes the message using any of the five senses. After a process of interpretation s/he exhibits some observable behavior ( verbally or non-
verbally). From the receiver‟s behavior /response the source determines whether s/he has been effective. If the message has had no impact, the receiver will
re-examine the message and re-encode it in order to achieve the desired effect. Thus the receiver‟s response affects the source significantly.
The source and the receiver are mutually interdependent as :
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  The source encodes and transmits
 The receiver perceives, decodes and interprets
 The receiver responds either in another encoded message or in motor behavior
 The receiver‟s response is in turn a message for the source
 The source now behaves like the receiver
The communication is depicted as a non ending process because :
 The receiver subjects the message to his/her own interpretation based on his/her prior experiences
 In encoding the message the source anticipates or predicts the receiver‟s interpretation of the message in light of the receiver‟s experience
 When both the source and the receiver have similar prior experiences the source will be in a better position to precisely predict the receiver‟s
interpretation
 The code ( language) used by the source should have a vocabulary that is within reach of the receiver
The receiver has five distinct roles namely :
 Receive by listening , seeing, touching, smelling and tasting
 Attend to all messages
 Decode and evaluate the message
 Store and recall the message
 Respond to the source, channel, environment , noise and message

1.4.4.3 Message
The message can be a verbal or non verbal stimulus intended to affect the receiver. In a classroom situation the message is the content. The message must be
well selected and organized to get the receiver‟s attention and keep him/her tuned and actively participating in the process.
1.4.4.4 Channel
A channel is something that helps transmit or carry a message or series of messages between two or more communicators. It is the link between the source
and the receiver. It is natural for communication to involve multiple channels. The channel can be either in the form of sound waves ( words) or light waves (
visuals , non verbal communication or print ). The channel must be acceptable to both the source and the receiver e.g it is useless to speak to a dumb /deaf
receiver or to use visuals for a blind receiver. The source must also take into account the individual needs of the learners in selecting the channel.
1.4.4.5 Environment
This is the teaching / learning environment that surrounds the teacher and the learner. This environment is made up of :
 The attitudes of the source and the receiver
 The socio-economic status of both the source and the receiver
 Room size , colour and temperature
 The seating arrangement
1.4.4.6 Noise

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This is anything that interferes with or changes the meaning of a message. It can be in the form of day dreaming as well as visual distractions. It is also
anything that reduces the accuracy, meaning , understanding or retention of the message. In a classroom noise includes annoying habits or physical
movements , room temperature , poor lighting , poor acoustics, inattentiveness, lack of motivation or physical impairments of the hearing mechanism.
1.4.4.7 Feedback
This allows the source to monitor the responses or reactions of the receiver. In a classroom situation this can be in the form of pupils responding to the
teacher‟s questions or taking part in a discussion, demonstrations, drama, debates, pupils carrying out some given tasks or by simply checking the pupils
facial expressions. Feedback helps the teacher to modify or change the instructional strategy, speed of delivery, vocabulary level and helps him/her control
the class more effectively.

1.4.5 Applications of principles from

communication theory
The table below summarizes the theoretical principles
and practical applications from communication theory.

Theoretical principle Practical application

Communication is a continuous two way Communicate with students rather than to them
transaction
Filters and interference distort the message Identify the filters and interference ( actual and
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 potential) and reduce them as much as possible
There is no single best way to communicate Use more than one channel to communicate
with students.

1.4.6 Barriers to effective classroom communication

Broadly speaking barriers can be categorized into three namely :
 Psychological
 Physiological
 Physical or environmental
Specifically the barriers to effective classroom communication are :
 Language
 Age difference
 Content
 Lesson preparation
 Over emphasis of the cognitive domain
 Class management
 Teaching strategies
 Media
 Culture
 Socio economic status
 Attitudes and motivation
 Noise
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Think back on a learning situation you have been in. Identify as many of the sources of interference as you can. Briefly indicate how you would
reduce the distortion caused by each source.
FURTHER READINGS
1. Driscoll M P ( 1994). Psychology of Learning for instruction. Boston . Allyn & Bacon.
2. Hamachek Don E. (1979 ). Psychology in Teaching , Learning and Growth. ( 2nd edition). Boston Allyn and Bacon.
3. Mayer R E. (1982 ). Learning . In H E Mitzel ( Ed). Encyclopaedia of Educational Research ( p. 1040-1058) New York Free Press
4. Shuell T J ( 1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research. 56. 411-436.
5. Schunk , D H . (1991). Learning theories : An educational perspective. Englewood Cliffs. NJ : Merrill/ Prentice Hall.
6. Trenholm , S. ( 1991). Human communication theory. ( 2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs. NJ : Merrill/ Prentice Hall.
7. Tubbs, S L & Moss, S. (1994). Human communication. ( 7th edition). New York. McGraw-Hill.

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LESSON 2: VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

2.1 What this lesson is about

This lesson delves deeper into the concept of communication. It distinguishes verbal from non verbal communication and makes an attempt to relate
existing theories to actual classroom experiences. It looks at sources of non verbal signs , kinesics , proxemics , gestures, emotions , time , physical
characteristics, open/closed channels and cultural considerations in non verbal communication.

2.2 What will you learn in this lesson

By the time you get to the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1. Define verbal communication
2. Define non verbal communication
3. Distinguish between verbal and non verbal communication
4. Explain the relationships between verbal and non verbal communication
5. Describe the two sources of non verbal signs
6. Define kinesics and proxemics
7. Explain with classroom examples the four main distances used in proxemics
8. State types of gestures and give examples of each type
9. Explain the influence of emotions on non verbal communication
10. Discuss time as a variable of non verbal communication
11. Explain the influence of physical characteristics on non verbal communication
12. Explain with classroom examples open and closed channels of non verbal
communication
13. Explain how cultural differences affect non verbal communication
and discuss barriers to effective classroom communication .
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2.3 Definitions
Human communication takes place in two ways namely verbal and non verbal. In verbal communication the message is communicated through the spoken
word while in non verbal the message is through signs , gestures and postures which include facial expressions, eye contacts, body postures etc. Non verbal
includes all external stimuli other than the spoken word or written words and includes the use of space and distance. Both modes are used in classroom
interaction.
Birdswhistell R L has a theory that in communication 35% of the message is conveyed verbally while 65% is passed non verbally. This implies that when a
message is passed both verbally and non verbally and the two versions contradict each other , the receiver tends to believe the non verbal.
2.4 Relationship between verbal and non verbal communication
The relationship between verbal and non verbal communication revolves around four dimensions namely ;
 Substitution relationship. This is the case where a response / reaction which could have been communicated verbally is done non verbally. Example
is nodding the head to mean „Yes‟ or shaking the head to mean “No‟
 Complementary relationship. This is the situation where a verbal response/ reaction is reinforced non verbally. For instance shaking the head and
saying No at the same time. You can also explain a process and at the same time demonstrate what you are saying e.g kneeling down , washing etc.
 Conflicting relationship. Sometimes the verbal communication seems to conflict with the non verbal communication. For instance at the end of a
lesson one pupil may approach the teacher and express a desire to speak to the teacher. The teacher may say „ Yes‟ but at the same time be busy
rubbing the chalkboard , packing books and checking the watch. This may leave the pupil confused as to whether to go on and ask the question or
leave the teacher alone.
Whenever there is a conflict we tend to rely more on the non verbal messages because the eyes ( a direct extension of the brain ) have the capability
to perceive more quickly than the ears. In other words what we see is processed faster than what we hear.
 Accenting relationship. Non verbal activities can stress parts of a verbal message just as underlined words emphasize written ideas. For instance
holding a pupil by the ear and saying “ when I speak to you, look at the chalkboard‟.
2.5 Sources of non verbal signs
There are two main sources of non verbal signs namely :
 Inherent . These are non verbal signs one is born with for instance the blink of an eye. We are born with the tendency to react physically in certain
ways and it is almost impossible to control the reactions.
 Experiences common to culture , social class or family. These are learned the same way as the spoken language. We learn them through observing
and imitating people around us . It is worth noting that not all people in any culture have identical patterns for example hand waving is a common
way of greeting in urban areas such as Nairobi as people are normally in a hurry whereas in the rural areas it is co mmon and fashionable to shake
hands. The non verbal signs are read on the basis of our own background and experiences.
2.6 Kinesics
This is a study that includes movements of the body, limbs, hands, head , feet and legs. It encompasses facial expressions , eye behavior , posture and
walk. A branch of Kinesics is known as proxemics and refers to the use of space and distance.

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 Proxemics refers to the way people use and perceive social and personal space around them and how they use the area ( territo ry) around them. The
space extends and contracts on the basis of ones emotions and activities. On the basis of proxemics one is able to come up with specific distances that
help to explain an individual‟s territory. There are four main distances used during educational and social relationships. These are :
 Intimate distance. These are cases where certain people prefer to stay at an arm‟s length during an encounter. Examples are situations where some
people prefer to sit near a window or at the back of the class.
 Personal distance. This is exemplified by the office arrangement where the officer sits behind a desk and their juniors and clients sit on the other
side.
 Social distance. A good classroom example is the situation where the person in charge ( i.e the teacher in class ) stands and the listeners are
seated. Also in certain cultures the son in law cannot shake hands with his mother in law as a sign of respect.
 Public distance. This is the distance kept by public figures to establish barriers between them and the audience. For example the distance between
a teacher and the Inspector of schools.
Note that depending on one‟s culture , the space and the territory expands and contracts according to one‟s emotional state and the activity being
pursued.
2.7 Gestures.
These are non verbal behaviors . Five types of gestures are described below.
 Emblems or symbols. These are signs that a specific society or an identifiable group of people hold in common. Examples are national flags,
school badges, or signs used by matatu drivers to describe positions of policemen on the highway.
 Illustrators. These are gestures that accompany speech. They are used to sketch a path , point to an object or show the spatial position of a place
on a map while speaking about the site.
 Affect displays. These are facial expressions that show emotions and feelings such as happiness, disgust and sadness. These are through winking ,
smiling, frowning, raising or lowering eyelids and eyebrows.
 Regulators. These are non verbal activities that maintain and regulate the back and forth nature of speaking between two or more people.
Examples include head nods, eye movements and body shifts that are used to encourage or discourage conversation.
 Adaptors. These are restless movements of hands , feet, tongue, kicking motions of one‟s legs and finger tapping. They accompany boredom and
show internal feelings of an individual besides regulating the situation. Bored pupils tap their fingers on their desks , keep checking their watches
or yawn.
2.8 Influence of emotions on non verbal communication.
Emotions directly affect the size of one‟s territory and this can easily result in non verbal responses. For instance :
 When a person gets upset the body becomes rigid. Nervous pupils will find their throats tightening and stomach muscles contracting when asked
to address their colleagues.
 An adult looks like a giant to a frightened child. Psychologists recommend that when dealing with crying children adults should kneel down or at
least come to the child‟s level.
 Lawyers and court prosecutors know that moving closer to the accused may upset the accused and this may force him/her to say something s/he
would not have revealed under normal circumstances.
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  When a teacher leans towards one of the pupils suspected of being a ring leader of a strike, it is likely to upset the pupil, and this may result in the
breakdown of the pupil‟s defence and an admission of guilt.
2.9 Time as a variable in non verbal communication.
Punctuality is generally considered as a sign of good behavior. Persistent lateness may imply :
 That an individual wants to avoid something
 That an individual thinks punctuality is not important
 That an individual thinks the person to be met is not important enough to warrant the effort to be punctual
 That probably the person has not been taught the importance of punctuality
The moment two parties conceive time differently there is likely to be a communication breakdown.
2.10 Effects of physical characteristics on non verbal communication
One‟s physique , general attractiveness, body shape, height and weight are other forms of non verbal communication. In an interview the more attractive
the interviewee the greater his/her chances of success. This also explains why senior security officers in general are heavily built.
2.11 Open and closed channels of communication
Non verbal communication can be used to either encourage or discourage a conversation . In a class you might find some students nodding to accept the
answer given by one of their colleagues, they may smile to show pleasure or agreement. These are indications of encouragement and aspects of an open
communication channel. On the other hand when students start glancing at their watches, crossing of arms and legs are signs that the channel of
communication is closed and the end of the session is being sought.
Clothing and physical adornments are all part of the open and closed channels of communication. For instance a woman puts on a ring to symbolize that
she is either engaged or married in which case she is a closed channel.
Posture can also communicate, for instance a well dressed lady waiting a t a particular spot is an indication of a closed channel compared to another well
dressed lady walking up and down a street. The message in the latter case is an indication of an open channel. There is no verbal communication but a lot
is communicated non verbally.
In a classroom situation the pupils can express their disapproval of you as a teacher by simply putting their heads on their desks and pretending to be
asleep as the teacher walks in.
2.12 Cross cultural context for non verbal communication
There are similarities as well as differences on the use of non verbal communication as one moves from one culture to another. The following points
should be born in mind when using non verbal communication (NVC) :
 NVC signals in one culture might mean something else in a different culture
 NVC signals are restricted to a particular culture where they are commonly used
 For one to communicate effectively non verbally one needs to know and understand non verbal signals used in the culture the students come from
 There are NVC signals that are similar in two different cultures but carry two different messages
 There are certain NVC signals made by the teacher in class that could easily be misinterpreted and thus cast doubt on his/her integrity
 Certain gestures and movements used in NVC signals have no relation at all to the language, they only have a social function like for example
using both hands in receiving a gift or taking off one‟s hat when greeting another person.

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2.12.1 Summary
To summarize the lesson and relate the various aspects of NVC to the classroom situation we not that :
 Use can be made of eye contact by focusing one‟s eyes directly on the pupils
 There is non verbal vocalization , that is a wide range of sounds made by the teacher and pupils. This is done through the tone of one‟s voice, speed
of delivery , pitch, loudness and voice quality.
 There is the use of facial expression. This can provide feedback to the pupils besides regulating the speed of delivery or even encouraging
participation in class activities.
 The use of body posture
 The utilization of the physical space. Employ personal distance and public distance wisely and sparingly.
 Punctuality is central to teaching as it reveals what kind of teacher you are.

TAKE AWAY ASSIGNMENT DECEMBER 2019

For a sub topic in one of your teaching subjects prepare a 20 minute audio lesson. Submit ONLINE ( to [email protected]) the following items / or
alternatively physically bring the teaching materials to the department of Educational Communication and Technology ( main campus) Room 11
 Teachers’ notes
 Audio script
 Recording (on memory card for those submitting physically)
L W OLANGA

LESSON 3: VISUAL LITERACY

3.1 What this lesson is about
From birth one is exposed to many instances that involve the use of the sense of sight. It is therefore important that one is properly introduced to the use of
this sense especially in seeing and interpreting these things in the same manner. This lesson introduces the concept of visual literacy. Visual literacy skills
are important in everyday living as well as in instruction and learning, accordingly it is essential for teachers and schools to pay deliberate attention towards
the development of these skills. In this lesson qualities that make visuals ideal for communication and learning will be highlighted , the skills of visual
literacy and strategies for developing the skills are delineated, factors affecting how people decode and encode will be discussed, the visual qualities
preferred by learners as well as the efficacy level of the qualities will also be discussed.
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 3.2. What will you learn in this lesson
By the time you get to the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1. Define visual literacy
2. Explain the relevance and use of visual literacy to the learning process
3. State the two skills of visual literacy
4. Apply the concept of visual literacy in everyday life and to teaching / learning
3.3. Introduction
When we think of literacy , the ability to read and write words quickly comes to mind. There are however other forms of literacy besides reading and writing
words. Another form of literacy is visual literacy which allows learners
3.4. The concept of visual literacy and its relevance to everyday life and learning
Interest in the concept of visual literacy is fairly recent. Interest in this area only came into prominence in the mid 1960‟s when it became apparent that
specific skills were required for one to “read “and “write “ visual messages in much the same way that specific skills are usually required to read and write
words. Like the skills of reading and writing words , it was recognized that the skills of visual literacy did not evolve naturally as a consequence of
maturation , but they were acquired through some kind of exposure like even direct teaching. It is with this in mind that experts in education have since
advocated the need to purposely attend to the development of the skills of visual literacy.
At this point it is necessary to ask the question “ Why is it necessary to develop the skill of visual literacy ?‟. One reason is that visual messages of all kinds
confront us everyday , thus the skills of visual literacy have become indispensable to everyday life. Examples of visual messages we are likely to encounter
in our day to day lives include pictures in books , newspapers and magazines, adverts in the print and electronic media, directions on how to use a variety of
products ranging from chemicals to machinery and tools.
There is a general trend worldwide towards the use of visuals or pictorial communication. This is because visuals are a form of Esperanto. In other words,
they are a universal language, likely to be understood by all throughout the world.
But why is worldwide communication important? In a world of free-flow of ideas, products and people a universally understood medium of communication
is necessary. So far, no spoken or written language or any other means of communication exists that is as efficient, universal and direct as visuals.
Some of the information often communicated visually bear to our safety , for example the ability to “read “ ( interpret the meaning of ) the various colours of
the traffic lights. Another kind of information usually presented visually and one that relates to our safety is direction on how to use a wide variety of
products ranging from pesticides , machinery and tools. In each of these cases inability to “read” the visual messages can well mean risk to limb or life.
Besides everyday living , visual literacy is also important from an instructional viewpoint. First, a large number of instructional media such as graphic
materials , films and slides have a visual component. They make use of the sense of sight. Second, research on learning invariably reveals that the sense of
sight is indispensable to learning . This sensory channel contributes overwhelmingly to learning , much more than any other sense. It is essential, therefore,
that the sense of sight should be engaged if effective learning is to be realized.
3.5. How visuals convey meaning
Visuals communicate meaning more readily than the written and spoken word. This is because visuals are much more concrete and direct. Words whether
written or spoken are arbitrary symbols , they usually neither look like nor sound like the objects or things that they represent. Visuals on the other hand ,
resemble things or objects and are thus able to communicate information much more directly.

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Although visuals are suited for communication, not all visuals will communicate information to the same degree. Different visuals present different degrees
or levels of efficacy in as far as communication is concerned. One of the major determinants of efficacy in communication is the degree of realism presented
in visuals , in other words the extent to which a visual resembles the thing or object it represents.
It is conceivable that visuals could be arranged on a continuum according to their degree of realism. On one extreme we would have the highly realistic
visuals and on the other the very abstract visuals. In between the two extremes there would be a lot of shades of realism. The crucial question, then is, “ what
degree of realism is likely to be the most efficient communication wise ?. To most people, the highly realistic visual is likely to be thought of as the most
efficient with the argument being its close resemblance to the object or event it represents. Further , its level of detail would be seen as likely to make
interpretation much easier. Despite this, however , research seems to contradict this view. Research shows that under certain circumstances, realism can in
fact interfere with communication and learning. For example , the ability to sort out relevant from irrelevant details in a visual depends on age and
experience. Thus , a wealth of detail may distract rather than enhance communication and learning. Too little detail ( abstraction ) may also be
disadvantageous to communication and learning. It is difficult to understand a visual that presents too little content.
But these observations cannot be applied wholesale. The right degree of realism in a particular lesson will depend on factors peculiar to lesson contexts.
Three major factors affect the right degree of realism for instructional purposes. These are :
 The age and level of the learners. Age and experiences determines a learner‟s ability to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant details. A young
learner may be overwhelmed by too much detail making “reading” of a visual difficult.
 The purpose of the lesson . If the objective of a lesson were that the learner is to discriminate relevant from irrelevant information ,then the visual
presented for study would have to be very realistic
 Learner‟s picture preferences . the interest of the learners cannot be ignored if successful learning is to be achieved. This is because learners‟ interests
always relate to issues of motivation . in this regard , then a teacher planning to use visuals need to take into account what is likely to appeal to
learners „ interests.
 The most effective visual is usually that which presents moderate degree of realism. Not too much or too little detail .
3.6. The skills of visual literacy
One is said to be visually literate if one is able to :
 To read visuals , referred to as the decoding skill. This is the ability to translate visual messages into verbal messages.
 To write visuals , referred to as the encoding skill. This is the ability to create visuals. It can also be said to be the process of translating information
into some meaningful form that can be remembered.
The development of the skills require practice over a long period of time using the right tools and in the environment. These conditions must prevail where
mastery of any kind of skill is required.
All subjects in the school curriculum are expected to contribute towards the development of the two visually literacy skills . By being aware of her/his
contribution towards the development of such an important ability, a teacher will be better able to make a better job of the task.
3.7. Pictures preferred by learners and their effectiveness
It is important to stress that the kinds of visuals preferred by pupils are not necessarily those from which they learn most. Whereas it is important that a
teacher tries to incorporate in his/her teaching the interests of the learners, s/he needs to also consider that which is effective. If it so happens that the visual
selected is that which will appeal to learners and at the same time prove to be effective for learning then this should be perfect. However , in some instances
a teacher will need to strike a balance or choose one or the other. A good teacher will always strive to make the best judgment that suits his/her circumstance.
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Why do we need to consider the learner‟s interest ? The preference or interest of learners relates to issues of motivation. When motivation is lacking , then
we should not expect any meaningful learning to take place.
3.7.1. Guidelines to preferred visuals and effective visuals.
Research findings reveal the following points in respect to preferred visuals on one hand and effective visuals on the other. We , here below examine the
following pictorial qualities of visuals in respect to learner preference and effectiveness :
 Coloured and black and white visuals.
Most people prefer coloured visuals over black and white . However , studies show that there is no significant difference between these visuals in as
far as learning and communication are concerned , except where colour is an important part of what is to be learnt e.g green matter in leaves , red
blood .
 Photographs and drawings.
Whereas most learners prefer photographs, in many situations drawings are more effective. This is because drawings tend to emphasize important
details.
 Highly realistic and very abstract representations
Although most people prefer very realistic ( detailed) visuals as opposed to abstract representations , moderation tends to be the guideline for
instructional purposes and communication.
 Simple and complex illustrations
Young children prefer simple visuals , older children and adults can cope with complex visuals. Nevertheless , simple visuals are more effective
irrespective of age.

LESSON 4: PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA

4.1 What this lesson is about
Teaching and subsequently learning by nature is a complex process that cannot take place in a vacuum and requires more than just the input of the human
resource namely the teacher . The teacher and the pupil cannot interact on their own for effective learning but needs the interaction between the teacher , the
pupils and several other inputs . There is always need for other players in the game of learning .The teacher must refer to and use these inputs to increase the
effectiveness of the teaching exercise . These inputs come in the form of learning resources . This lesson shall strive to take you through some of these inputs
that are in the form of print and non print media . There will be a deliberate attempt to bias you to have a proper mix of both print and non print media to
reduce boredom , arouse interest and generally create the much needed link between the content to be covered and everyday life experiences . The lesson
will in essence look at some of the resources that can be used to support learning .
4.2 What will you learn in this lesson
By the time you get to the end of this lessont you should be able to:
1. Define print and non-print media .
2. State and describe the different varieties of print media .
3. Discuss the advantages of textbooks .
4. Criticize the use of textbooks.
5. Describe the criteria to follow in textbook selection.
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 6. Explain the importance of textbook utilization for maximum learning.
7. State and describe the different varieties of non-print media
8. Explain the use of various non-print media to supplement print media.
9. Discuss the advantages of non-print media.

4.3 Introduction and definition of print media

A medium is a channel of communication. It is derived from the Latin word meaning “between‟ . The term refers to that which carries information between a
source and a receiver. They are considered instructional media when they carry messages with an instructional purpose. The purpose of instructional media
is to facilitate communication and enhance learning.
Media serves several roles in education. Their primary role is to facilitate student learning. One way they do this is by providing a stimulus rich environment.
Media can provide and extend experiences vicariously.Print media are usually opaque paper-based materials suitable for individual use. They have
characters, numerals, words and may contain pictures and illustrations. They include electronic and photographic means of storing and presenting
documents.
Print media was introduced during the Renaissance period (16 th , 17th , 18th and early 19th century). Since then print media have been in use in almost all
learning institutions as well as in other sectors as a convenient source of information . For private use outside the school , the print media has been very
popular in such forms as newspapers and magazines . In this lesson we shall limit our discussion to written works and symbols . For convenience of
grouping we therefore talk of written works and symbols.
4.3.1 Characteristics of print media
Print media have the following characteristics:
1. They are usually on a paper surface. Note that even when printed documents can be displayed electronically by computers or projected on film, they are
often also available in paper or „hard copy‟ form.
2. Symbols in the form of characters, numerals, and words are arranged on an area or surface called a page which may include pictures and illustrations in
the form of sketches, photographs, charts, maps, graphs, tables or line drawings.
3. Print media have some mechanism for production, the most common being the typewriter, computers and word processors. Once created documents can
be produced in large quantities by use of machines such as photocopiers and high speed printing presses.
4.3.2 Advantages of print media
Print media have the following advantages :
1. They are convenient and powerful media besides catering for individual working rates.
2. They provide useful and easy access to the messages contained and facilitate easy revision.
3. They are highly portable and economical to buy and maintain.
4. They often contain outstanding visualization of concepts and information with accompanying text to explain them.
4.3.3 Disadvantages of print media
1. They are largely non-interactive.
2. Usually their authors ignore the needs of the audience.
3. If used as a class text (in the case of textbook), it can mislead the teacher to ignore the syllabus, schemes of work and even the lesson plan.
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4.3.4 Types of written works and symbols
There are several types of written works .We shall now go ahead and discuss some of them .
4.3.4.1 Textbooks
The term text refers to alphanumeric letters and characters , usually presented to students in the form of printed materials or on a computer screen. Textbooks
are published in various forms to specifically serve certain purposes . Examples include study guides, manuals, worksheets, textbooks and computer
displays. In the classroom the textbook is the chief sources of information for both the teacher and the pupils. Textbooks have long been the foundation of
the learning process. For it to be of good use to the pupils it should be attractive, colourful and well illustrated. The textbook can be in soft cover or
paperback form . They can be fiction or non-fiction . One main drawback in the use of textbooks is that with time they can become outdated .
4.3.4.1.1 Functional Uses Of Textbooks.
Some of the functional uses of textbooks are:-
(i) They can be used as teaching assistants. They allow the teacher to mention the most important points only, and leave the rest to be covered in
assignments. They also act as source material for both the teacher and the pupils.
(ii) They can be used to individualize learning through independent study assignments. The pupils can use them to do assignments individually, the
teacher will then be able to identify individual difficulties and attend to them accordingly.
(iii) They can be used as the base on which content can be made come alive by
the use of appropriate accompanying media, taking field trips, arranging and
explaining displays or exhibits, listening to recordings and using other
suitable audio-visual media.
(iv) They help learners to improve language and research skills. This can be
done through:-
 Condensing the essence of several pages into a brief paragraph
 Comparing viewpoints of several books or of different sections in the same book
 Having pupils look up the meaning of new words and use them in new ways
 Teaching pupils to read footnotes and to use the library to locate references
(v) Avail visual content use. The visual content of a textbook includes the presence of:- charts, maps, graphs, pictures, diagrams, and overlays. These
supplement the text and provide extra visuals. They also help the pupils to develop and practice the skills of graphic interpretation that are essential
to visual literacy.
4.3.4.1.2 Basic Consideration In Evaluating School Textbooks .
The following criteria or scheme of evaluation can be followed in selecting textbooks for use in schools:
1. CONTENT.
 Is the author competent.
 Does the textbook interpret the curricular objectives well.
 How is the textbook handling controversial issues.
 Does the subject matter contained therein promote sound moral values.

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2. CONTENT TREATMENT
 Is the style adapted to the age level of the students (length of sentences, length of paragraphs)
 Is the vocabulary suitable for the grade
 Does the material cater for individual differences.
3. ARRANGEMENT OF CONTENT.
 Are the index and table of contents complete.
 Is there a glossary for difficult words.
 Are there illustrations, maps, sketches, tables, graphs to supplement printed matter.
 Do the visuals aids add interest to the textual matter (reality in colour, artistic page arrangement, minimum irrelevant details).
 Are the suggested related activities practical.
 Do well organized summaries and review appear at the end of each chapter/unit/ lesson.
 Do the bibliographies include the most up to date materials.
4. MECHANICAL STANDARDS.
 Is the type clear.
 Is there good spacing between lines for easy reading
 For under 7 year olds, 10 lines per 4 inches
 For 7 – 9 year olds, 20 lines per 4 inches
 For 9 – 12 year olds, 22 lines per 4 inches
 Above 12 year olds, 24 lines per 4 inches
 Are the lines of proper length for easy reading (3 to 4 inches)
 Is the paper of good quality, weight and durability
 Is the binding reinforced.
 Are the pages planned for easy readability

ACTIVITY 4.1
Evaluate the recommended class text for one of your teaching subjects using the evaluation
criteria outlined above . Does the book meet all the criteria ?
4.3.4.2 Encyclopedias
Encyclopaedias are a set of source books that contain background information on all aspects of learning to the learners . They are very useful to the learner
as a source book . They can be used to supplement information in textbooks , motion pictures , film strips , field trips , and other media in exciting curiosity
and desire for more information . There are different types or sets of encyclopedias, but each gives pupils an opportunity to find, organize, and evaluate basic
facts. It is important to note that though they contain useful information , they stand the risk of being outdated . Encyclopaedias are normally printed on
paper of very good quality and can last long periods. The main hindrance to their use is the unavailability in most institutions and the cost as well as the lack
of ease in updating them to make them contain current information .
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ACTIVITY 4.2
Visit a nearby established public library . With one of your teaching subjects in mind , peruse through a set of encyclopaedia . Evaluate and comment wh
subjects ?
4.3.4.3 Newspapers and Magazines
These are a very common source of information for the general audience . They are in two types
(i) those published for general audience
(ii) those published for school readers
They are useful in several ways such as providing:
 a study and analysis of current events.
 Background studies on important local, national and international problems.
 Practice in improving reading and discussion skills.
 Propaganda analysis.
 Opportunities to study writing and editorial styles.
 Foreign language training and bulletin-board display material and scrap book collection items.
They tend to have the latest and up-to-date information . This is mainly because most of them are daily , weekly or monthly publications . However , because
most of them are not necessarily well researched before publication they may be inaccurate at times. They are normally printed on cheap and low quality
paper and therefore cannot last very long or even withstand rough usage. They also have the advantage of being relatively cheap compared to other print
media .
ACTIVITY 4.3
Look through several newspapers / magazines and identify one with content that could be
used to teach a topic in one of your teaching subjects . Prepare a lesson plan incorporating
the newspaper / magazine clip .
4.3.4.4 Comics
Comic is a form of cartooning in which the same cast of characters enacts a story in a sequence of closely related drawings designed to entertain the reader .
Unlike the cartoon , the comic consists of continuing story situations . Most comic-book series have turned into straight picture stories in strip or pamphlet
forms. The use of cartoons capitalizes on the fact that young readers enjoy picture stories, the comic books employ the use o f visual materials possibly in
colour.
Many historical, scientific and literary subjects can be represented well and accurately in comic book forms.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Make a survey of comic book materials being sold at key newspaper stands in your
community . Find which comics are best sellers , which are objectionable , and which are
useful from an educational stand point .
4.3.4.5 Programmed Teaching and Learning Materials

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This is a kind of instructional format where information is presented in steps, the presentation stimulus demands an active response by the learner, and the
learner is either told whether his/her response is correct or s/he compares them with the ones given in the programme. The mo st important advantage of this
format is that each learner can learn at his/her own pace. These programmed teaching/learning materials can be used when the teacher intends to:
 Teach new knowledge and skills independently of other materials of presentation.
 Enrich and complement the teaching programme.
 Review the teaching/learning materials.
 Assist poor pupils or those who have been absent to catch up with the regular classroom work.
Programmed materials have the following advantages:
 They allow educators to organize their teaching materials into logical step by step presentation
 Offer flexible teaching/learning possibilities that can be used by groups or individual learners in the classroom, in learning resource centres or at
home
 They give teachers a concrete and immediate feedback on a learner‟s progress
 They incite learners to become active
 They reduce learner error by being more efficient in realizing specific goals than are other forms of teaching and learning
 They are normally protested and revised to ensure validity and reliability
However , programmed materials have limitations some of which are :
 They lack intrinsic motivation as the learners work in isolation
 There is little provision in the programme for the learner to develop or to express himself as creatively as an individual
 They compartmentalize knowledge in a manner that makes cross-disciplinary approaches to subject content difficult
 Major principles and concepts are at times lost in programmed teaching/learning because knowledge is so broken down in small steps that the
broad aspects of subject maybe lost .
4.3.4.6 Teacher Prepared Handouts
Handouts are normally prepared to
 Present some required information.
 Guide individual study and practice.
 Inform learners of objectives and evaluation procedures.
Handouts give additional content not found in pupils textbooks but available in rare textbooks available to the teacher only.
N.B: Words or graphics places on slides or video-tape are not print material.
QUESTION 4.1
How often do you use handouts in teaching your class . Are there any limitations to your
plans to utilize handouts ?
4.4 NON-PRINT MEDIA.
This group includes audio / sound media, visual media, audio-visual media, and teaching machines. Audio / sound media include radio, radio-vision, audio-
cassette, discs and telephone. Visual media include chalkboard, live lecture, silent film, overhead projector, slides etc.
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Audio-visual media include television, video-cassettes, 16mm film, 8 mm film (with sound), filmstrips, slides (with sound).
Teaching machines include computers and micro-processors.
4.4.1 Audio media .
Audio or sound media utilize the sense of hearing . This is not a very powerful sense as it accounts for 11% of what we learn . It is also known that we retain
a substantial percentage of what we learn through this sense . To utilize this we need to use the ear .The human ear can respond to and identify tones as low
as 30 cycles per second ( Hz) to 15,000 Hz. Speech maybe recorded in the range 1,000 – 2,500 Hz. Musical events , drama and panel discussions are
recorded in stereo to preserve the full dimensional quality of the original performance .Audio materials constitute one of the most commonly used teaching /
learning materials in the classroom . The teacher can use ready made or design materials. The advantages of making one‟s own materials are numerous but
of importance are :
 The teacher takes into account the objectives of that particular lesson .
 The environment is taken into account
 The needs of the learners is taken into account
 The learners have a chance in collecting , assembling and manipulating parts of the finished product .
 The urge to improvise locally available materials is highly encouraged
Audio materials are prefarable because :
 The materials are relatively cheap
 The materials are readily available
 The technical equipment required to record , edit or playback them are easy to operate , they are portable and can be used anywhere .
 They are open to improvisation , revision , additions or omissions .
Audio visual technology play the following roles :
 They provide the teacher with the means to extend the students‟ horizon of experience
 They provide meaningful information
 They stimulate students interest
 They guide students response
 They overcome physical limitations
 They stimulate problem solving
 They provide diagnostic and remedial tools
4.4.1 .1 Radio
A facility to produce radio programme materials commonly known as a studio must on the minimum have a mixer console , microphones for presenters ,
record / disc playing decks also known as turntables , tape recording decks , editing facilities , and monitoring facilities . Script writers prepare the materials
for recording as outlined in lesson 5 of this module .
4.4.1.2 Radiovision

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This is a hybrid mode which combines audio materials with visuals thus enabling multi-sensory stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio materials
can be combined with textual materials , slides or photographic materials . They are ideal for individualized instruction .
4.4.1.3 Tape / Audio cassettee
When selecting a tape or cassette recorder for instructional use , we should bear in mind portability , and ease of use on one hand and ease of editing on the
other hand . Tape recorders also known as reel to reel provide for easy editing while cassette recorders are portable and easy to use . Many portable tape
recorders give reasonable performance for special and popular music recording and reproduction even though the frequency response of cassettes is below
the 15 KHz. audible by human beings .
4.4.1.4 Phono discs , turntable / record player
These media were common and useful before the 1980‟s when the audio cassette technology literally phased them out . They had the disadvantage of not
being copied or duplicated , although this was also good for copyright purposes.
4.4.1.5 Telephone
The telephone can be very useful as an instructional media especially for distance education students . They can easily get in touch with their lecturers for
individual assistance . With good organization it is also possible to network and carry out teleconferencing . However , this is prohibited by the high tariffs .
Also lack of infrastructure especially in rural areas make it impossible to access telephone facilities . The introduction of cell phone technology has slightly
improved accessibility though the cost is still prohibitive . The cell phone has also in a way opened ways to phone-in participation which are popular in most
radio as well as television programmes .
4.4.2 Visual media
Visuals are two dimensional materials designed to communicate messages to students. They often include verbal as well as symbolic visual cues. These are
instructional materials that utilize the sense of sight only , and normally requires to be accompanied by explanations from the teacher . They include the
following .
4.4.2.1 Chalkboard
This is the most common and widely used type of display media in schools . It can be used to give key words , outlines , list s , diagrams , graphs and
sketches . For effective use of the chalkboard the teacher should :
 Decide in advance how to plan to develop explanations on the board point by point as the lesson proceeds
 Draw complex diagrams well in advance , cover them with a pull down projection screen and remove only when ready to use . Always allow enough
time to the learner
 Use coloured chalk to make diagrams attractive and highlight important information .
 Use templates made of plywood or heavy cardboard for tracing frequently used shapes
 Check the visibility of the board from several positions around the room
 Use drawing aids or outlines to create visuals on the board
 Use temporary guidelines to help you to write in a straight line on the board
 Move around so that you block what you have written on the board
 Talk to your students and not to the board
4.4.2.2 Overheard projector and transparencies

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Overhead transparencies may be created from clear acetate, photographic film , or any of a number of other transparent materials capable of being imprinted
with an image. The materials range from single, simple transparencies to elaborate sets with multiple overlays. The OHP is a useful visual aid to support
mass instruction . It has largely replaced the chalkboard . It has the following advantages :
 The teacher can use it while facing the class unlike the chalkboard
 It can be used to show pre-prepared materials which can be used over and over again
 It is clean , quiet , and user friendly and requires minimum technical skill apart from replacing the bulb
 It requires no room darkening thus allowing pupils to take or make notes simultaneously
The overhead projector ( OHP ) is used to project transparencies that are similar to large slides . It projects a large picture. Transparencies can be used to
visually present concepts , processes , facts , statistics , outlines and summaries to small groups as well as large groups . A series of transparencies can be
used to systematically present a well planned lesson . Presentation using an OHP can be improved by :
 Using a pointer on the transparency to direct attention to a detail
 Using a felt pen or a special pencil to add details or mark points on the transparency during presentation .
 Control the rate of presenting information by covering a transparency with paper and exposing the data when you are ready to discuss each point.
 Superimposing additional transparent sheet as overlays to add complexity to the concept present in the base transparency .Moving overlay sheets so as to
rearrange elements of a diagram .
 Simultaneously project other visual materials ( on slides or in motion pictures ) that illustrate or apply the generalizations shown on the transparency .
Some of the methods of preparing transparencies include :
 Using felt pens
 On thermal film using a thermal copier , this is a good method of preparing one colour transparency from single sheets
 On electrostatic film using an electrostatic copy machine , the final product is not as good as from the other methods .
 On diazo film using a diazo printer and developer. This is an excellent method for preparing colour transparencies and requires translucent originals .
In preparing transparencies , remember to :
 Not to crowd the transparency with too much information
 To make characters of a suitable size ( minimum 6 mm . in height )
 To provide satisfactory space between lines of text
 To make lines thick enough for easy reading
 To select colour and their intensity for strong images during projection .
For effective use of transparencies the following utilization checklist would be useful :
 Use the same frame size for all your transparencies
 Number the transparencies sequentially in the order in which they will be used
 Place your notes on the frame of the transparency
 Focus the image so that it fills the screen
 Add meaningful details to the transparency as needed

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  Direct student attention to parts of the transparency
 Overlay new information in steps
 Shift the student‟s attention back to you by switching off the OHP
QUESTION 4.2
Discuss the problems you face in using an overhead projector in teaching . How would you overcome some of them ?
4.4.2.3 Slides
These are a simple form of graphic presentation. They are small transparent photographs individually mounted for one at a time projection. The main item
of cost is taking the photographs, but the slides themselves are easy and cheap to make and put together. They consist of single frames of 35mm or similar
film mounted in cardboards, metal or plastic binders often between glass sheets for added protection. Many slides can also be arranged to form a filmstrip
.The advantages of slides are:
 They are easier to make, handles, use and store besides being cheap.
 Useful for showing photographs, diagrams and other graphics.
The main disadvantage is that they require the room to be darkened, implying that pupils cannot take notes .
When making and utilizing slides or a filmstrip , one must consider the following checklist :
 Express the idea and limit the topic
 Decide whether the program is motivational , informational , or instructional
 Consider the audience
 Prepare the content outline
 Organize the content and sketch the storyboard to assist in visualization of content
 Decide whether you need a single slide or a filmstrip to achieve your objective
 Prepare a scene by scene script as a guide
 Consider the specifications necessary for your materials
 If need be , select other people to assist in the preparation
 Darken the room if need be so that all can see
 Begin and end with a black slide or frame
 Make sure slides are in the correct order and right –side up
 Stand facing the class and use a remote control to advance the slides or filmstrip
 Consider adding music before or after your live or recorded narration
The slides can be accompanied by recorded and synchronized narration , it will then fall under audio-visual . It can then be used in the following ways :
 As informal comments
 As formal reading of narration
 As recorded narration and other sounds

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ACTIVITY 4.5
Comment on the frequency of use and the quality of slides you have used in teaching ?
Other non-print instructional materials include computers , photographic materials and camera , duplicating machines , photocopier, fax machine ,
electronic mail ( e – mail ) , and typesetting with printery .
4.4.3 Audio visual media
However , there are those materials that combine both sound and vision . They are more useful in teaching and learning as they appeal to both the senses of
hearing and sight . They include the following :
4.5 Television .
Television refers to live broadcasts while video refers to images captured on tape or disc. Television can come in several formats . Formats include open
circuit television, closed circuit television ( CCTV) , cable television , one-way and two-way ( interactive ) television .It is a hybrid mode which combines
audio materials with visuals., thus enabling multi-sensory stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio materials can be combined with textual
materials, slides or photographic materials. They are ideal for individualized instruction.Problems of cost and maintenance inhibit the use of TV in many
areas. Features of TV are similar to those of radio, but the visual element gives an added dimension, so given a choice people will often prefer TV to radio
as they find it more interesting and the TV makes it possible to use broadcasting for visual presentation ( e.g. in Geography or Science subjects) which
would otherwise have to be done in print. Television is ideal for communication with illiterates. Some evidence exists however that illiterates listen
educational TV less often than literate viewers.
For effective use of television the following utilization checklist would be useful :
 If possible determine the content and objectives of the program in advance
 Check the equipment in advance to be sure its in operating order
 Be sure that all students can see and hear the program without interference
 Plan introductory and follow up activities
 Participate actively in reviewing the program with your students
4.6 Video cassettes /recorder and video camera
The use of the video camera to produce instantly on location has slowly diminished the educational quality as well as reliance on the film . Through its use it
is possible for pupils on a field excursion or listening to a guest speaker to record the events for future reference . The use of the video also allows for
immediate use of the product . Comparatively it is cheaper to do this than to shoot and produce a film . Unlike film it is not sensitive to light , loading and
unloading the tape is easier. In this respect it is cheaper than film and can be reused many times . Sound and pictures are more easily recorded together , as
one only needs a camera , microphone and a video recorder .Copyrights notwithstanding , it is also possible to make copies o f the instructional material
directly from open circuit television .
4.7 Film
Film can be used to present information , describe a process , clarify complex concepts , teach a skill , condense and expand time and affect attitude .
Compared to video it has higher resolution , better colour fidelity , wider exposure latitude and a greater contrast range . Film produces a superior projected
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picture especially when enlarged for large group viewing . The film formats especially the 16 mm and the projectors are standardized . Motion picture
cameras and projectors require less maintenance than do the video equipment . Note that these advantages of film over video are slowly being achieved for
the video as more advanced technical achievements are made.
The following utilization checklist would be useful when using films and video :
 Check lighting , seating, and volume controls before the show
 Prepare students by reviewing previously learned content and by asking new questions
 Stop the video tape or film at appropriate points for discussion
 Highlight major points by writing them on the chalkboard or overhead transparency
 Support the show with meaningful follow up activities
QUESTION 4.3
Discuss the advantages and limitations of the film and the video recording as used in instruction .

4.8 Operating audio visual equipments

Since the classroom can decide to use instructional materials at any time during the teaching it is necessary for him / her to know how to operate the large
variety of equipments . The teacher should not be over dependent on a technician as the institution may not be endowed enough to afford the needed
technical staff . Since the institution may have various equipments , they should have a copy of a manual of operating instructions for each model of
equipment , the manual contains details of equipment features and operating techniques . It is important that all users maintain a high standard of
performance , this leads to the realization of the following benefits :
 Equipment can be kept to in working condition for a maximum amount of time
 The cost of equipment maintenance , repair and replacement can be minimized
 Incidents of the equipment failing to give the expected output can be reduced .
The sound produced should as much as possible resemble the original sound . The quality of the sound produced is affected by :
 The type and quality of equipment selected
 Operator‟s skill in using the equipment .
Factors that affect the quality of sound reproduced during playback include :
 Characteristics of the original sound
 Environmental conditions in recording / playback
 Capability of the recording medium to capture all the frequencies of the original sound .
 Capability of the playback system to reproduce program material in full frequency and without distortion .
 Ability of the operator to manipulate the equipment
 Matching . All the components in an audio system should be of equal quality and have similar performance characteristics .

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For operating most of the equipment , the teacher as well as the pupils must master the use of controls such as the normal play , record , fast
forward ( speed selection ) , pause , rewind and stop buttons . In some cases the controls may be manual as well as through a remote control
devise .
4.9 Locating sources of audio visual materials
Having discussed most of the audio visual resources , we have seen that some of them could be designed and produced by the teacher and / or pupils , it is
advisable to note that they are also available at the following locations :
 Kenya Institute of Education
 The British Council Libraries
 Teacher Advisory Centres
 Kenya National Library Services
 Learning Resource Centres of the local Teacher Training College .
 Community Media Centres ( if there are any)
 Media Centres in other schools .
 Community resources available within the locality such as factories .
ACTIVITY 4.6
Visit one of the locations where instructional materials can be found . Enumerate the broad groups of audio visual materials that can be found at the loca

LESSON 5 : SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.

5.1 What this unit is about
The teacher needs to plan in advance the use of media in teaching. There are various steps that one must go through in order to use instructional media
effectively. This unit takes you through the various steps necessary to ensure effective utilization of media in teaching.
5.2 What will you learn in this unit
By the time you finish reading this unit you should be able to :
1. Define a system
2. Describe six steps in systematic planning for the use of media ( the ASSURE model)
3. State the criterion for the selection of the most appropriate media
5.3 Introduction and definitions
As a starting point it may suffice to briefly review the general systems theory. Anatol Rapaport ( 1968) defines a system as “ A whole that functions as a
whole by virtue of the interdependence of its parts”. Immegart and Pilecki (1973) defines system as “ A set of objects together with relationships between
them and between their attributes”. . While Banathy (1968) says “ A system is a deliberately designed synthetic organization comprised of interrelated and
interacting components which are employed to function in an integrated fashion to attain pre-determined purposes “.

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The class is a system with sub systems such as the teacher, pupils, content , media and materials, instructional space etc. The sub systems must be
interdependent and be able to interact to assure effective teaching and learning to occur. The table below shows the practical application of principles from
general systems theory.
Theoretical principle Practical application
The goal drives the system Identify the goal of the instructional system
Each part of the system plays a role in accomplishing the goal Identify parts of the system and the specific role each plays in accomplishing the goal
The parts of a system are mutually independent When changes occur in one part of the system , maintain the system‟s balance by
making corresponding changes in the other parts of the system
Technology is defined as the systematic of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tasks ( Galbraith , 1967 p.12 ).It therefore performs a
bridging function between research and theoretical explorations on the one side and the real world problems faced by practitioners on the other. Instructional
technology is applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning ( Heinich , Molenda and Russell, 1996, p.
16 ) .
5.4 Models to use in systematic planning for media use
Various models can be used to explain the approaches to use. These include :

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5.4.1 Model 1 One model that can be used to systematically select and use media is illustrated below:

 The process starts by determining the goals to be accomplished as a result of teaching the topic under consideration. This narrows down to the
objectives and the content to be covered. The students are the centre of focus .
 The second step is to look at the conditions under which the students are to achieve the goals. This is by looking at the learning experiences as well as
the teaching / learning format.
 The third step is to consider the resources needed to achieve the set goals. This focuses specifically on the physical facilities, the human resources
and the materials at the teacher‟s disposal.
 The fourth and last step looks back at the outcome by finding out whether the objectives were achieved. It also looks at ways of improving the use of
the same media for better results.
5.4.2 Model 2 : The ASSURE model

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The ASSURE model is a procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that integrates technologies and media into the teaching process. The
model is a well known guide for developing a lesson or any other instructional lessons. We can also use the ASSURE model for the systematic planning for
the use of instructional media. The model gets its name from the acronym ASSURE coined to stand for :
A = Analyze learners
S= State the objectives
S= Select media and materials
U= Utilize the materials
R = Require learner performance
E = Evaluate and revise
5.4.2.1 Analyze the learners
Knowing your learner‟s skill level is important. Some students may come into your classroom with academic and computer skills that others donot possess.
There is need to identify the learners in order to select the best media to meet the objectives. They can be analyzed in terms of :
 Their general characteristics e.g age , grade level, and socio economic status. These are not content related yet they help to determine the level and
select appropriate examples.
 Specific entry competencies . These are content related qualities e.g prerequisite skills such as appropriate vocabulary level, knowledge of technical
terms. Students come to class varying in their knowledge , abilities , interests and experiences. Existing knowledge and skills refer to what the
student already knows. When students don‟t have the necessary prerequisites , they will at best have a difficult time succeeding in the lesson.We
must also bear in mind the skills that we intend to impart, learners attitudes, whether they have any biases or misconceptions. The teacher must think
of materials that are highly stimulating.
5.4.2.2 State objectives
Student objectives are a statement of the type of performance you expect students to be able to demonstrate at the end of the instruction. When the teacher
has clear objectives , then s/he can select the materials and determine the focus and purpose of the instruction. The objectives should be generated from
needs assessment , course syllabus, textbooks and the instructor. The objectives should :
 Be as specific as possible, stating what the learners ought to get out of the lesson, and not what the teacher plans to get into the learner
 Be in terms of the learner
 State the conditions under which the performance is to be observed
 State the degree of acceptable level of performance
5.4.2.3 Select media and materials
Selection of media and materials include three processes which are
 Decide on the method of instruction
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  Choose the media format that is appropriate for the method
 Select, modify, update or design materials for the instruction
Media enables the teacher to bridge the gap between the beginning ( present knowledge , skills and attitudes ) and the ending points (objectives) . The most
appropriate media and material would be that which is most compatible with the stated objectives and the learners characteristics. To obtain appropriate
media and materials the teacher should consider
 Using ready made materials
 Modifying ready made materials
 Designing own materials
Ready made materials must be previewed to ascertain their worth. The teacher should pre-practise the actual presentation.
Factors to consider when selecting or purchasing media equipment include :
 Portability
 Strength
 Cost
 Ease of operation
 Quality of performance
 Effective design
 Ease of maintenance / repair
 Reputation of manufacturer
 Local equipment status
The following guidelines should be considered when selecting software media materials :
 Must meet the objectives
 Must be consistent with the students level of ability and knowledge
 Must communicate concepts clearly
 Must be up to date with curriculum requirements
 Must be interesting to present
 Design must allow for learner participation
 Must be of high technical quality
As we select the media we must also bear in mind the media characteristics against the objectives we wish to accomplish. Examples of some media are listed
below and corresponding characteristics :

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Type of media Visual Colour Sound Motion Interact Tactile
ion
Real objects/ models Yes Yes Yes
Textbooks / handouts Yes Yes
Visuals ( pictures, Yes Yes
photos,drawings, charts,
graphs )
Display boards ( chalk, Yes Yes
bulletin)
Overhead transparencies Yes Yes
Slides and filmstrips Yes Yes Yes
Audio ( tape, disc, voice ) Yes
Video and film ( tape , disc ) Yes Yes Yes Yes
Television ( live ) Yes Yes Yes Yes
Computer software Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Multimedia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
5.4.2.4 Utilize the materials
The teacher should prepare the environment i.e make seating arrangements , displays, acoustics , darken room if need be, take care of ventilation etc. The
class should be properly inducted followed by a lively presentation by the teacher. The teacher should be reminded that observing the 4 Ps listed below helps
in ensuring proper utilization of the media :
 Prepare yourself ( plan , outline instructional events , practice)
 Prepare the instructional materials ( check list of materials needed, gather the materials, check equipment, cue the media and put up the materials)
 Prepare the learning environment ( comfortable seating, adequate ventilation, control temperature, suitable lighting )
 Prepare the students ( arouse interest/ motivate, state purpose, present overview of content, relate content to previous and future topics, explain
unfamiliar vocabulary )
It is also essential to be aware of the utilization checklist applicable to the various materials e.g
For real objects and models
 Teacher to familiarize with the object or model
 Object or model to be large enough to be seen
 Teacher to show object / model only when needed
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  Teacher to indicate actual size, shape, and colour of objects
 Avoid passing a single object around the class
For the textbook
 Textbook to meet students needs
 Textbook to encourage students to use it
 Direct reading with objectives and/or questions
 Emphasize the use of visuals in printed materials
 Check the teacher‟s guide for additional materials and activities
 Supplement the textbook with other media
For visuals
 Use simple materials that everyone can see
 Provide written or verbal cues to highlight important aspects of visuals
 Use one visual at a time except for comparison
 Hold visuals steadily
The success or failure of any technology innovation in the classroom depends on the teacher. In general effective classroom management will refer to a set of
skills and tactics that a teacher employs in order to keep students on task and to keep the classroom running smoothly. These include :
 Preparing in advance
 Giving clear instructions
 Setting a learning tone
 Maintaining attention
 Questioning
 Providing feedback
 Making smooth transitions
5.4.2.5 Require learner performance
The most effective learning situations are those that require active learning and ask learners to complete activities that build mastery toward the objectives.
Classrooms lessons should motivate students to be active learners who are involved in learning through practicing, performing, solving , building, creating
and manipulating. The teacher should encourage the learners to participate actively and possibly manipulate the material. Correct responses from the
students should be reinforced. Whenever necessary follow up activities should be provided.
5.4.2.6 Evaluation / Revision

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Evaluation is the method of appraising or determining the significance or worth of an item or action. This evaluation process includes assessing the media
and materials used. Reflective evaluation is thinking back on the components of the teaching and learning process and determining the effectiveness of the
learner outcomes and the use of technology during the process. The entire learning process should be evaluated both summatively and formatively.
In summary, the above models emphasize that in the systematic approach to instruction , one must :
 Define ( or accept) objectives and select content
 Select appropriate learning experiences ( and seek to individualize them )
 Select one or more appropriate formats in which to carry out the learning experiences
 Select physical facilities in which to carry on learning experiences
 Assign personal roles
 Choose appropriate materials and equipment
 Evaluate results and recommend future improvements.

LESSON6:EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
6.1 What this unit is about
This unit tries to give a historical overview of educational broadcasting ,the broad purposes of broadcasting and discusses some of the teaching qualities of
radio ( audio ) and television when used in classroom teaching . The unit will also look at the limitations of using live transmissions besides giving hints on
how to handle a radio lesson effectively . Finally the unit will take the reader through the steps of producing an audio lesson .
6.2 What will you learn in this unit
By the time you finish reading this unit you should be able to :
4. Narrate the historical development of educational radio and educational television
5. Discuss the purposes of using broadcasts in general and in relation to teaching
6. State and discuss the teaching qualities of radio and television as instructional media
7. State and discuss the limitations of using live transmissions of radio lessons
8. Explain the preparations a classroom teacher should make prior to using a broadcast lesson
9. Explain the roles of the teacher and the pupils before , during and after listening to or viewing a broadcast lesson
10. Explain the kinds of follow up work to be done after the listening or viewing session

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6.3 Introduction
The first question we are going to ask is , What is broadcasting ? This question can be answered by analyzing the word broadcasting . The word is composed
of two parts namely broad and casting . Turned the other way round the word becomes casting broad . Broadcasting can therefore be looked at as casting
broadly messages to some audience just as the sower in the parable of the Sower as outlined in the Holy Bible . The audience is therefore not within reach of
the source. The source must therefore employ the use of some channel. The channel can be in the form of radio or television .
Broadcasting can therefore be defined as the transmitting to the general public information over the radio or the television. Educational broadcasting can
therefore be defined as the process of transmitting and distributing to schools and the general public educational information over the radio or the television.
Educational broadcasting is mostly for schools and colleges but it can also serve individuals working on their own at home. The learning system must be
designed in such a way that it has the required support in the form of printed package . The printed package should include the broadcast timetable ,
teachers‟ notes / manual , posters, diagrams, maps and any other teaching materials deemed necessary by the producers .

6.4 Historical development of broadcasting

The idea of passing messages through wireless apparatus was mooted around the 1890‟s. However the breakthrough was made by an American Reginald
Fessenden on December 24 1906 when his station in Massachusetts ( USA ) transmitted voice and music over a distance of 24 kilometers to ships and shore
stations . Broadcasting to homes began in earnest in 1920.
Educational broadcasting in America developed out of efforts by educators to establish radio stations for purposes of technical research and development
rather than to establish a viable new form of education . However from these humble beginnings educational radio grew very quickly to encompass 171
stations by 1925 . The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC) had its first public radio service in November 1922 , and proceeded to pioneer international
broadcasting in November 1927 .
School broadcasting was started by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in 1924 (radio), followed by Japan in 1931, Australia and New Zealand in
1932, India 1938, and Canada 1941. It extended to the third world in the 1950's .The educational television followed later in 1957 (BBC) and 1959 (Japan) ,
and extended to the third world in the 1960's notably in Ivory Coast , Thailand and Latin America . In the USA most of the radio stations were owned by
colleges and universities who aimed at offering educational programs in college work and extension courses , presenting programs of a broadly cultural
nature that were a cut above what was usually available from commercial stations and using the facilities to train students in the techniques of broadcasting .
Educators were drawn into this medium because of its potentiality to reach large audiences with ease and instantaneously, its ability to enlarge the effect of
teaching resources and also because it was appealing and contemporary. School broadcasts enriched the learning process by offering experiences of the
world beyond the classroom walls , tapping the pupil‟s experience on the immediate environment and in the process making learning interesting . It was also
thought that a well-organized broadcast could do much to offset a poorly trained or poorly motivated teacher. The setting was however not meant to replace
the teacher but rather to supplement his / her efforts.

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Due to rapid technological development , educational radio just barely survived the 1920‟s through to 1940‟s only to be confronted by stiff competition by
another technological advancement namely the television . In the 1950's new patterns of media development emerged in form of the television. During this
period the educational radio was extended to the developing world. The early enthusiasm for radio produced a natural counter-reaction, that is the fact that it
is purely audial. To some extent producing a wide range of accompanying support materials (visuals) offset this. The television came out to be a powerful
medium of communication as it could be used to broadcast visual impressions of reality through space . The television with its wider range of audiovisual
resources seemed to offer a new solution . Both the radio and the television had one advantage of stretching the scarce resources (i.e. teachers and
specialists) to benefits several millions of pupils.
Britain had started regular television broadcasts in 1937 and was joined by the USA after the second World war . Japan followed by setting up its first
television station for regular broadcasting through the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation , also known as the Nippon Hoso Kyokai ( HNK) in 1953 .
Australia expanded the operations of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC) in 1956 .
In Kenya, the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) started a School's Broadcasting Service (SBS) in 1963. The service aimed at beaming its programs to
primary schools. At this time KBC used to broadcast BBC produced programs to teach Mathematics and English. In 1965, the SBS became a division in the
ministry of Education. Later in the early 70‟s the SBS became known as the Educational Media Service (EMS) and was transferred to Kenya Institute of
Education (KIE). This was to enable it integrate its materials production with printed materials production and curriculum development which was already
underway at KIE. The KIE itself had been established by an act of parliament in 1968, to among other things prepare educational materials connected with
the training of teachers and development of education and training.
By 1975, the air time allocated to school‟s broadcasts was six hours a day, the British Council offered scholarships to nine professional teachers to train at
the Kenya Institute of Mass Communication (KIMC) on how to produce radio programs and supporting visuals. In 1976, the World Bank granted a loan to
enable the EMS develop facilities for audio, video, film, tape, slides and photographic materials. However the use of these equipment has not been
maximized due to lack of funds . By 1991 the EMS was still producing only radio programs for broadcasts . Television and film facilities have not been fully
functional due to the high cost of production . The only audio-visual materials produced by the EMS have been for the exclusive use of the teacher training
colleges.
Upto 1995, the EMS produced and aired radio programs to primary , secondary schools , teacher training colleges and in-service teachers .The Kenya
Broadcasting Corporation halted the service due to non payment of air time by K.I.E .Television facilities had also been installed but due to the high costs of
production have not been fully functional.
6.5 Purposes of broadcasts
Generally there is no one particular best medium for instructional purpose . However radio and television receive a high rating . Both media can be used for
training purposes , for practical instruction in agriculture and health , for talks on national policies and priorities , for correspondence schooling , for
community development action , for study groups , for literacy and in training and development campaigns such as family planning as well as for general
entertainment ( Ingle : 16) . Educational broadcasts when used effectively can serve five purposes .

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The first purpose served by educational broadcasts is that of educating the audience . Every broadcast whether intended for schools or the general public
should have some educational value . For instance if the program is intended for farmers and is on good farming methods , the content should educate the
audience on why they should use a particular fertilizer for a particular soil type. For school broadcasts the purpose served foremost is that of educating the
pupils. The content should as much as possible connect their daily experiences with the content so as to help them explain their environment better. This is
the element that makes an educational program different from say a musical one ( not intended to teach music as a subject ) . In the musical program the
listener just needs to enjoy the music but not concern himself with the vocals , the moods of the composer , the instruments used or even the message
contained in the song .
The second purpose served by broadcasts is to inform the audience . To most people the radio and the television are gadgets through which they get to know
what is happening elsewhere . Through them we are able to get first hand information instantly. Besides broadcasting news bulletins they give
announcements for functions , meeting etc. Admittedly , these news items as well as announcements will have some educative element but on the whole they
are predominantly informative .
The third purpose of broadcasts is to entertain the audience . This is mainly achieved through musical programs , dramas , screening football matches on
television and films . Again though a program might be aiming at entertaining the audience there should be a message in it and this will inevitably introduce
the educative element . Educational broadcasts should however have some entertainment , possibly restricted to some 10% or less of the total duration .The
amount of entertainment will depend on the level of the target audience , a program for primary two pupils may use music for up to 60% of its duration while
a program for form three pupils might only use music for 5% of its duration . The inclusion of music will partly vary the stimulus of the audience and partly
ensure that the audience is tuned in for a longer period than when the program has no music intervals or music bridges .
The fourth purpose of broadcasts is to motivate the audience . This is mostly evident in commercials . The commercials aim at changing the attitude of the
audience towards the advertised product. If it is medicine then a serious attempt is made to give the impression that taking the medicine leads to instant
recovery . This approach has been found to motivate the audience thus leading to higher sales of the product .
The fifth purpose of broadcasts is to change the behavior of the audience. This is evidenced as a result of the four purposes already discussed. After a
program has educated , informed, entertained and motivated the audience , the hope is that it will motivate the audience to behave in some desired pattern .
For example , in a family planning program , the audience is exposed to situations where unplanned families undergo hardships. Exposing the youth to such
educative programs motivate them to change their behavior and tend towards having small families .
To summarize this section , we recall the definition of learning as that which involves a relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a
consequence of practice or experience rather than other influences such as maturation , fatigue or drugs ( Ellis H. C ) It is important that educational
broadcasts work towards achieving the five purposes namely that besides being educative , they must inform , entertain , motivate and finally change the
behavior of the pupils . Only then will learning be said to have taken place .
6 . 6 Teaching qualities of radio

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Educational broadcasts have both strengths and weaknesses. The classroom teacher should bear in mind these strengths and weaknesses as s/he plans for
instruction and especially in selecting the media to support the teaching. Sometimes the teacher might have to use complementary media to make up for the
weaknesses of the radio or television . Live transmission of radio programs have the following advantages / qualities :-
(i) Inexpensive
Both the radio and the television have the advantage of stretching scarce resources ( human and material) to benefit millions of listeners / viewers
.Radio is the cheapest medium for courses with more than 500 listeners . This is true if the cost of production and transmission are taken into account.
This cost is about one fifth that of producing and transmitting a television program ( Jenkins : 17). Radio programs can be produced cheaply and on
short notice implying that the producers can be flexible. Replies to listeners queries , complaints or suggestions or information about future events can be
broadcast with little delay . If the suggestions imply that a program is not meeting their needs , then changes can be rapidly instituted . Radio can also reach a
larger audience is and therefore the cost per capita is low. The receiving equipment is relatively cheap, portable and can be operated on batteries as well
as solar panels. Television though expensive than the radio is still cheap compared to other media . For television the only problem is that very few
institutions can afford to purchase and maintain it.
(ii) Up to date and immediate
The second teaching quality of radio and television is that the content carried is both up to date and immediate . Comparing these two media with textbooks ,
one finds that the textbooks can be several years out of date, whereas the broadcast on the other hand brings fresh and up to date ideas, more recent
than even what the classroom teacher knows. A radio program can be aired on the same day it is produced besides the radio can bring an event
instantly to the listeners like FA Cup, World Cup e.t.c. The tone of the broadcaster communicates shades of meaning more than the newspaper
story. The voice gives an impression of personal contact which reduces the feeling of isolation often experienced by learners when they use other forms of
media .
(iii) Leaping Barriers of Space and Time.
The third teaching quality of both radio and the television is that they can leap barriers of space and time . By using them we can reconstruct and bring the
past to the present by use of drama. In this way we can also leap forward and dramatize future events . Radio can also pass messages to places that are
otherwise inaccessible. It is common knowledge that the new millenium has been ushured in with the fact that the world has become a small village . Thanks
to the introduction of modes such as e-mail , internet and mobile cell phones. This implies that one can access events that are happening thousands of
kilometers away through a combination of these new technology .
(iv) Emotional impact .
The fourth teaching quality of radio and television is that the duo are also able to bring dramatic feelings into the classroom thus creating emotional impact
on the learners . Content in some of the subjects can be very „dry‟. Reading a text from a textbook can be very boring , but if the same content is passed
across through a radio / television program then the listeners will be able to identify with the voices , benefit from the voice variations and be motivated
generally to listen to and respond to the program content .

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 (v) Authenticity and Realism.
Radio and television can be used to bring the voice of an authority into the classroom thus making learning authentic and real. The two can for example be
used to teach language through the use of native speakers. This would go along way in offsetting problems faced by most teachers in such areas as
pronunciation, intonation and idioms. Through these media we can interview and record the ideas of professionals such as doctors, teachers, trade unionists,
veteran nationalists, religious leaders and opinion leaders. These can then be brought to class and used to teach history or any other subject .
(vi) Fostering imagination of the listeners.
The sixth teaching quality of radio and television is that through them the producers are able to foster the imagination of the audience. Through radio the
producer creates a visual scene for the play or story that is being told in the program . However it is worth noting that radio is rated higher than television in
this respect as it is easier to dramatize historical concepts with imaginary scenery in radio than to realistically create the past in motion pictures for
television. To enrich radio we can complement its use together with pictures, slides and illustrated texts.
Radio is also extremely effective where creative thinking , effective learning or an imaginative response is required. Ideas can be stimulated or issues raised
through dramatic presentations , personal accounts or debates . Dramatic presentations have been particularly effective for teaching people with limited
educational background ( Jenkins:17)
6 . 7 Limitations of live radio broadcasts .
As mentioned earlier in this unit every medium has strengths and weaknesses and it is therefore incumbent on the teacher to take this into account every time
s/he selects media to use in classroom instruction. The limitations discussed in this section apply mostly to live radio transmissions. Live transmission of
radio programs have the following limitations ( or weaknesses ):-
(i) Concentrated attention .
Radio being an audial media requires a high degree of concentration from the listener in view of its dependence on the aural sense (we learn only 11%
through the aural sense and 83% through the sense of sight). However it is advantageous when teaching or listening to musical programs. This limitation
forces the producer to make the program presentation interesting so that the audience can stay tuned . One way of doing this especially for young learners is
to make the programs have attractive musical interludes that adversely reduce boredom. Better still the length of the program should be appropriate ,
normally a 20 minute program is most suitable ( Survey : ).
Television on the other hand rates high on this point as it has both sound and vision and is perceived by both the eye and the ear .
(ii) One way Communication .
The second limitation of both radio and the television is the lack of interactive facility that is the listeners have no way of talking back to the presenter. In
normal teaching / learning there is need for the learner to be able to get back at the presenter ( teacher ) through verbal as well as non-verbal reactions . This
is not possible when using radio or the television as the communication is one way namely from the teacher to the learner . The classroom teacher and the
pupils have to simply receive the content and not interact with the station . The classroom teacher should strive to bridge the gap through both the preview
and the review of the broadcast. The classroom teacher can explain the new words, ideas, concepts before the broadcast as a way of preparing the pupils for

39
listening . Another way of encouraging participation would be to integrate activities that would require the listener to respond while the radio
teacher has given a task and paused. The teacher can also arrange for serious discussion of the broadcast content after each radio lesson.
(iii) Timing and scheduling.
The media service ( in our case the Educational Media Service ) follows a timetable sent out to schools earlier that spells out the time and day for the
subjects to be taught through radio that year . These timetables reach schools late with some not reaching their destinations at all . Again within schools,
school timetables do not agree with the transmission timetable with most of them being out of phase with the broadcast timetable . Also the order of topics in
the teachers‟ notes may not synchronize with the school teacher's schemes of work. This lack of harmony leads to schools ignoring the transmissions. One
disadvantage of using broadcasts is that unless there are repeat transmissions of each program the classroom teacher must commit himself / herself to the
series well in advance by way of knowing exactly what its content and approach will be . In this regard the media service or broadcasting station should
avail timetables as well as general information on the content and approach of the radio lessons as early as possible ( seven months is fair ) . The information
can be in the form of teachers‟ notes giving a detailed program outline , suggestions for further work and questions for further discussions on the broadcasts .
The class teacher should carefully integrate the broadcast content into his / her daily lesson planning , otherwise students can become confused between the
topic of the broadcast and the topic they are studying during the rest of the class time . One way of doing this is by using recorded materials instead of
tuning in for the 'live' broadcast . The individual schools can make arrangements to copy these audio materials at the Media service .
For students , if they are adults , a complete and clear statement of aims and a detailed summary of the content to be learned should be availed , they should
also get information on program outlines , dates , times and station frequencies , the notes should also include suggestions for reading or other preparatory
work .
In developed countries there is usually a station set aside for school broadcasts but in developing countries this is a luxury and it is not uncommon to find the
same station beaming out educational material and at times catering for other national needs such as presidential functions . The situation is worse in the case
of the television as it usually operates outside school hours ( mainly late afternoon to midnight ) thus making it impossible for schools to benefit from the
broadcasts . This timing problem forces schools to ignore educational broadcasts .
(iv) Administrative problems.
The receiving equipment namely the radio set or the television must be well maintained if the users are to benefit from it. The operation cost is sometimes
very high and this forces some schools not to use them. The equipment should always be in an excellent operating condition , be properly tuned in on time
and be available when needed. Sometimes there maybe only one radio set in a multi streamed school. There maybe no large room where all the streams may
listen or view the program together . In such cases inevitably some pupils might have to miss the broadcast . That is why there should be provision for repeat
transmissions of each program to cater for such cases . The ministry of education should in conjunction with the media service organize for regional centres
at district or provincial level to repair and maintain the radio sets.
(v) Reception.

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Reception of the transmission is yet another limitation. The electromagnetic waves that carry the signals are often weak especially when they have to go
round mountains . Places far away from the transmitting station suffer from poor reception. There is also lack of booster stations to strengthen the reception.
In Kenya, areas far away from Nairobi ( where the transmission is done ) do not receive the General Service well , yet it is through the general service that
the school broadcasts are aired out. The government of Kenya has over the years made efforts to set up booster stations across the country to improve the
reception. When the reception is poor, the pupils will not be able to listen and benefit from the radio broadcast. Poor reception can also be due to poor
weather.
(vi) No pre-hearing and re-usability.
Radio and television have no provisions for previewing and reusability . Whereas it is possible to revise a chapter in a textbook, ask a teacher to repeat a
piece of explanation, it is not possible to "turn back a page' of a radio program to review. The pupils must be encouraged to make careful, concentrated
use of the broadcast while it is occurring. The class teacher should read and understand the teachers' notes well before the broadcast to acquaint himself with
the content.
(vii) Level of listeners .
During the production of the broadcast material, the script writer , producer and media specialist assume an average listener. Therefore the product
maybe too advanced for some pupils and yet too low for some. The classroom teacher should therefore make an attempt to bridge the gap in ability. The gap
can be bridged by preparing pupils in well in advance for the broadcast , conducting them through the broadcast and finally during the follow up.
6.8 Solutions To Some Of The Limitations .
Most of the limitations discussed above can be overcome by the use of recordings instead of using the 'live' transmissions . The teacher must decide
well in advance how s/he wants to integrate the programmes into the schemes of work . Sometimes it is advisable for the teacher to prepare to record the
series and use them at a convenient time , this is so because radio programmes are suitably used when in recorded form . Once the materials are dubbed, the
class teacher can :-
(i) Use parts of the audio lesson interpersed with the teaching, that is s/he can pause the tape recorder/ audio cassette recorder and discuss a point before
proceeding with the listening.
(ii) Pause the equipment each time a response is called for, and allow pupils to respond at their own pace.
(iii) Use the recording as and when the scheme of work allows and breathe a sigh of relief from the tight schedule of the 'live' transmission.
(iv) Use the same materials for other streams at different times as well as use it in subsequent years.
(v) He/she will have solved the problem of poor reception as s/he can use the audio recording at any time and anywhere. S/he can also rewind sections
to allow pupils to listen again.
6.9 How To Handle A Broadcast Lesson.
The teacher should well in advance go through and understand the teachers‟ notes on the series s/he intends to use . At this stage an attempt should be made
to match the material with the schemes of work . The teacher must also be sure that that s/he knows the transmission date and time and where possible adjust
the school timetable accordingly. The teacher‟s role in the successful utilization of broadcasts to schools can be accomplished in three stages :
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(i). Just before the broadcast , the class should be seated about 15 minutes early. The class teacher should spare enough time ( say 10 minutes ) to allow for
revision of previous related work and also introduce new words likely to come up during the radio lesson . In case there are such new words or terms the
teacher should write them on the chalkboard and explain them well in advance. The pupils can also prepare by reading appropriate printed matter , collect
some realia if required , do some writing , study some graphics and attempt related questions . The teacher should display the required graphics or other
materials if advised to do so in the teacher‟s notes . If the listeners are adults , the teacher can avail the objectives and detailed summary of the lesson content
, these can be used to set induct the listeners .The teacher should decide on how to integrate the programme into the daily teaching , otherwise the
programme should be dubbed and used when appropriate . Resource materials such as maps , charts , posters and textbooks the programme would be
referring to. Finally the teacher should set the radio or television set taking into account the acoustics of the room in particular in arranging pupils with
hearing / viewing problems .
(ii). During the broadcast the class teacher must be physically present to listen , view and react to the programme together with the pupils , absorb the
content and be completely tuned in . If the series is to refer to certain texts , the texts should be made available well in advance , the reference pages for a
particular broadcast be communicated to the pupils in good time .. S/he should assist with spellings , tracing routes on a map pointing at a graphic as and
when they are referred to by the radio teacher . The chalkboard may be useful for writing on new words ( detailed in the teacher‟s notes ) , drawing a map ,
diagram , or a chart , or even projecting something using an opaque projector . S/he should encourage pupils to perform learning activities as demanded by
the radio teacher . Pupils ( especially younger learners ) must be discouraged from note taking but simply listen to the broadcast .
(iii). After the broadcast there should be no time gap ( even of hours ) between programme transmission and follow up , it is often difficult to recapture the
interest aroused at a later date . The teacher can do follow-up by way of discussion or assignment.
The class can break into small groups and hold discussion. The group leaders can then report to the entire class, this is ideal for mature learners.
The teacher should summarize the main points, the pupils can do this under the teacher's guidance. In other words the class teacher should reinforce the main
points of the lesson , expand on the new words ,allow for pupils questions and follow up the radio teacher‟s assignment . The assignment can be provided in
form of a project. This assignment should motivate the learner to listen to further broadcasts .
FURTHER READINGS
1. Mukwa C K ( 1986). Design and use of Educational Media in Primary Education . Nairobi
2. Standa , Patel and Ayot.(1982). Multi media approaches for teachers ( a prototype) A project sponsored by UNESCO Regional Office . Dakar
3. Walter A W & Schuller C. Instructional Technology: Its nature and use. 5 th edition. Harper Brothers . New York
4. Wittich W A & Schuller C F . Audio visual materials. Harper Brothers . New York

UNIT 7: COMMUNITY LEARNING RESOURCES.

7.1 What this unit is about

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No school or classroom exists in isolation but within some surrounding. The surrounding is usually rich in teaching / learning resources which should be
tapped to enrich learning . The teacher must be very conversant with the immediate environment. This unit introduces the large variety of resources available
within the environment which a teacher can utilize to improve the teaching of content.

7.2 What will you learn in this unit

By the time you finish reading this unit you should be able to :
1. Define community resources
2. Identify the different types of community resources
3. Justify the use of community resources
4. Identify the sources of community resources
5. Explain factors that hamper the use of community resources
6. Identify and explain the various categories of community resources
7. Make good selection of community resources
8. Spell out the guidelines to follow in using community resources
9. Plan for the use of various community resources
10. Outline the steps to follow in organizing field trips
11. Recognize the benefits and limitations to the use of community resources

7.3 Definition

Community resources (CR) refer to people, places, objects and activities in the environment of the classroom which can be used by teachers and learners to
promote learning. CR may be collected and brought into the classroom for use or the learners may go out in order to reach them. E xamples of CR could be
guest speakers, skilled people who may demonstrate processes of producing various items, natural living and non-living things, man-made things and any
other local artifacts.

7.4 Why use community resources for learning.

Let us start by considering the eight goals of education in Kenya , which are to -:

1. Foster nationalism , patriotism and promote national unity

2. Promote social , economic , technological and industrial needs for national development
3. Promote individual development and self fulfillment
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 4. Promote sound moral and religious values
5. Promote social equality and responsibility
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.
A close examination of these goals of education reveal that for effective implementation of the curriculum, we need to make use of the community around
the school as a resource.

The use of CR can make primary education more relevant, challenging and life-centered. As early as 1953 (Binn : A study of educational policy and
practice in British Tropical area ), Binn's report noted the rather unforunate poverty of equipment in the primary phase of education which often led to
dullness and lack of interest and which explained in part the unawareness of children of the world around them. The report urged that these should be
materials for children's work such as clay, gum, paste, paint and all serap materials for learning. The same point was echoed at the Kericho Conference of
1966, where Griffiths described the situation that prevailed in most of the primary schools as

"...... a kind which on the whole tends to stress learning for repitition ( e.g. for exams ) rather than learning for underst anding and adaptable use.
Syllabi are prepared by a central authority and the teacher partly from customary attitudes to authority, partly from lack of confidence, does not like to
deviate much from what is suggested. Reference books for the teacher are few and textbooks as far as they exist will never be sufficient to offer alternative
courses. Other teaching aids and practical apparatus are almost non-exist. The criteria of good learning is reproduction in the exam."

7.5 Sources of community resources

Digolo (1986 : A study of the utilization of community resources by primary schools in Kenya to provide relevant education. Ph.D Thesis) identified seven
sources of teaching materials. The sources of community resources as given by respondents (teachers) in Digolo‟s work are given below in order of
importance :

 Kenya School Equipment Scheme

 Teacher made
 Purchases from shops
 Teacher Advisory centres
 Community resources
 Donations from people
 Kenya Institute of Education
7.6 Factors that hamper the use of community resources

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Digolo also identified factors that hamper the use of community resources . Again from the responses the factors appeared in the below order of importance

 Lack of funds
 Exam pressure
 Lack of parents support
 Inarticulated educational policy
 Difficulty posed by the timetable
 Lack of pupils‟ interest
 Lack of teachers‟ support
Stemming from the factors listed above the teachers resorted to using the lecture method of instruction most of the time. Digolo found that the lecture
method was used most of the time followed by the others as detailed below

 Lecture
 Visual aids
 Demostration
 Drama
 Experiments
 Field trips
 Invited speakers
 Real objects from the community
7.7 Categories of community resources

Community resources existing in the vicinity of the school can be classified in 12 specific categories. They can be classified in terms of those pertaining to

 Physical setting and world of nature

 Historical aspect
 Home life
 Health
 Industry and occupation
 Communication
 Population
 Education
 Religion
 Recreation
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 Government
 Community life

Community study opportunities specifically fall into two broad types

(a) Bringing resource persons or demonstrations into the school compound.
(b) Taking pupils out of the classroom into the community. This can be done in thefollowing ways :-
(i) Walking trips to the farms, nearest market or into the town.
(ii) Field study to outlying areas where walking might be precluded due to distance.
(iii) Visits to resource persons e.g. the magistrate, D.C., D.O., Agricultural Extension Officer, County Councillor, Jua-kali artisan etc.
(iv) Special learning trips e.g. to the National Assembly, Animal Orphanage, Forestry Conservation Camps etc.
(v) Research surveys, fast finding interviews with business, government or community leaders in their normal work settings by selected
groups or individual pupils.
7.8 Guidelines for proper utilization of community resources.
Digolo (1986) found that Kenyan primary schools had no guidelines to be followed by the teachers in selecting suitable community resources to be used for
instruction. He also found that the classroom teacher received no guidance from both internal and external facilitators. The facilitators should include
headteachers, inspectors, T.A.C. tutors or even K.I.E. curriculum specialists. The teachers should receive guidance concerning the selection and utilization
of community resources. Infact only 27.8 % of the respondents accepted (or stated that they were aware ) the existence of guidelines.

Digolo identified the following guidelines as being useful in the selection of community resources (in order of importance )

 Suitability of fulfilling learning objectives

 Appropriate for motivating learners
 Relevant to life problems
 Economical to acquire
 Apppropriate to teaching methods
 Related to previous experience of learners
 Useful in revision exercises
The respondents also perceived the role of the primary teacher training colleges in the preparation of trainee-teachers for the utilization of community
resources as not being adequate. It was also found that all subjects in the primary schools curriculum in Kenya required the use of community resources in
order to provide learning experience which is more relevant, challenging and life-centered.

7.9 Advantages of using community resources

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The uses of community resources are several. The important advantages are :-
(i) The use of community resources localises the instruction and enables the teacher use pupil experiences to give relevant education.
(ii) The use of community resources enables the learners to translate theory into practice.
(iii) The use of community resources can enable the teacher to give concrete asignment or project at a very low cost.
7.10 Limitations of using community resources.
Most schools face problems in using community resources because :-
(i) Most of the primary schools (even secondary) are overcrowded. It is therefore difficult for the teacher to organise trips, he therefore tends to drill and
encourage memorization.
(ii)There is very little exchange of ideas and activities between primary schools and their surrounding communities.
(iii) The use of community resources requires time. Due to examination pressure and urge to cover the syllabus, the use of community resources is
neglected.
7.11 Responsibilities of the teacher in preparation for field study
The classroom teacher has a vital role to play in ensuring that community resources are put into effective use to provide relevant education. In particular the
teacher should :-
(i) Make a preliminary visit to the site. This is to enable him preview the learning environment and see whether the experience would make s/he achieve the
set instructional objectives. This should be done well in advance. The hosts should be informed of the date, time and nature of the visit.
(ii) If necessary with pupils examine maps, films, models or pictures before the trip. This may anticipate what is to be witnessed on the actual visit.
(iii) If necessary invite a representative of the community or profession or service to be visited to come to class and explain some of the basic ideas about the
process or services the pupils will see.
(iv) Conduct preliminary discussion ,this will assist learners develop clear purposes and arouse their curiosity and interest in the trip.
(v) Anticipate any possible learning problems and give clear cut and definite objectives to be achieved.
(vi) Inform the parents of the proposed trip if this is a requirement.
(vii) Arrange proper transportation for the pupils.
(viii) If it is an extended tour ( e.g. whole day ) arrange for meals and adequate time for rest.
After the visit, the teacher must arrange for follow-up activities.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

(i) Which areas of your teaching subjects render themselves readily understandable through community study?

(ii) Show how aspects of the community would be utilized to facilitate achievement of the objectives in these areas.
(iii) What are the most salient features of the community as a resource. Discuss the features in relation to any or both of your teaching subjects.

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What instructional objectives would you hope to achieve through the use of community resources.
(iv) Show how the community can serve as a resource for your subject towards achievement of any of the six national goals of education in Kenya.
FURTHER READINGS.
1. Digolo P.O. " A study of the utilization of community resources by primary schools in Kenya." Unpublished Ph.D dissertation. Kenyatta
University. 1986.

2. Mukwa C.W. "Communications and technology: Educational Media." College of Education and External Studies . University of Nairobi. 1988.

UNIT 8: MANAGEMENT OF THE LEARNING RESOURCE CENTRES

8. 1 What this unit is about

Every institution needs space designated to design , produce and avail for use the teaching/ learning resources. This unit looks at the learning resource centre
( LRC ) concept. It emphasizes resource based learning . It stresses human and non human resources. The unit goes on to consider the role of external as
well as internal publics in the management of learning resources
8.2 What will you learn in this unit
By the time you get to the end of this unit you should be able to :
1. Define a Learning Resource Centre
2. Give the rationale of setting up a Learning Resource Centre
3. Discuss the functions of a Learning Resource Centre
4. Spell out the services provided by the LRC
5. Discuss the various inputs necessary in the proper management of the LRC
6. Discuss some of the problems facing the LRC
7. Suggest helpful guidelines that can be implemented to improve management of the LRC
8.3 Introduction and definitions
A Learning Resource centre is invariably referred to as Educational Media Centre , Multi Media Centre, Instructional Materials Centre, or Teachers
Advisory Centre. It is a well planned area housing materials and equipment for instructional use under the supervision of a competent person. This person is
the Media resource specialist usually well versed in general education and educational materials.
A Learning Resource Centre can also be said to be a store house of materials from which people can learn what they want to learn with a fair chance of
doing it well. The purpose of the LRC is to improve instruction through service to teachers and students.
A Multi media centre is a place for stimulating the active creation and use of resources including production of home made resources , selection / acquisition
of resources, classification and indexing for easy retrieval , storage use, evaluation and weeding.
8.4 Rationale for setting up a LRC
A Learning Resource Centre is generated from the recognition of three facts :
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  Learning takes place through a variety of channels or avenues. Some ideas cannot be reliably communicated through books . Music for example must
be heard, paintings must be seen perfumes must be smelt etc. This implies that any time two or more media are used to teach , multi media instruction
occurs.
 Individual differences. People are different from one another. Some learn things best by reading , others by hearing , others by writing and most by
combining two or more activities.
 Need for private learning. Whilst some people learn best in groups , others on their own, and generally speaking we all need some kind of private
learning from time to time.
8.5 Functions of a Learning Resource Centre
A Learning Resource Centre serves the following functions :
 As depository for special materials which aid the teacher to present better their subject areas and to take care of the wide range of individual differences
that exist in classes or schools or colleges of teacher education. The educational aids adaptable to further the professional growth of the teaching staff form
part of this organization. The LRC serves as a central source of instructional materials, providing economy of teacher time and effort and encouraging
simultaneous use of all types of materials.
 As a place where new or experimental types of instructional materials may be developed , produced and evaluated for possible future use or adoption. It
is a place for implementing newer media in education through ready access to materials.
 As a place where circulation of audio visual materials, coordination of a variety materials and in service education of teachers is carried out. It has
professional consultants who are experienced in the selection of all types of materials.
 Conducting in service education for serving teachers.
Broadly speaking , a fully fledged LRC has three roles namely :
 The storage and retrieval of learning media
 Creation and production of learning materials
 Instruction and advise on the utilization of the facilities available.
Specifically the LRC should be organized to provide :
 Catalogues and inventories of all types of resources
 Maintenance and service of all the teaching tools
 Information to teachers and students about new developments in materials , equipment and teaching technology
 Produce materials which are unique to a specific teaching / learning situation
 Provide assistance in the locating of needed teaching / learning materials
 Assist teachers and students in the use of teaching equipment and materials
 Provide space and facilities for teachers and students to pre view , audition, review and try out various teaching / learning media
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  Serve as a comprehensive learning laboratory in which students can learn to use all types of learning materials and equipment
 Provide for continuous evaluation of the programmes and services .
8.6 Organization and management of the LRC
The organization and management of the LRC is best discussed under three areas namely personnel, physical or space provision and material requirements.
8.6.1 Personnel
This is built on a kind of three dimensional plan with the Director of the centre as the warden. S/he is a specialist in media education. Also there should be
support staff comprising technical staff, graphics and secretarial staff, librarians and teachers. Their functions should be to provide students with materials
from which they can learn on their own to set up and if necessary operate equipment to produce learning materials , to provide support to teachers by either
retrieving or preparing materials or by giving assistance and advice in the actual presentation of material. They are also involved in curriculum development.
8.6.2 Physical or space provision
When setting up an LRC consideration should be given to the provision of spaces for :
 Periodicals / Journals room in which current copies are on display and where back numbers issues of journals can be borrowed.
 Learning resources room containing carrels at which students can see slides, listen to tapes and CDs, study video / VCD materials without interfering
with other users. These can also be transmitted on request from a control room.
 Control room in which sound tapes/CD , records and video/VCD can be played and transmitted to terminal outlets in most rooms within the
institution.
 Recording room for the making of sound recordings and the dubbing of films.
 Television studio which although can be well equipped is a classroom converted for this purpose. Mobile television trolleys which can be operated by
a member of staff working on his/her own with a class in any room.
 Media workshop in which students and staff can produce their own visual aids and other teaching / learning aids.
 Reading area cum space for seminars or group discussions usually designed to fit 10 people.
 Maintenance facilities. The LRC should have space and personnel available to carry on the maintenance programme.
 Graphics artist studio in which a graphics assistant produces visual aids of professional quality.
 Reprographics room where printed or duplicated teaching materials and handouts are prepared.
 Conference room large enough to accommodate groups of various sizes.
 Cyber café where staff and students can surf the internet and access other related materials.
8.6.3 Staff trainingNew staff to in serviced in order to take full advantage of the facilities which are provided. Every member of staff should be trained by
the media specialist to operate the electronic equipment and any other equipment s/he may not be familiar with .
8.6.4 Materials requirements
Materials and equipment should be catalogued and entered into comprehensively prepared inventories. Some of these items include :

50
  Curriculum materials and professional literature for teachers
 Bulletin boards , chalkboards , display centres , a card index and an evaluation index
 Pre view and laboratory facilities provision
 Equipment for conditioning , rewinding, inspecting and splicing films. In addition there should be provision for simpler repair of audio visual
equipment and materials.
 Materials and equipment provided for teachers and students to make maps , charts, graphs, models, mock ups, objects, specimens, posters, puppets,
dioramas, flannel boards, exhibits, slides nd items needed for demonstrations and experiments
 Tape transcripts for use in the classroom
8.7 Problems facing the LRC
Various problems face the LRC and hinder its use for effective use in enriching instruction. Some of these include :
 Availability of personnel of the right calibre. Currently there are very few media specialists and support staff and appointments leave a lot to be
desired.
 Limited funds prohibit establishment of an LRC in schools and zones.
 Many schools donot have adequate space to house an LRC‟s sophisticated activities
 Time factor . The school day is only so long as is the school year.
 Attitude of the teaching staff has tended to be negative. Teachers tend to fear anything technological being introduced in teaching.
8.8 Helpful guides in the effective management of the LRC
To manage the LRC effectively , it is important for the school to :
 Know the cost of various items in the LRC
 Know that the most expensive is not necessarily the best
 Request for quotations frequently from different manufacturers
 Make a complete survey of your resources to determine their present status
 Ascertain need for new equipment and services based on demand
 Have a list of priority items in case you may acquire funds ( windfalls) for new purchases
 Involve other teachers in decision making regarding planning , purchase and utilization of media and resources
 There should be delegation of responsibility
 Allot funds according to needs
FURTHER READINGS
1. James W Brown . AV instruction : Technology and Media Methods. Mc Graw – Hill. 1973
2. B. D. Odhiambo . The Teacher Adfvisory Centre. Ministry of Education Publication.
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 3. L. S. Powell. Rationale for the development of a resource centre. Educational Development International . January 1975. Pgs. 36-39
4. George Gulling. Introduction to the Teacher‟s Centre. Educational Development International . January 1974. Pgs 5-8
5. William C Miller. The role and function of Instructional Media Centre. In Pearson , N P Instructional Media Centres.
6. Fred John Pula and Robert J Goff. Technology in Education. Change and challenge
7. De Bernadis Amo et al. Media , Technology and Instructional Materials Centre- Space requirements. Pgs. 108-112.

UNIT 9: DISTANCE EDUCATION

9. 1 What this unit is about
You are probably a student at Kenyatta University undertaking your degree or diploma course at the Kenyatta University Institute of Open Learning
(KUIOL). You are registered for the program and for some reason you are receiving the instructional materials through the teaching centre in your region,
you benefit from lecturers / tutors who visit the teaching centre from time to time and rarely visit Kenyatta University .It was your choice to take the course
in that form. In fact it is possible to take and finish a given course without setting foot on the main campus of the university. The education you are
undergoing is known as distance education. This unit takes you through the theoretical basis of distance education, its definitions, forms, methods of
teaching, its characteristics, the philosophy behind it, its advantages, limitations, problems and constraints faced by distance education students as well as the
institutions running the program and the personnel required to effectively run the distance education program.
9.2 What will you learn in this unit
By the time you get to the end of this unit you should be able to :
1. Define distance education and explain reasons underlying the various definitions
2. Distinguish distance education from conventional / mainstream education
3. Explain the causes for the inception of distance education and its developmental progress from its earliest times to the current state of the art
4. List and explain the characteristics of distance education while contrasting it to the conventional / traditional education with respect to form, content,
feedback, evaluation etc.
5. List and discuss advantages and drawbacks of distance education.
6. Trace the various media and technologies used in distance education from the earliest times.
7. Discuss the problems of distance education , in terms of instructional / learning needs , and available communication technology alternatives
8. Categorize the various methods of teaching at a distance
9. Discuss the roles of the various personnel involved in the day to day running of the program.
9.3 Introduction and definition of distance education
Distance education has existed for more than a century. There are many definitions of distance education as there are experts in distance education.
Operationally we can look at distance education as “The teaching and learning process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by
someone who is removed in space and / or time from the learner. Moore (1973) defines it as those teaching methods in which, because of physical
separation of learners and teachers, the interactive as well as the proactive phases of teaching are conducted through print mechanical or electronic devices.

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Otto Peters (1983) sees it as a method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of division of labour and
organizational principles, as well as by the extensive use of media especially for the purposes of high quality teaching materials thus making it possible to
instruct great numbers of students at the same time. He also sees it as an impersonal mechanical and electronic process in which an artificially created
message replaces educational communication. Borje Holmberg (1989) says that it covers various forms of study at all levels which are not under continuous
immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms but which benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of an institution.”
From the definitions it is clear that the following concepts apply to distance education:
 It takes place at a distance
 There is separation between the tutors and the learners
 There is lack of face to face interaction
 The teaching is done through media and communication technologies
 It is open , under the control of the learner in terms of what to learn , when to learn , how to learn and where to learn
In a nutshell distance education therefore means any system of teaching and learning in which the students are at a distance from their teachers for most of
their time they are studying. It should include some face to face study, has some form of feedback and reinforcement preferably through contact between
students and teachers or between students and fellow students. It can be concerned with elementary education, university education, informal education,
occupational education or professional study.
Question 9.1
Give your own definition of distance education bearing in mind the main features of the
open learning program that you are currently undergoing.
9.4 Forms of distance education
There are various forms of distance education. It is worth noting on the outset that an effective distance education program should be a good mixture of the
forms.
The first form of distance education is correspondence education. Here learning materials are mailed to students in their localities where they use the
materials, do assignments or projects and post back the work to the institution. This work is marked and sent back to the learner with appropriate remarks /
corrections and the instructional materials for the next piece of work. This approach has been successfully used in Pakistan for training under-qualified
primary school teachers.
The second form of distance education is known as External studies. Just like in the first form the learner use the instructional materials away from the
college / university, but in addition there could be teaching / learning centres spread over the whole country or catchment area. Also there could be the
possibility of occasional residential sessions to give learners a chance to interact with their tutors.
The third form of distance education is through the use of educational broadcasts. This form involves the use of radio, television and lately the internet in
reaching the learners. The learners receive support materials for the courses well before the broadcasts. They go through the materials and wait for the

53
broadcasts to facilitate learning. Again the learners do assignments or projects and submit the same for marking and feedback from the tutors. For successful
use of this broadcasts there is need for thorough planning in the distribution of the accompanying printed matter.
The fourth form of distance education is through In-service programs. This is useful in situations where there is need to update workers who are already
serving. Over a long time this becomes necessary in order to acquaint workers with new skills; familiarize them with modern ideas and technology. In some
cases the workers might have been serving without any pre-service training and were learning on the job. Certification should be the ultimate expectation of
the trainees. This cadre of workers need to be trained during spare time without necessarily withdrawing them from their work places for significantly long
periods .In service programs are ideal for untrained teachers, agricultural extension workers, social, health workers etc.
The fifth form of distance education is through the organizing of Radio study groups .In these form trainees listen to radio programs especially designed to
equip them with relevant skills and knowledge. The trainees are encouraged to listen to these programs in their various groups and implement some of the
knowledge acquired. This has been used successfully in Columbia for adult peasants especially in areas such as health, social work and agriculture.
The sixth form of distance education is Extension service. Governments the world over pays special attention to small-scale entrepreneurs as they control a
significant proportion of the GDP. This could be in areas such as agriculture, business, manufacturing etc. Extension service is also useful in health and other
community related services.
The seventh form of Distance Education is audio Teleconferencing. This is a Distance education technology that overcomes the one way limitation of radio.
It is an extension of a basic telephone call that allows instruction and interaction between individuals and groups at two or more locations. Through the use
of microphones , amplifiers and high quality speakers , members of the audience can both hear and be heard. It allows for live two-way interaction between
two or more physically separated sites.
In summary, distance education programs should be a mixture of the forms named above. For example at the Open university of the United Kingdom , 80%
of the instruction is done using printed materials ( correspondence ), 10% through broadcasting (radio and TV.) and 10% through face to face.
Question 9.2
Examine the course you are undergoing , what forms of distance education make up the
course structure and in what proportions ? What recommendations would you make to
improve the organization of the program ?
9.5 Characteristics of distance education
Distance education has the following characteristics:
The first characteristic is that there is physical separation between teachers and students in time and space .This should be looked at with the background that
it is generally considered that the educational relationship between teacher and learner should be dynamic and reciprocal. John BÅÅth made an important
theoretical and empirical contribution to the concept of two-way communication as a major defining feature of distance education. This demonstrates the fact
that distance education is not just self study but that it is desirable to maintain a two way communication .BÅÅth emphasized the role of the tutor in a
distance education program as going beyond that of correcting errors and assessing students progress but also promoting study motivation.

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This characteristic notwithstanding it is important to note that learning is not simply a matter of acquiring knowledge but is a constructive process that
involves the negotiation of meaning , which assumes the participation of others . To achieve this under distance education there should be possibilities of
occasional meetings in seminars or residential session, or teaching at a distance with written comment, telephone use or audiocassette material. Sewart
(1980:177) recommends the implementation of an effective advisory and supportive role in addition to the provision of a teaching package. He stresses the
importance of group learning as not only being supportive of the learning process in its potential interaction between students and course content , but also
because group learning offers a benchmark to the individual members of the group.
The second characteristic of distance education is the usage of a wide range of media with print being the main type . Admittedly , the main type of media
used in distance education is in form of print . This comes in the form of reading materials such as textbooks , handouts , brochures , worksheets and
graphics . Other types of media are recommended so as to compensate for the lack of facial contact . The multi media approach caters for the wide variations
in student study formats and interests . The print media must be written in such a way as to be independently used by the pupil.
The third characteristic of distance education is that it is a highly individualized system of instruction. Brookefield (1995) sees distance education as self-
directed learning that focuses on the process by which adults take control of their own learning , in particular how they set their own learning goals , locate
appropriate resources , decide on which learning methods to use and evaluate their own resources .
The fourth characteristic of distance education is that there is a high usage of centralized high volume production of standardized learning materials . As
stated in the third characteristic above the main media is print . Because of the high enrolment covering a large catchment area the materials are produced
centrally in large quantities for distribution to the students . The materials are carefully researched , written and edited for their suitability for the intended
audience . Again , it is essential to ensure that the materials are standardized , so that even if the students do not refer to a variety of reading materials they
will be in a position to compete favorably with conventional students .
The fifth characteristic of distance education is that there is no limit to the number of students receiving instruction at any time . It is common knowledge
that conventional programs are forced to admit a particular number of students depending on the capacity of the accommodation , the availability of
instructional spaces , level of staffing and the status of instructional materials among other minor factors . It is possible to double the admission under the
distance education mode and simply produce more copies of the instructional materials . There will be no need to double the accommodation space or even
double the staff .Therefore when demand instantly appears to outstrip the supply , distance education is the way out .
The sixth characteristic of distance education is that there should be counseling and general support of students‟ work by distance study material . The role of
the teacher becomes that of providing supportive and corrective feedback but little personal communication. In most cases students under distance education
are mature age and self supporting . They would be parents possibly with other dependants . They pay fees , provide shelter and other basic necessities to the
dependants . When they enroll in the programs the demands of the course overwhelm their resources and they tend to plunge into financial problems . This if
not detected on time and the student counseled may lead to dropping out . This is one more reason why there should be frequent field visits by tutors to
besides handling academic issues counsel and give general support to the student .

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Question 9.3
♥ Critique distance education programs ( mentioning evident shortcomings ) bearing in
mind the characteristics discussed above.
9.6 Philosophy of distance education
The philosophy behind distance education system revolves around several issues . Firstly there is emphasis on individual study and independence of
students. This mode of education is obliged to assume that its students are self-regulated, while at the same time it practices the ethos of „ opening‟ education
for those who are not able to enroll at residential institutions. One of the proponents of the theory of autonomy and independence in distance education was
Charles Wedemeyer (1977), who is considered as the father of American distance education. Influenced by a democratic social ideal and liberal educational
philosophy he considered that everyone should have the right to learn . He based his assumption of adult learning on the fact that adults are supposed to have
the potential for self-direction .He proposed three main conceptualizations of independence for learners namely :
 Learning through self-pacing , the learner paces learning according to his/her circumstances and needs
 Learning to be individualized and learners be free to follow any of several courses of learning
 The learner should have the freedom to select goals and activities
Willen (1988) challenges those who see distance education as characterized by independence and autonomy by claiming that the idea of independence and
autonomy are not borne out by reality but that the students have similar characteristics and needs as other adult conventional students . She refutes Moore‟s
claims that students choose distance education because they have special personal qualities of independence and asserts that the choice is based on practical
reasons .
The second philosophical issue is that there is emphasis on self instruction as a method of learning .The philosophical base of distance education is that
learners are on their own most of the time . The learner is assumed to be sufficiently motivated to read through the materials , search for more reference
materials , carry out experiments , research and prepare reports.
The third philosophical issue is that materials are presented in small and relatively easy to master doses to keep learners conscious of their progress. Just like
in this module the units are accompanied by some exercises and suggested activities. The learners go through some reading , work out the exercises , present
their work to the tutors for assessment before moving on . Care should be taken to ensure that the exercises are given in reasonable doses to keep the learner
aware and appraised of his / her progress.
The fourth philosophical issue is that the learning materials are organized following the principle of guided didact ic conversation , namely through the
provision of a two way communication and occasional seminars .The thrust of this point should be reflected in the preparation of the learning materials
bearing in mind the fact that distance education creates a feeling of personal relation between teaching and learning to motivate students . Borje Holmberg
(1995) put forward the theory of distance education as a guided didactic conversation. He argued that the continuous interaction between students , tutors
and other representatives of the institution should be seen as a kind of conversation . Students would be more successful in these circumstances than if the
course has an impersonal character .This is why we should use more colloquial language in the preparation of study material . This conversational style of
presentation was designed to promote empathy with the student .
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The fifth and last philosophical issue is the creation of a two way communication through student counseling services, tutoring and use of self checking
exercises .Unlike conventional students distance education learners tend to have more problems that if not addressed on time can lead to dropout .Since
distance learners are normally adults , there is a tendency for them to take time to adjust their life routines . They will most probably be having families with
children in school , with extended family commitments and with professional work demands. All these must be met and still ample time be found for studies
. These pressures together with the financial demands tend to wear down the psychological drive within the student . It therefore becomes necessary to have
in place guidance and counseling services to handle students with symptoms of stress or depression .
Question 9. 4
♥ Relate the philosophical issues discussed above to the distance education program you
are undergoing . Mention the weaknesses of the program and suggest how they can be
addressed
9.7 Advantages of distance education
Distance education has several advantages. In this section we shall discuss the following advantages:
First , distance education is useful when there is political or other pressures to expand education (Tonny Dodds :6) . There are occasions when the
government makes policy changes in areas such as curriculum , access to education or even the structure of education . There will be need to implement the
new policy . In such cases it becomes necessary to find a method of transmitting information to the would be implementors urgently. At times it may be that
personnel need to be in-serviced quickly to manage the change . The government could even be confronted with thousands of school leavers with no option
of furthering their education . It may be easier to address the pressure to expand the opportunities through distance education .
Secondly, distance education can be used to train teachers and other professionals without withdrawing them from their regular work (Tonny Dodds :.7).
This mode becomes advantageous since it creates a more intimate interface with employment (Smith Peter:12).There is less disjunction between the context
of work and the context of study and it is easier for students to relate one to the other. Also more and more people who are already in employment are
finding that advances in technology are such that they cannot acquire appropriate skills simply through on the job experience. These people need to be able
to upgrade their skills without going back to full time study.
Thirdly , distance education can be used to meet specific educational and social problems in local and national settings. The alternative of distance education
became more attractive since it allowed for flexibility that fitted well with modern lifestyles. Since most of the prospective distance education students will
be people who are engaged in some income generating activity , the mode of instruction becomes ideal as the learners have time to attend to their normal
engagement and still get time in the evenings or weekends to study the materials . Thus it can help reach nontraditional populations of learners ( e.g adult
learners, homebound individuals ).
The fourth advantage of distance education is that it can be used to solve educational crisis . For example there can arise a need to in-service teachers after an
educational review . Or there may be need to in-service head-teachers on how to handle large enrolments after a government implementation of free and
compulsory primary education . In such instances it may be prudent to acquaint the head teachers with ways of implementing the directive.

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The fifth advantage is that distance education provides easier access to education to those who might not have had the opportunity to get it during their youth
. This is particularly advantageous because of its flexibility and the relief it gives from constraints of timing and location , thus in essence it widens access to
education. The constraints include geographical isolation, family commitments and the requirements of employment.
The sixth advantage is that distance education provides a lot of student autonomy, and independent opportunities. Because of their separation from the
teacher, distance education students approach more closely the ideal of the autonomous learner. Autonomy advocates the individualization of study . It
moves the centre of gravity away from the tutor and takes it closer to the student . Candy (1991) points out that a learner‟s autonomy may vary from context
to context . Aspects of their background , including family and prior education powerfully affect adults in ways that limit or constrain their ability to be self-
directing in certain learning situations . The level of autonomy will be determined by the way in which the students have been socialized to think about
learning and about themselves as learners . He continues to observe that autonomy is not something that happens to people or that can be given to them .
That while an adult educator maybe able to give learners the chance to exercise freedom , it is not possible to give them autonomy .
The seventh advantage of distance education is that it solves the problem of isolation (Dodds :.7) . There are instances where students may be far away from
schools or even other educational facilities such as libraries . In such cases the distance education mode guarantees access to knowledge . The knowledge
may then be transmitted in the form of print , recorded materials and any other format that may be relevant. This may assist students in arid and semi arid
areas .
The eighth advantage is that distance education maximizes the students‟ ability and opportunity to relate what they are learning to the lives they are living
(Tonny Dodds :.7) . In the conventional program a student learns a lot of theory before finally getting to practice .In the case of Bachelor of education degree
program , the student goes for teaching practice towards the end of the program . This fails to give the learner an opportunity to integrate what they may be
learning to practice. Another point is that distance education tends to attract students who are already in the professions compared to conventional programs
where most of the students register in programs as a last resort .
The ninth advantage is that distance education increases opportunities for education without a corresponding increase in cost (Dodds :.7 ; Smith Peter :12).
Increasing opportunities for education is based on the assumptions that:
 Distance teaching makes it possible for a few teachers to reach a large number of students, with better quality control over course materials
(Smith Peter : 12).
 Doesn‟t require new schools or physical structures for expansion to take place, it can rely on spare-time use of existing buildings and equipment.
 Makes it possible for students to learn while they continue to earn, they don‟t have to be removed from the productive activity while they study .
 Can achieve economies of scale, once the teaching materials have been produced and the system established, additional students can be enrolled
with any marginal cost, the more students they are, the lower the cost per student. Higher fixer and lower variable costs characterize the cost
structure of distance education as compared with campus-based education. Note that selling distance education on the basis that it is cheap is a two-
edged sword. If the system once established has to be run cheaply, the quality of materials and the extent of student support, are bound to suffer . A
commission set in Australia in 1986 suggested that efficiency in terms of unit costs is reached when enrolments in a subject are above a threshold
which lies between 50 and 150. Keegan (1991:93) acknowledges that while increasing the proportion of interactive activities improves a student‟s
performance , it simultaneously increases the management costs .
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Question 9.6
♥ As a distance education student enumerate and explain any advantages you have over
conventional students. Remember to highlight any advantages the conventional students
have over distance education students .
9.8 Personnel for distance education
A well set up distance education program requires the services of various cadres of staff. Besides the usual support staff we should expect the distance
education program to utilize the services of personnel such as:
The distance education program should be headed by a director who should be the overall in charge of administrative , academic as well as financial matters
. S/he should ensure that the right calibre of staff are recruited , well remunerated and retained . The director should also be of the right professional
background in education and have some management skills .
Besides the director the distance education program must have senior staff tutors to look after preparation of printed materials , preparation of radio materials
, radio tutoring , course editing , counseling , administration , clerical work , co-ordination with field officers / cooperating teachers / part timers , registration
, correspondence , keeping records and managing studios and laboratories .
Question 9.7
♥ Discuss the shortcomings of the personnel involved in the management of the distance
education program you are conversant with . Suggest ways in which the program
management could be improved .
9.9 Problems / constraints facing distance education
Most of the problems are experienced by students, the most important of which are discussed hereunder . The first problem faced by distance education
students is that of isolation (Tonny Dodds p. 10) . Contact with other students and staff is an important aspect of learning and the external mode limits such
contact . If understanding needs to be constructed , it is difficult for many students to do so in isolation or in the absence of guidance . In many existing
distance education systems , individual student contact with other students is essentially non-existent .This is not recommended as frequent contacts allow
students to make errors in the presence of their friends and errors are less pronounced when made among friends , and in such a case students are allowed to
develop the valuable skill of self correction . Distance education therefore needs to set up circumstances in which students develop self-direction through a
process of mediated interaction . Amundsen and Bernard (1989:105) say that distance education should attempt to reintegrate the act of teaching as
mediation in which the learner takes an active part as the appropriator of messages in a dialogue fashion. Daniel and Marquis (1979) see distance education
as being made up of two kinds of activities :
 Independent activities where the student works alone such as reading text , watching the television , doing an experiment or writing an
assignment .
 Interactive activities which bring the student into contact with other people. This contact can be in the form of telephone conversations,
group discussions , marking and commenting on work submitted by the student and face to face discussions during residential / visiting
sessions .

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The second problem indirectly experienced by students is that distance education encourages rote learning .Though the principal mode of instruction is print
, it is increasingly impossible to provide students with enough reading materials . As a result of this and other cost related problems the lecturers tend to give
handouts or dictate notes (Tonny Dodds p.11). For an institution running conventional programs also this may eventually lead to the “black market” effect
where campus-based students miss lectures and settle for lecture notes made for distance education students since the notes they make during lectures are not
as reliable. The lecturers in return do not give elaborate reading assignments as the students have limited access to reading materials . The net result is that
students rely on the handouts as the only source of information and the examinations may follow the same pattern as the lecturer tends to set from the
handouts or the dictated notes Remember the old joke about lectures “Lectures are a way to transfer material from the lecturer’s notes to the student’s notes
without passing through the mind of either”.
The third problem facing distance education students is the fact that most of them would have been outside formal education for long (Tonny Dodds p.11) .
The fourth problem facing distance education is due to the flexibility that is in built in most of the programs .The flexibility provided by the distance
education mode often becomes a negative factor and leads to non-completion of courses. A general characteristic of distance education programs is that of
dropping out. There is a higher tendency to drop out at the start of the course and this may be due to a number of variables such as family or work pressures,
lack of strong study motivation or incapacity to work independently and in some cases lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills. The drop out rate with such
a flexible approach tends to the 50% mark. (Daniel and Marquis 1979:34) . They disagree with Holmberg ( 1995) by suggesting that the more freedom a
learner has , the less likely s/he is to complete the course .It is advisable to pace the students and monitor them so that they succeed rather than allow
freedom that might lead to failure . Learners should be encouraged to work within deadlines and get some instant feedback so that s/he is aware of any
progress or otherwise.
Other problems are normally faced by institutions running distance education programs, and these include firstly lack of capital investment necessary to
establish a widely distributed network of broadband carriers. Most of the institutions start distance education programs because they lack basic facilities to
absorb all the interested applicants. This lack of funds and by implication facilities ripples over and affects the quality o f the distance education program.
The institution will most likely be unable to stock its existing library / resource centre with the required materials . It will further be unable to establish, man
and equip regional centres to the satisfaction of the student. Another area that will suffer as a result of these shortcomings will be the planned visits to the
centres, which will in turn reduce the level of interaction considerably. Lack of capital investment will in fact lower the quality of the education.
The second problem facing institutions is lack of a cost structure favorable to the purchase of necessary hardware both by institutions and by students. For an
institution to run a distance education program there is need to purchase modern equipment to prepare the course materials as well as to equip the libraries,
workshops and laboratories. The students need to have the financial capacity to finance their studies. In developing countries the students mostly rely on
their meager earnings to pay the fees, and as a result are unable to purchase the necessary reading and learning materials
The third problem facing institutions running distance education is due to lack of a favorable telecommunication tariff structure. One of the ways through
which students can reduce the effect of physical isolation is by interacting with their tutors through the telephone, fax or lately the e-mail These channels
unfortunately are out of reach for almost all the distance education students. They cannot afford to interact with the tutors to get assistance on assignments

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and projects They are also unable because of prohibitive costs to access materials from the latest journals and periodicals on the internet This poses a
challenge to provide an education that achieve parity with conventional provision in quality, quantity and status (MacDonald 1990 : 103)
The fourth constraint faced by institutions running distance education is unavailability of courseware. As mentioned earlier cost constraints hinder the
institution from supplying learners with sufficient learning materials . In some cases it is even impossible to supply course outlines and learners photocopy
them at their own cost. It can even lead to failure to use multi media approach due to unavailability of a wide range of resources such as computers, radio,
television, video materials etc.
The last constraint faced by institutions is lack of staff development programs for academic staff and support staff. In most cases the institution does not
employ new staff but utilizes existing staff to run the distance education program Smith and Sheath (in Keegan 1991: 98) recommends that distance
education should be part of the conventional system and be undertaken by the same full time academic staff. This further ensures similarity in quality of the
work covered between conventional and distance education students. This may overload the staff and in the long run low the quality of education for both
groups of students.
Question 9.8
♥ Discuss problems a distance education student in Kenya faces today . Give suggestions
on how they could be overcome.
9.10 Methods of teaching at a distance
Most distance education systems employ several methods of teaching. As mentioned early it is prudent for an institution teaching students at a distance to
employ the multi media approach.
The most prominent method used in all distance education systems is through printed materials. The materials are normally in the form of study guides, work
sheets and notes. The materials are specially prepared to be used by the student on his / her own. They present the content in convenient doses punctuated
with regular exercises.
The second method is through the use of radio broadcasts and audiocassette recordings. These are also prepared in such a manner that the student can
independently listen at home. The recordings are made to support the printed materials. The recordings ensure that the presentation is conversational
The third method of teaching and which should be in built into the system is through the use of occasional face to face teaching during residential session
and field visits. During the visits the students get the opportunity to interact with the authors of the printed materials.
There are obviously other media that can be used in distance education. Rumble and Keegan (1982) tabulated 13 kinds of media used in distance education.
These include print, study centers, face-to-face tuition, telephone tuition, computer assisted instruction, access to computer terminals, access to laboratories
at study centers, home experiment kits, residential schools, television, videotapes, radio and audio-cassettes.
Question 9.9
♥ Discuss the main methods of teaching employed in a distance education program you are conversant with. Explain how these methods could be improved for e

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MICRO (PEER) TEACHING AND MEDIA PRACTICALS
TOPICS FOR MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING AND MEDIA PRACTICALS
1. Introduction to micro ( peer ) teaching
2. Lecturing skill
3. Questioning and reinforcement
4. Set induction and stimulus variation
5. Small group work and use of examples
6. Use of the chalkboard
7. Preparation of graphic materials
8. Preparation of sound recordings
9. 3 dimensional materials

WHAT IS MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING ?

 It is a scaled down version of actual teaching in which the teacher trainee teaches for about 5-8 minutes concentrating on only one skill
 It involves teaching one’s peers/ colleagues
 It is designed to improve teaching skills
 The performance of the teacher trainee is noted down by the peers and the supervisor and then reviewed or discussed
 Once the various skills have been practiced and mastered in isolation, they are eventually integrated and practiced for a slightly longer time ( about
15 -20) minutes .
BRIEF HISTORY OF MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING
Micro-teaching was started by Dwight Allen at Stanford University in 1963 as a way of exposing teacher-trainees to broken-down teaching skills one
at a time . It has since then been used in teacher training to break-down teaching into practicable skills. Over the years with massive enrolments
and poor facilities it has been rendered less efficient in the developing world . The original MT model required TEACH – VIEW- CRITIQUE – RETEACH
-OBSERVE –CRITIQUE cycle for each student teacher for each skill.
IMPORTANCE OF MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING

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  It provides practice of teaching skills without the pressure of actual teaching situation
 It provides opportunity for immediate feedback from the supervisor and the peers
 It enables the teacher trainees to improve their teaching skills
 It prepares one for teaching practice / internship
GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING
Micro ( peer)-teaching aims at achieving the following objectives :
 Preparation of student-teachers for the actual teaching practice
 Reduction of the complexity of the teaching task by allowing student-teachers to concentrate on the practice of specific lesson preparation and
presentation skills
 Provision of a means of easing the tension on the student-teachers with less trauma , from the theory of methods to the realism of the practical
classroom situation .
 Development of critical observation of what constitutes effective teaching .
PROCEDURE FOLLOWED IN MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING
 Identify the relevant skill
 Expose the trainees to the skill through a lecture / demonstration/ video show/ film
 The trainee selecting a topic from the content area of a subject and preparing a micro lesson of between 5 – 7 minutes that can be used to
demonstrate the chosen skill
 The trainee should not attempt to squeeze the content of 40 minutes into the 5 – 8 minutes but should target a small section of the content
 The micro lesson should include all the expected details such as administrative details , specific objectives, time allocation, content, learning
activities, resource materials . it should have the 3 stages namely introduction , lesson development and the conclusion.
 The skill to be practiced should also be indicated
 Practicing the skill
 Evaluating the performance of the teacher trainee
Micro-teaching also provides the bridge between educational theories and classroom teaching in 3 phases . The 3 phases are :
1. Acquisition of knowledge.
Each skill is discussed and analyzed in a general lecture after which a film is shown . In the film an experienced teacher demonstrates the use of the skill .
2. Acquisition of skills .
Each student –teacher after careful study of the skill prepares a micro-lesson of duration 5- 8 minutes , a carbon copy of which should be made for the
supervisor at the beginning of each practice session . The members of the peer group play the role of the pupils . As much as possible each learner should

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get an opportunity to prepare and present each of the skills. It is recommended that if time and facilities allow for the tutor to arrange for a video
recording , playback and re-teach session so as to address problem areas .
3. Transfer of skills.
After all the skills have been practiced separately , an integrated skill practice of approximately 15 to 20 minutes is introduced which aims at integrating
the various skills. The supervisor evaluates the performance of the student-teacher and gives feedback .
THE MICRO (PEER)-TEACHING SKILLS
The following skills to be practiced
 Lecturing
 Questioning and reinforcement
 Set induction and stimulus variation
 Small group work and use of examples
 Integration of the skills.
CHALLENGES FACED BY TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Increasing enrolment in teacher training institutions outstripping facilities
Inability to get trainees to be in small groups of 5 and to go through the training cycle of TEACH – VIEW- CRITIQUE – RETEACH-OBSERVE –CRITIQUE
for each of the skills due to lack of time and facilities.
 Lack of recording facilities to enable proper use of the micro-teaching model.
THE LESSON PLAN FORMAT
The micro-lesson has similar features to the actual lesson plan for the full lesson . It is made up of :
 The normal administrative details
 Specific instructional objectives clearly stated and appropriate for the class level. Note that in a normal lesson , the objectives determine the teaching
approach while in micro-teaching the skill determine the objectives . As much as possible the objectives should span the various domains and the
levels therein .
 Introductory step: clearly showing a guide to the skill to be demonstrated
 Lesson development step : Clear and accurate information on the content to be covered
 Concluding step : Clear statement concerning the manner in which the conclusion of the lesson is to be brought about bearing in mind the content
Horizontally , the lesson plan format caters for time allocation , content in note form , learning activities in terms of the learner and in proper variety , and
resources . The references should be various and clearly show the title , author and page .
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The second part of the course will concern itself with the production of resources such as graphics , 3 dimensional materials and audio recordings .

SKILL 1 : LECTURING
This is the process of transmitting knowledge verbally. There are two forms of lecturing namely formal and informal. A formal lecture is purely verbal and
communication is basically one way from the teacher to the pupils without the pupils interrupting the exposition while informal lecture allows the pupils
to ask /answer questions, make comments, suggestions , demonstrate etc. Informal lecture can also be enriched with illustrations. In schools the informal
lecture is ideal because there is need for constant dialogue between the teacher and the pupils besides using learning resources.
Situations in which use of the lecture skill is recommended ( including advantages)
Questions may vary as to when to use the lecturing skill but the following situations seem to offer suitable opportunities:
 When introducing a topic/ content
o When presenting information which is not available in books
o When synthesizing information from several sources
o When interpreting or clarifying situations
 When one wants to cover much ground ( content) within a short time
 When handling a large group of learners
 When summarizing points
 When concluding a lesson.
Disadvantages of the lecture method
o It is teacher centred
o Does not engage learners in active learning
o Understanding of learners not readily assessed
o Learners likely to loose interest if not based on texts / illustrations
Requirements for the lecture method
A good lecture should have
o Preparation . The lecture must be adequately planned in advance through making sure that the objectives, learning activities and resources are
harmonized.

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 o Introduction. There are many ways of introducing a lecture for example through questions , short story, statement in form of a problem . It must
be enticing.
o Main body. Presentation should follow a logical manner, be interesting and employ examples which are realistic and interesting. It must be
comprehensive and cohesive.
o Conclusion. Just as a good beginning is essential so is a good ending. One way of summarizing a lecture is to give a brief outline of the topic. This
should be devoid of repetition.
Suggestions for improving the lecture method
o The teacher’s personality i.e the use of well modulated voice and avoiding monotony in presentation
o Use of gestures to lay emphasis
o The teacher should talk to the pupils , not to self or to the chalkboard
o The teacher should constantly check on the pupils understanding and be aware of non verbal aspects of communication.
o The teacher should adapt language to the level of the pupils understanding
o The teacher should make use of learning resources
Evaluation guide of the lecture skill
The following are suggested guidelines for evaluating the lecture skill :
o Did the lesson start on an interesting note that attracted the pupils and captured their attention.
o Did the teacher use a well modulated voice
o Did the teacher use gestures, facial expressions and body movements
o Was the language used simple
o Was the lecture punctuated with pauses to allow pupils to absorb the content
o Did the teacher keep to the point
o Was the teacher aware of warning signs e.g restlessness, boredom or confusion
o Did the teacher make effective use of the chalkboard and other illustrative devices
o Was the technique appropriate to the content covered
o Did the teacher give a forceful conclusion
o How was the teacher’s personality ( appearance, manner of dressing , behavior etc)

SKILL2 : QUESTIONING AND REINFORCEMENT

QUESTIONING
Introduction
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Teachers rely heavily on question asking as a major part of their teaching repertoire. It is one of the most versatile and most readily available techniques to
the teacher. It must be an action that is clearly observable, recognizable and purposive. The teacher must perform it in a controlled way. The skill is
teacher dominated as s/he controls the train of thought , knowing from the beginning where to lead the pupils through the questions.
Purposes of questioning
o Teaching ( in a way of teacher-pupil interaction)
o Guidance or leading ( into higher thought processes, and giving new insight and knowledge)
o Stimulating or motivating through involvement
o Evaluating to determine pupil’s level of knowledge and for feedback
o Promoting intellectual activity
o Knowing the learners
o Decision making
o Introducing and summarizing topics
o Drilling and practicing
Types of questions
o Factual or lower order questions for mere recall of facts and information covering knowledge level of the cognitive domain. Some require “yes” and
“no” responses
o Middle order questions. They cover the comprehension and application levels of the cognitive domain. Questions in this category demand
‘distinguishing” “ comparing and contrasting’.
o Thought or higher order questions for reflective / critical thinking. They cover analysis , synthesis and evaluation levels of the cognitive domain.
They need intelligent manipulation of learning materials.
When to ask questions.
(a). at the beginning of a lesson to
 Diagnose to determine the starting point
 Create atmosphere of wonder, curiosity and interest
 Set induce
(b). During presentation of a lesson to
 Stimulate thought
 Make pupils active or to enable them participate in lesson development
 Discover misconceptions
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  Retain interest
( c). At the end of a lesson to
 To sum up
 Stress the indirect purpose of a lesson
 Assess success of a lesson
 For pupils to draw own conclusions
Characteristics of good questions
 Clear concise ,precise , direct and relevant
 Thought provoking and related to the objectives
 Suited to the age interest and ability of the learners
Procedure of asking questions
 State the question
 Pause, allow time for pupils to consider the question and think about the answer
 Call on a name of the pupil to attempt the question
 Listen to the answer
 Comment , evaluate and reinforce the answer
Guidelines to asking questions
 Pre-plan ( especially for higher order questions) and follow a logical sequence ( systematically)
 Ask questions in a natural friendly and conversational manner
 Frequency of questioning
 Address the question to the whole class and distribute well
 Repeat the question only when legitimately necessary, rephrase if unclear
 Donot wait unnecessarily long for a response, assist by prompting
 Prompt, probe, refocus and redirect appropriately
 Eliminate opportunities for guesswork
 Avoid questions whose responses are YES or NO
 Discourage chorus answers
 Insist on complete thought units of answers in good language
 Accept all genuine answers sincerely. If correct partly, acknowledge that part
 Correct pupils inaccuracy. Pupils should not be made to feel afraid in making mistakes
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  Avoid discouraging comments on wrong answers
 Allow and encourage pupils’ questions.
 When a pupil starts asking questions just to show off, throw back the questions back to him/her tactfully
 Sometimes it is best to turn a pupil’s question to the whole class for consideration
 If you donot know the answer to a pupil’s question, it is best to admit your inability rather than be caught lying or bluffing . you can always promise
to give the correct answer after your research.
Some “don’ts” when asking questions
 Avoid double barreled questions
 Avoid ambiguous questions
 Avoid “echo” questions e.g x=y, is y=x?
 Avoid “pumping” questions e.g “ your father is a doctor?”
 Avoid asking questions that end with “is what”.
REINFORCEMENT.
Introduction
A teacher should react to a pupil’s contribution to the teaching/ learning situation in such a way as to REINFORCE the event. This will encourage pupils to
answer questions, make suggestions and participate in class discussions. Close relationship exists between questioning and reinforcement. They are infact
interdependent.
Purposes of reinforcement
 To increase the likelihood that a positive behavior will recur
 Increase learning
 Increase pupil participation
Types of reinforcement
 Positive verbal reinforcement e.g ‘good’ , ‘fine”, ‘correct’, ‘excellent’ etc
 Positive non verbal reinforcement e.g nodding the head, smiling, moving towards the pupil, keeping eye contact, writing the response on the
chalkboard
 Positively qualified reinforcement, a differential reinforcement either verbally or non verbally the acceptable parts of a response
 Delayed reinforcement, the emphasis on the positive aspects of pupil’s response by redirecting class attention to earlier contribution by a pupil
Components of questioning

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  Acceptance. The teacher gives some indication that the pupil’s contribution is acceptable or that he is at least listening to it
 Establishing relationship . The pupil’s idea is conveyed to the class and a discussion is initiated. The teacher may formulate the idea more clearly or
he may ask the pupil to explain
 Use. A contribution from one pupil is used to stimulate discussion. The contribution may be used to solve a problem
 Praise . The teacher encourages, praises or makes positive remarks about the pupil’s contribution. Praise should be honest and not flattery.

SKILL 3 : SET INDUCTION AND STIMULUS VARIATION

SET INDUCTION
This is a technique used by a teacher to attract the attention of all the learners and arouse their interest.. Induction means initiation of knowledge to a
beginner through inducement.
How set induction is done
 By drawing pupils’ life experiences
 By story telling or jokes telling
 By giving challenging tasks
 By using unique and unfamiliar demonstrations
 By giving instant pupil activities
Set induction should be used at the beginning of a lesson if necessary or any time something new is to be introduced. It prepares the learners for the
new material.
STIMULUS VARIATION
Stimulus means something that stimulates or acts as an incentive. Variation means the act of deviating from the norm standard e.g changing the voice ,
pitch ,volume etc.
Stimulus variation is a technique of teaching and refers to those teachers actions which develops and maintain a high level or maximum attention on the
part of the pupils during the course of a lesson e.g mannerisms , voice, personality, media and materials used during instruction.
Rationale of using stimulus variation
 Most youngsters have a short attention span i.e they lose interest after a certain period of time

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  Uniformity of the perceived environment tends to lead people into mental inactivity while changes in the perceived environment attract their
attention and stimulate mental activity.
Objectives of using stimulus variation
 Attract and retain pupil’s attention throughout the lesson
 Encourage a positive pupil’s attitude towards school by introducing a lively and interesting teaching style e.g new voices, new faces, and new
materials.
 Encourage pupils by involving them in a variety of attractive experiences
Components of stimulus variation
 Teacher movement. A static teacher bores the learners while an eratic mover can irritate and interrupt them. Measured steps cause attention to be
focused on the teacher directly.
 Focusing . In order to direct the pupils attention to the topic , the teacher may use verbal statements , specific gestures etc
- Verbal focusing involves emphasis of particular words or statements e.g listen to this , look at this diagram
- Gesture focusing consists of eye movement, facial expressions, and movements of body parts
- Verbal/gesture focusing. This is a combination of gestural and verbal focusing e.g when the teacher says ‘ look at this diagram’ as he
points at the diagram
 Gestures. These are body movements e.g nodding the head to give encouragement. These gestures should be natural .
 Varying speech patterns. This is where the teacher changes speed, volume and pitch of the speech to match various circumstances. Planned silence
or pausing can also be effective in capturing attention.
 Pupils verbal participation /interaction style. The teacher encourages pupils to participate verbally by way of questions , discussions or other
stimuli.
- Teacher-class interaction. This is where the teacher lectures or demonstrates to the whole class, the questions are asked to the class
rather than to individual pupils
- Teacher-pupil interaction . This is where the teacher asks questions to specific pupils
- Pupil-pupil interaction. The teacher redirects a pupil’s question /reaction to other pupils.
 Using different senses. During a lesson pupils process information by means of the senses. The ability to process information can be significantly
increased by appealing to sight and sound alternately. Pictures and models imprint information more permanently than when only verbal stimuli
are used.
 Pupils physical activity. The teacher may introduce drama and then allow pupils to handle apparatus or make their own notes or diagrams
Guiding principles to stimulus variation
 The teacher must be clear in his/her mind about the purpose of the change in the activity he is going to introduce, the changes must relate to the
general aim and content of the lesson.
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  The teacher should introduce the variations smoothly so that the flow of the lesson is not interrupted.
 The teacher must carefully plan and organize the lesson particularly if he intends to use audio visual aids.
 The teacher would need to modify his use of variation in response to the feedback he obtains from the pupils
SKILL 4 : SMALL GROUP WORK AND USE OF EXAMPLES
This is a method that involves cooperative effort by learners to perform a learning task. The nature of the problem or the learning task determines the
duration of time spent in the group activity. Groups can be formed through random sampling , natural socialization , learners abilities gender and
competencies.
Types of groups.
There are 3 types of groups a teacher can use in the small group discussions method.
Buzz groups.
The learners share a few minutes to discuss a question or problem in pairs or triples without rearranging the seating . Buzz groups are meant for quick
informal exchange of ideas, opinions and suggestions. The task is normally simple and may be accomplished in 2 – 4 minutes. The task is the same for all
the groups in the class. A few groups report their points and these are compiled and used to develop the lesson further.
Task groups.
These are extensions of buzz groups where the task is now more detailed , more demanding and more time is allowed. Also the group organization is
formal with a chair and a secretary to coordinate the discussions. The group size is also larger maybe 5 . The reports are normally exhaustive as each group
may generate points on a different angle of the same task and thus stimulate discussion.
Syndicate groups.
These are the same as the task groups except that the tasks differ from one group to the next. Each group will then be allowed time to report its findings.
The teacher must finally synthesize the points and draw conclusions. Its advantage over task group type is that more ground is covered albeit shallowly.
Advantages of group work
 Improve understanding through sharing of ideas
 Stimulates self expression , listening and reasoning
 Can lead to development and emergence of leadership qualities
 Sharing of ideas when there are limited resources
 Development of interest due to practical involvement
 Fosters cooperation and reduces individual frustration
 Gives learners opportunities to practice the democratic process
 Practice of oral communication and enhancement of other skills
Limitations of small group work
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  It is time consuming
 Not convenient for large classes
 Assessment of individual contributions is difficult
Difficult to choose suitable tasks and to form groups
EVALUATION GUIDES.
SMALL GROUP ACTIVITIES .
 Involvement of learners in group activities
 How effectively did the groups present their reports .
 Teacher’s role in group activities, was the teacher playing the role of :
 Observer
 Resource person
 Mediator, group to group Participants
 What follow up activities did the teacher plan for the class .

USE OF EXAMPLES AS A TEACHING SKILL

(i). OBJECTIVES.
 To lead pupils from simple to complex concepts
 To make difficult ideas easy to understand
 To clarify rules , principles , or concepts
 To test understanding of concepts / rules
 To enliven a lesson and stress important points
(ii). COMPONENTS.

 Simple examples , to bridge new knowledge with already acquired previous knowledge
 Relevant examples ,. Applicability of the teacher’s examples to the particular rules or concepts being taught .
 Interesting examples , that arouse the learners curiosity and interest .
 Appropriate media for examples e.g using analogies , stories , models , pictures , diagrams . the choice of media to be determined by the age and
ability of pupils and the content to be taught .
(iii). GUIDING EXAMPLES.
 Examples should be prepared in advance
 The teacher should be observant of pupils behaviour and their verbal responses to be certain the examples are appropriate

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 Sufficient number of examples must be provided while at the same time a variety of situations in which the rules / concepts may be observed are
indicated .
 There should be a clear and equivocal link between the example given and the relevant rule or concept
(iv). APPROACHES TO USING EXAMPLES.
 Inductive i.e moving from a particular examples to the generalization or starting with the examples then giving the generalization based on the given
example.
 Deductive i.e moving from the generalization to the examples . Staring with the rules then giving examples to further illustrate .
EVALUATION GUIDES.
USE OF EXAMPLES.
 Did the teacher provide adequate examples to highlight the concept, idea being taught
 Did the teacher move from simple to more difficult examples
 Did the teacher occasionally suggest non-examples ( irrelevant examples)
 Were the learners encouraged to provide additional examples
 Were the examples always related to the concept under discussion .

MEDIA PRACTICALS TOPIC : CONSTRUCTION OF 3 – DIMENSIONAL MATERIALS

Definition : 3 dimensional materials have length , width and height. They occupy space whose size can be described in terms of 3 co-ordinates x , y and z .
UTILIZATION OF 3 DIMENSIONAL MATERIALS
We can bring real things into the classroom , but we must locate them , acquire them and find profitable ways in which to put them into use in order to
achieve the objectives . They could be live living things , preserved materials and models of mounted specimens .
We can look at real things in 3 categories :
1. Unmodified real things
2. Modified real things
3. Specimens

Unmodified real things

Are things that are without alteration except for change of real life surroundings . They usually have all segments intact , they may operate, work or be alive ,
they are normally of normal size .
Examples are :

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 1. An old Kenya Uganda Railway engine at the KR museum can be useful when teaching the development of rail transport in East Africa , the
building of the Kenya Uganda railway, Transportation in East Africa .
2. The national flag .
3. A visit to Fort Jesus in Mombasa or Gedi in Malindi , Lake Nakuru for flamingoes etc.
4. A visit to the museums of Kenya when teaching “Evolution of modern man “
Modified real things.
Is a simplified version of reality , a representation of the real thing so constructed as to highlight essential parts and functions .
They include mock-ups and cutaways ( cutaways applies to mechanical devices such as engines through which cuts have been made to allow observation
of hidden parts , either in motion or static. Includes sections and slices .

COMMON TYPES OF 3- DIMENSIONAL MATERIALS

1. Objects
2. Specimens ( samples )
3. Models
4. Dioramas
5. Outdoor laboratories / learning experiences e.g field trips
6. Chalkboards
OBJECTS
Is the real thing e.g using one of the pupils to name the body parts .

SPECIMENS
These are objects that are a representative of a group or a class of similar objects e.g a display of various food crops eaten by a named Kenyan community
; a display of different soil samples representing loam , clay , and sandy soils ; when teaching urban planning the teacher can take pupils to the local urban
council and use the road patterns , market position , industrial area location , offices to explain problems of planning a larger town or city .
They may sometimes be unmodified .
MODELS
Is a recognizable 3 dimensional likeness or representation of the real thing . They can be made using clay , wood scraps , cloth , wires , grass etc
Characteristics of models.
1. They are 3 dimensional
2. They reduce / enlarge objects to an observable size e.g globe , atom etc .
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3. They enable us to see interior view of objects
4. They simplify complex objects , show only the necessary features .
5. Emphasize important features with colour and texture
DIORAMAS
These are 3 dimensional scenes incorporating a group of models , objects , figures in a natural setting e.g a typical traditional African homestead consisting
of models of grass thatched houses arranged in such a way that explains which house belongs to who.
OUTDOOR LABORATORY
This is an exterior learning area on or adjacent to a school site which is suitable for environmental studies e.g acquatic environments ( streams , fish ponds
, marshes ) ; geological environments ( soil profiles along roads ) ; terrestial environments ( farmlands , woodlands, grasslands etc) and field trips .
MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR PRODUCTION OF 3 DIMENSIONAL AIDS.
Materials that can be used to develop these materials include :
1. Cement mortar ( prepared in the ratio cement : sand + water in the ratio 1:2 .
2. Glue
3. Flour paste. This is made by mixing flour with water to get a smooth creamy mixture .
4. Flour and salt mixture. To prepare it we use 2 cups of flour and enough water to mix into a creamy consistency . Add 1 cup of salt, it hardens
when dry .
5. Papier-mache. This can be made in several ways:
(i). Soak torn paper bits in thin paste and mix well
(ii). Boil the paper bits , mix them well until they form a smooth mass , squeeze out the water, add glue and plaster of Paris.
(iii). Tear toilet paper into shreds , boil and beat until smooth, squeeze out water and add paste .
(iv). Dip 1” wide paper strips into paste and lay over torn or wadded paper centre to produce the desired form.
6. Spray paint. This can be made by mixing one pint of white calcimine in water

MEDIA PRACTICALS TOPIC : AUDIO PRODUCTION

The process of producing audio recordings can be discussed under three major stages :
(a). Planning
(b). Script writing

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(c). Presentation / recording
Planning
The planning stage starts with the selection of topics to make up the series . A series of topics for a particular class is made of topics enough to cover a year .
In some countries a series is made up of 24 audio lesson topics namely eight per term. The selection is guided by the specific functions of the medium as
well as the needs of the subject or course . We must bear in mind the weaknesses and strengths of the audio / television medium as we select these topics.
We must also give priority to topics that are not well covered in the class textbooks as these are the topics that actually need the audio support . The need
arises due to scarcity of instructional materials and the nature of the content . Audio recordings can for example be useful in the teaching of music where the
class teacher cannot demonstrate some of the tunes in the classroom or in the teaching of literature where different scholars give different interpretations of
the same novel .throughout the selection the writer must consult with the subject specialist .

The next step under this stage is writing the programme outline for each topic . This outline is made up of six elements . The first element is the programme
title which must be concise and precise . For example the titles “ Coffee growing “ and “Coffee growing in Kenya “ are different since in the former , the
programme cannot confine itself to coffee growing in one country only or region but must address itself to coffee growing globally . The next element is the
specific objectives we wish to achieve through the programme . These will depend on the class level the programme is intended for . It is important in
writing these objectives to cater for the different domains of educational objectives . The objectives must be achievable in the time available for the
programme . The objectives if well stated become very useful in content selection .

The third element of the programme outline is the content summary . Here the writer must now list the main facts , ideas , skills and attitudes to be covered
by the programme . This content must be arranged in a logical manner for easy audio lesson development . The content summary if well prepared at this
stage helps a great deal in deciding on the reference materials , resource persons to be interviewed and the illustrative examples if any . Once the content
summary is in place it is then possible to decide on the fourth element of the outline namely form and structure . Deciding on the form and structure involves
choosing whether to use straight talk , illustrated talk , interview , panel discussion , documentary techniques , dramatizat ion , or a mixture of the above (
magazine ) . The writer can then concentrate on the fifth element of the outline namely developing support materials to accompany the recording . The
materials should encourage active participation of the learners in the programme . The material must involve learners at three critical stages of the lesson .
The learning activities make up the sixth element of the outline . These stages are activities before the listening , during the listening and after the listening .
Once the outline for the topics have been completed , it is advisable to discuss them with other subject specialists as to the validity and relevance of the
proposed content .

The programme outline which comprises the topic, instructional objectives, content summary , support materials , and learning activities will be properly
written out to make up the Teachers‟ notes. The Teachers‟ notes is the document that will guide the classroom teacher on how to make effective use of the
recording.

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 Scriptwriting
The art of scriptwriting involves laying on paper a simulation of how people really speak. The key point to remember is that the audio channel is for the
ear and not for the eye. The sentences must be short, consisting of familiar phrases since we rarely use long sentences in everyday speech. Long rumbling
sentences must be broken down into shorter ones. The active quality of natural speech ensures that the scriptwriter captures the attention of the listener
and conveys information. The best way to write an audio script would therefore be to put down word by word the way you would tell the story to a
friend. The words must sound warm and personal to compensate for the loss of visual communication.
The writer should consider whether the content suggests more than one presenter, a need for music, indigenous sounds, sound effects or simply one voice
commentary. A good educational broadcast lesson should be voiced by a radio teacher and at least two radio pupils besides other presenters . It is good
to have more than one presenter to give the programme some ‘taste’ but it comes but it becomes confusing when the voices are too many. Consideration
should also be given to using sound effects at appropriate stages to give the programme a natural outlook for instance when the script is referring to an
event taking place at dawn then the sounds of birds and other insects could bring in the time perspective. If the script is referring to an interview involving
a poultry farmer , then during the interview sounds of hens and cocks should be heard in the background .The programme must open and close with a
signature tune . This is a sound effect that identifies the programme series , it should where possible show some relation to the content or theme of the
programme .
The following rules should be followed in script writing:-

(a). The script must convey the message in a logical manner. It should be made up of one‟s thoughts arranged in a sequence to drive the listener to stay
tuned.
(b). All the facts must be factual, i.e accurate, honest, current, truthful and sincere.
(c ). The script must be „mobile‟, interesting and relevant to the environment. It must be illustrative so that the listener is mentally visualized.
(d). The script writer must have a complete story in him.
(e). A good script must have a „hook‟ which is catchy, to catch the listeners attention and sustain it throughout the listening session.
(f). The script must avoid overloading the programme with lots of data or dates that would confuse the listener.
The script layout should be standard as this helps in ensuring that all those involved in the production understand its form and structure. An audio script
should be made up of four distinct parts. The first part should be the introduction. Here the radio teacher should welcome the listeners to the programme and
connect the it to previous knowledge. The second part is the main body of the programme where the content should be delivered logically, punctuated with
the pupil activities. The programme should allow for pauses to give pupils time to respond to questions and tasks. Th e third part of the script is the
closing. Here the radio teacher with the assistance of the radio pupils summarize the main points of the lesson. If necessary the next topic can be stated and

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the pupils asked to collect necessary materials. A series of questions to direct the follow up can also be posed. Finally, some programmes finish off by
giving credit to participants namely the script writer, script editor, the presenters, the producer, the technician and the station.
It is important to remember that the script should be :
(i). Typed , double or treble spaced with margins of 1 ½ to 2 inches for easy reading
(ii). With pages numbered sequentially
(iii). With each page starting on a new sentence
(iv). Reproduced on single sided non-flimsy paper
(v). With enough copies for all those involved in the production ( producer , presenters , and technician )
Materials to be recorded in the studio should be separated from pre-recorded materials ( taped inserts for interviews , music and sound effects ). Identifying
details should be given for all inserts including name of interviewee , title of music , description of sound effects , cue-in ( opening words or sounds ) and
cue-out ( closing words or sounds ) and exact duration .

A SAMPLE SCRIPT
Programme series : Primary Home Science
Programme title : Basic food groups for a balanced diet
Programme level : Standard seven
Programme number : 4 of term 1
Script writers : Raphael Muruu, Selina Ominde, Eunice Obat, Gordon Oluoch
Script-editor : Lordvicus W. Olanga
Producer : Eunice Obat
Technician : Jacob M. Oloo
Duration : 14 minutes 25 seconds

SOUND EFFECTS: Signature tune

: Bridge music

1. CONTROL :Bang on the signature tune…15seconds…..then fade under

2. ANNOUNCER : We present Home Science for standard seven . This is the fourth programme this term . The title of today‟s programme is “Basic food group
(i). The definition of a balanced diet

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 and (ii). The 3 basic food groups and their functions.

3. CONTROL : Fade up signature tune ………10seconds…then fade out.

4. RADIO-TEACHER : Hello standard 7 pupils. In today‟s programme we are going to learn about the basic food groups that make up a balanced diet. You
do so. With us in the studio are radio pupils Irene, Catherine and Sarah.
5. RADIO PUPILS : Hello standard 7 pupils.
6. RADIO TEACHER : We will start by asking you a question . What do you understand by the words „balanced
diet ? [ Repeat ]. Tell your teacher now.
7. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music …20secs………..fade out
8. RADIO TEACHER : Yes, Sarah.
9. SARAH : A balanced diet is a diet which contains all the food nutrients required by the body, in our case
carbohydrates, vitamins, proteins and fats.
10. RADIO TEACHER : That is very good Sarah . Class, tell your teacher what you had for breakfast this
morning. [ Repeat ]
11. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music …….20secs….. fade out.
12. RADIO TEACHER : Yes, Irene.
13. IRENE : I had bread and butter, a fried egg, a cup of tea and an orange.
14. RADIO TEACHER : Good! Irene had bread and butter, a fried egg, a cup of tea and an orange. She had foods
which give energy, build and protect the body. Irene had a balanced diet.
15.RADIO TEACHER : Children, now tell your class teacher examples
of foods that give us energy. [Repeat ]
16 CONTROL : Fade up bridge music …….25secs…….. fade out
17.RADIO TEACHER : Now, ……Catherine tell us some examples of
energy giving foods? [ Repeat ]

18. CATHERINE : Energy giving foods are maize, cassava, potatoes and rice.
19. RADIO TEACHER : Good! Catherine has told us that examples of energy giving foods are maize, cassava,
potatoes and rice. Others are fats and oils from butter, margarine, nuts and sugar. All these foods
are carbohydrates.Now teacher…..display the chart showing the various food groups. (Repeat).
20. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music….. 25secs………….fade out
21. RADIO TEACHER : Teacher,……on your chart, show the pupils the group of foods that give us energy. [Repeat ].
22. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music…….25secs………..fade out.
23. RADIO TEACHER : The teacher has just shown you foods that give us energy . The second group of foods
are the body-building foods. Class,……. Tell your teacher foods which build our bodies. [Repeat ].
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24. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music…..25 secs………….fade out.
25. RADIO TEACHER : Yes, Sarah, tell us some of the foods that build our bodies.
26. SARAH : Body-building foods are milk, eggs, fish and meat.
27. RADIO TEACHER: Good! Some examples of foods the build our bodied are milk, eggs, fish, meat, beans,
peas and groundnuts. These foods are also called protein-containing foods. They give
proteins to our bodies. Now teacher …….on your chart show the pupils the group of foods the
build our bodies. [ Repeat ].
28. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music……….25secs……. fade out
29. RADIO TEACHER : Your class teacher has shown you foods that build our bodies. Now look at the chart
again. (Pause 7”). You can see the third and last group of foods. What name is given to this
group of foods. Tell your teacher……now.
30. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music…..20 secs ……….. fade out
31. RADIO TEACHER : Yes, Irene.
32. IRENE : The third group of foods are called protective foods.
33. RADIO TEACHER : Protective foods provide our bodies with vitamins and mineral salts. Vitamins and
mineral salts protect our bodies from certain types of diseases. Class…. Now tell your
teacher some foods which protect our bodies.

34. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music….25 secs………….. fade out

35. RADIO TEACHER : Yes,……Catherine.
36. CATHERINE : Protective foods are carrots, tomatoes, vegetables, pawpaws and mangoes.
37. RADIO TEACHER: Protective foods protect our bodies from certain diseases and include carrots,
tomatoes, vegetables, pawpaws and mangoes. Now,…… before we end our radio lesson
let us again look at the main points of the lesson . We learnt that foods can be classified
into three main groups . What were these groups. Tell your teacher now.
38. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music…..20 secs…………. Fade out
39. RADIO TEACHER : Yes, Sarah.
40. SARAH : The three main groups are energy-giving foods, body-building foods and protective foods.
41. RADIO TEACHER : Good! The three main groups are carbohydrates or energy-giving foods……..proteins
or body-building foods,……..and protective foods which give us vitamins an d mineral
salts. These foods if eaten give us a balanced diet.Now,……..tell your teacher examples
of energy giving foods . (Repeat).
42. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music…….. 10 secs…………fade out
43. RADIO TEACHER: Yes, Irene.
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44. IRENE : Energy-giving foods include maize, cassava, potatoes and rice.
45. RADIO TEACHER : Good! Now ……. Tell your teacher examples of foods which build the body.
46. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music……15 secs…………… fade out
47. RADIO TEACHER : Yes, Catherine.
48. CATHERINE : Body-building foods include milk eggs, fish, meat, beans, peas and groundnuts.
49. RADIO TEACHER : Good! Class…..finally tell your teacher examples of protective or vitamin-giving
foods . [ Repeat ].
50. CONTROL : Fade up bridge music…….15 secs………… fade out
51. RADIO TEACHER : Yes,…….Sarah.
52. SARAH : Protective foods include carrots, tomatoes, vegetables, pawpaws and mangoes.
53. RADIO TEACHER : From what we have learnt, it is important to include the three groups of foods in our
daily meals. It is only then that we can say we have a balanced diet. A balanced diet
ensures the we have enough energy, we build our bodies and protect our bodies from
diseases.
54. RADIO TEACHER : In our next radio lesson, we shall learn about food preparation and serving. Between now and then your class teacher should arra
served. You can observe these at home . And that is all for today .
55. CONTROL : Bring up signature tune ……10 secs…then fade under.
56. ANNOUNCER: You have been listening to programme number 4 in the Primary Home Science series for standard 7. The title of the programme was
Murruu, Selina Ominde, Eunice Obat and Gordon Oluoch.It was edited by Lordvicus W. Olanga and produced by Eunice Obat. Your presenters were Muruu, Om
was produced in conjunction with the department of Educational Communications and technology, Kenyatta University. Until next week, it‟s bye from us.
57. CONTROL: Fade up signature tune ……….20 secs ……then fade out.

The sample script shown above could be improved by say inserting an interview with a nutritionist or school matron, or including a conversation between a
housewife and one of the presenters.As a means of enabling the classroom teacher to utilize the audio material effectively, the Teachers‟ Notes on the topic
should be availed.
THE TEACHER’S NOTES
CLASS: Standard 7
SUBJECT Home Science
TOPIC: Basic food groups for a balanced diet
Objectives
By the end of the radio lesson, the learner should be able to:
(i) Classify common foods into 3 food groups
(ii) State functions of foods in each group.

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Learning Aids
A chart showing drawings and mountings of the three food groups.

Activities before the broadcast

Pupils should be asked questions such as the following by the class teacher:
(i) Name 3 good eating habits
(ii) State at least 4 factors that influence eating habits
(iii) Name 3 ways of obtaining food
The class teacher should also write the following on the chalkboard:-
Carbohydrates - energy giving foods
Proteins - body building foods
Vitamins - protective foods
Activities during the broadcast
The class teacher should receive responses from pupils when asked to do so by the radio teacher. S/he should quickly write down these answers. The
teacher should display the chart showing drawings and mountings of the 3 food groups. S/he should point at the relevant parts when asked to do so by the
radio teacher
Activities after the broadcast
The classroom teacher should ask pupils to write in their exercise books all the foods they eat at home and finally classify them. The pupils can also be
asked to choose foods from these three groups and plan balanced meals for a whole week.
Once the script has been written and Teachers‟ Notes compiled, the script editor should edit the programme. The editor should consider the flow of content ,
the time slot allowed for the programme and the general layout of the script. He is to cross check the appropriateness of the recorded inserts and the music
use. He also ensures that the signature tune chosen is appropriate. The signature tune is that piece of music or vocals that comes at the beginning and at the
end of a programme. It is the same for a whole programme series and is regarded as the “trademark” of the programme series it identifies the programme.
Usually the message in the signature tune is related to the theme of the series. The signature tune should never be used as bridge music. If the introductory
remarks of a programme are to be voiced over the signature tune them the tune should be instrumental for it to be faded under the speech effectively.
Recording
Once the script has been written, edited and all the inserts and sound effects lined up than the next stage is to put the content on tape, that is recording. The
producer must use voices that have been auditioned. During auditioning the voices are chosen for their quality in terms of pronunciation, clarity, fluency,
pace, intonation and general voice quality. The voices should also be chosen for their suitability for narration, drama, poem reciting, and radio pupil roles.
Once the producer has assembled his artists (presenters) in the studio, each of them should have a copy of the script and thoroughly rehearse the script
several times. This will help the producer and technician get an estimated duration of the programme. If there is need for further editing it can be done at

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this stage to reduce the programme to the prescribed duration and still have the message. During the recording session, the technician should ensure that the
microphones are properly positioned to maintain a good recording level throughout the session.
If the duration of the recorded programme with all the inserts, music bridges and pauses included is still higher than the prescribed time, then post-
production editing can be done. This can be accomplished through mechanical splicing or dubbing.
Editing
Editing a material means removing parts of it and re-organizing the material to give it „shape‟. Editing can be done in two ways :
Script Editing
Before recording a programme the writer should allow a colleague to read through the script and give comments . A media specialist should also be allowed
to judge the script for its suitability . The writer can then modify the script in line with the comments given by the colleague and the media specialist .
Sometimes the time slot allocated for the programme is 20 minutes and on rehearsal the programme overshoots the time . It is then necessary to cut down on
the quantity of material to bring it down to under 20 minutes .
Tape Editing
This is an important aspect of recording . It is conveniently done in tapes than in cassettes . This is because of two reasons . Firstly , the tape speeds
7 ½ and 15 inches per second ( ips ) are ideal for editing than the slower audio cassette speed of 1 7/8 ips . Secondly the tape is one track while the cassette
is two track .The following alterations can be done on tape programmes through editing :
(i). Reducing the overall length of the programme
(ii). Re-arranging the order of events by placing one sound sequence ahead or behind its original position on the tape , thus providing bases for comparisons ,
contrasts or emphasis .
(iii). Inserting new material such as speeches , music etc .
There are two methods of tape editing :
Electronic Editing ( Dubbing )
This is ideal for audio cassettes and involves copying ( dubbing ) one recording through a second recorder onto another tape or cassette . This is done
without cutting the original tape / cassette . This method must be used very carefully as it introduces pops at the start and end of a sound sequence
Mechanical Editing ( Splicing )
This method involves using scissors or tape slicer and splicing the tape . It is highly recommended for „ polishing‟ an interview by removing slight
imperfections such as mmm eer , to add tape for lengthening pauses , reducing pauses or even to substitute a corrected bit of narration . The steps to follow
are :
(i). With the script in front of you listen to the recorded tape , listing spots that need editing and record the counter reading .
(ii).Dub the tape onto another fresh tape , file the original tape for reference . Proceed with the tape you have just recorded .
(iii). Lace the freshly recorded tape onto the recorder Play it and confirm the counter readings recorded earlier.
(iv). Carry out rough editing first , that is removing whole paragraphs , whole sentences and rearranging them in the appropriate order . To identify a point
to cut we engage the „edit‟ key on the tape recorder , then we can move the spools manually back and forth across the play head .

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(v). The point to be cut can be carefully marked with a fine tipped felt pen or a china marking ( grease ) pencil .
(vi). Two points on the tape can be connected using the splicing tape > the splicing tape should be put on the shiny side .
(vii). After making a joint , playback the tape over the joint and satisfy yourself that it is well done .
(viii). If a new bit is to be added , identify the spot where you wish to add the new bit . Mark it with a felt pen .
(ix). Playback the tape over the two joints and satisfy yourself that the joints are well done and that the new bit fits in very well.

ASSIGNMENT AUGUST 2019 IBP SESSION

(i) In your subject area, identify a topic that in your opinion needs audio support.
(ii) After deciding on the programme level, identify the instructional objectives.
(iii) Prepare the Teachers‟ Notes.
(iv) Prepare a script, rehearse it and edit it to be between 15 and 20
minutes.
(v) Develop support materials for the programme.
(vi) Using your cassette recorder and an audio cassette / compact disc (of good quality) record the programme.
(vii) Playback the recording and listen to it.
(viii) Hand in the recorded material, the script, the Teachers‟ Notes and the support materials for assessment.

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ECT 300 CAT 1 TRIMESTER 2016/2017

Prepare 4 lesson plans ( of 40 minutes each ) for each of the skills ( Lecturing ; Questioning and reinforcement ; Set induction and stimulus variation ; and
Small group work and use of examples ). Ensure that you plan equally for the two teaching subjects.

ECT 300 CAT 2 TRIMESTER 2016/2017

Draw a graphic material ( chart ) on a manilla paper. Prepare a 40 minutes lesson plan that would utilize this graphic.

THESE ASSIGNMENTS MUST BE SUBMITTED BEFORE SITTING THE FINAL EXAMINATION.

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ECT /PG 22 MATHEMATICS METHODS [ IBP APRIL 2014 SESSION]
INSTRUCTIONS : Answer Question ONE and any other TWO. TIME 2 HOURS

Q1. The mathematics teacher at Nyawara Girls secondary school set the following question in their 2014 KCSE bench marking examination.
“ Two taps A and B can separately fill a tank in 4 hours and 6 hours respectively. Tap C can empty the same tank in 3 hours.
(i).If the 3 taps are put on simultaneously at 6 am. At what time will the tank be full ( assume
the tank was empty at 6 am). [ 3 marks ]
(ii).If tap A was turned on at 8 am, tap B at 8.30 am and tap C at 9 am. At what time will the
tank be half full (assume the tank was empty at 8 am). [ 4 marks]
( iii). If initially the tank was ¼ full and the 3 taps are turned on at 1 hour intervals (that is A, C
and B in that order). After how long would the tank be empty. [ 3 marks] “
You are required to :
(i). Solve the problem [ 10 marks ]
(ii). Allocate marks on your marking scheme [ 10 marks ]
(iii). Identify possible steps where candidates are likely to make mistakes. [ 6 marks ]
(iv). Explain how you would address these mistakes. [ 4 marks ]

Q2. Explain with Mathematical examples the terms transfer, conditioning and readiness as they pertain to the teaching / learning of mathematics.
[ 20 marks]

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Q3. (a).Apart from the calculator, name four other resources for teaching mathematics. [ 4 marks]
(b). Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using the calculator in a Mathematics examination.
[ 10 marks ]
(c ). Explain why the use of improvised resources could be beneficial to learning Mathematics.
[ 6 marks ]

Q4. (a). What is problem solving. [ 2 marks]

(b). Using a form one topic, explain how you would use George Polya’s problem solving model to teach the topic.
[ 12 marks]
(c). Discuss any two characteristics of a good problem solver. [ 6 marks ]
Q5. Discuss any four contemporary issues in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in Kenyan secondary schools.
[ 20 marks]

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