UNIT – I

2 marks:
1. Define Computer Network
The term computer network is defined as a group of two or more
computers connected together by means of network media and network devices
in order to share data, resources such as printers, storage devices, exchange files
and allow electronic communication among them.
2. What are the different uses of computer network?
i. Business Application
ii. Home Application
iii. Mobile users
iv. Social issues

3. Expand VPN, RFID.

VPN: Virtual Private Network
RFID: Radio Frequency Identification
4. Expand GPS, NFC.
GPS: Global Positioning System.
NFC: Near-field Communication.
5. Expand DMCA. And. CAPTCHA
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans
Apart
6. Expand WiMAX , NSP
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)
Network Service Provider (NSP)
7. Expand ARPANET And ICMP
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
Internet Control Message Protocol
8. Expand SMTP, RTP
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
RTP: Real-time Transfer Protocol

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 9. Expand HTTP & TELNET.
HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
TELNET : Teletype Network.
10. Expand FTP, DNS.
FTP: File Transfer protocol
DNS: Domain Name system
11. Expand TCP and UDP.
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol.
UDP - User Datagram Protocol.
12. Expand DSL and SONE-T
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line
SONET: Synchronous Optical Networking
13. Expand LAN,WAN,MAN
LAN-Land Area Network
WAN-Wide Area Network
MAN-Metropolitan Area Network
14. What is peer-to-peer model?
A peer-to-peer model is a decentralized network architecture where
participants in the network, called "peers," communicate and share resources
directly with each other, without relying on a central server. Each peer can act as
both a client and a server.
For example, families sharing photos movies and teenagers playing multi-person
online games.
15. What is client server model?
The client-server model is a system where data is stored on servers,
accessed remotely by clients, and connected through a network.
It's used for various applications, including the web, allowing clients to request
data from servers, which respond by providing the requested information.

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 16. list the different forms of e commerce?
 B2C (Business-to-consumer)
 B2B (Business-to-business)
 G2C (Government-to-consumer)
 C2C (Consumer-to-consumer)
 P2P(Peer-to-Peer)
17. What is Profiling and Phishing?
Profiling is defined as the investigation, analysis, assessment and
reconstruction of data from a behavioural /psychological perspective extracted
from computer systems, networks and the humans committing the crimes.
Phishing is when attackers send malicious emails designed to trick people into
falling for a scam.
Or
Profiling refers to the process of collecting and analyzing information about
individuals or groups to create a detailed and often predictive profile of their
characteristics, behaviors, and preferences. It can be used for various purposes,
including marketing, law enforcement, and cybersecurity.
Phishing, on the other hand, is a type of cyberattack where malicious actors
impersonate trusted entities or individuals to trick people into revealing sensitive
information such as passwords, credit card numbers, or personal data. Typically,
phishing is done through deceptive emails, websites, or messages.
18. what are the two types of transmission technology?
 Broadcast links: Simultaneous transmission of the same message to
multiple recipients
 point-to-point links: Connect individual pairs of machines
19. what is unicasting and broadcasting?
Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a
packet to all destinations by using a special code in the address field. When a
packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every
machine on the network. This mode of operation is called broadcasting.
Broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually are point-to-point. Point-to-point
transmission with one sender and one receiver is sometimes called unicasting.

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 20. What are static and dynamic allocation methods.
Static: A typical static allocation would be to divide time into discrete
intervals and use a round-robin algorithm, allowing each machine to broadcast
only when its time slot comes up.
Dynamic :Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are either
centralized or decentralized.
Centralized: In the centralized channel allocation method, there is a single
entity.
Decentralized: In the decentralized channel allocation method, there is no
central entity; each machine must decide for itself whether to transmit.

21. What is communication subnet?

The communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone
company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to
listener. Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the
subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete
network design.
22. List and explain the components of subnet ?

A subnet is a logical division of an IP network into multiple smaller networks, or

subnetworks. The main components of a subnet are:

1. IP address: Each device on a subnet is assigned a unique IP address, which is

used to identify the device on the network and to route data to it.
2. Subnet mask: A subnet mask is a binary value that is used to divide the IP
address into two parts: the network address and the host address. The subnet
mask specifies which bits of the IP address are used for the network address
and which bits are used for the host address.
3. Network address: The network address is the portion of the IP address that
identifies the subnet. It is determined by applying the subnet mask to the IP
address.
4. Host address: The host address is the portion of the IP address that identifies
a specific device on the subnet. It is determined by applying the subnet mask
to the IP address.
5. Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects the subnet to other networks,
such as the Internet. It is used to route data between the subnet and other
networks.

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 6. Broadcast address: The broadcast address is a special address used to send
data to all devices on the subnet. It is used for broadcast traffic, such as ARP
and DHCP requests.
7. CIDR ( Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation : it is a way to represent IP
address and subnet mask in a shortened form, it uses the number of bits used
for the subnet mask rather than the actual subnet mask.

23. what are routing and forwarding algorithm

1) routing algorithm: it is in charge of deciding the paths to take for incoming

packets:

● it determines the destinations reachable by each node;

● it computes the best paths (according to certain criteria) in a cooperative
way with the other nodes;
● it stores local information in each node;
2) forwarding algorithm: it is in charge of taking the path decided for each
incoming packet:
● it performs a lookup in the local information computed and stored by the
routing algorithm;
● it sends the outgoing packet along the best path.

24. what is addressing and flow control ?

To uniquely identify each host or computer or device participating in
network. This is called addressing.
An allocation problem that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast
sender from swamping a slow receiver with data. Feedback from the receiver to
the sender is often used. This subject is called flow control.
Or
Flow control is a mechanism used in data communication to manage the rate of
data transmission between sender and receiver to prevent congestion and ensure
reliable data transfer.
Flow control is particularly important when data is transmitted over networks
with varying speeds, as it helps prevent data loss or corruption.

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 25. Differentiate connection oriented and connectionless service.
connection oriented connectionless service
Connection-oriented service is Connection-less service is related to the postal
related to the telephone system. system.
It includes connection It does not include any connection
establishment and connection establishment and connection termination.
termination.
In a connection-oriented service, Connection-less Service does not give a
the Handshake method is used to guarantee of reliability. In this, Packets do not
establish the connection between follow the same path to reach their destination.
sender and receiver.

26. what is store-and-forward switching and cut-through switching?

When the intermediate nodes receive a message in full before sending it on to
the next node, this is called store-and-forward switching.
The alternative, in which the onward transmission of a message at a node starts
before it is completely received by the node, is called cut-through switching.

27. List the different service primitives.

LISTEN -Block waiting for an incoming connection
CONNECT -Establish a connection with a waiting peer
ACCEPT -Accept an incoming connection from a peer
RECEIVE -Block waiting for an incoming message
SEND -Send a message to the peer
DISCONNECT -Terminate a connection
28. What is service and protocol?
A service is a set of primitives (operations) that define what operations a
layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users.
A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of packets
or messages exchanged between peer entities within a layer.
The key difference is that a service defines what can be done, whereas a
protocol governs how it's done.

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 29. Differentiate OSI and TCP/IP reference model
Difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-oriented
communication. The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection
oriented communication in the network layer, but only connection-oriented
communication in the transport layer, where it counts (because the transport
service is visible to the users). The TCP/IP model supports only one mode in the
network layer (connectionless) but both in the transport layer, giving the users a
choice. This choice is especially important for simple request-response protocols.

3 or more marks:

1. List and explain the uses of computer networks.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS ARE

i. Business Application
ii. Home Application
iii. Mobile users
iv. Social issues

Business Applications: refer q.no: 2

Home Applications: refer q.no: 2
Mobile Users: refer q.no: 3
Social Issues: refer q.no: 3

2. Write a note on the following:

i. Business application
ii. Home application

i) Business Applications:
Business applications encompass a wide range of uses for computer
networks within a company's operations Some of the most popular uses of the
computer network for business application are as follows:
Resource Sharing:
- Resource sharing in business applications involves making programs,
equipment, and data available to anyone on the network, regardless of their
physical location.
- An example of resource sharing is the sharing of a common printer among
office workers to reduce costs and maintenance.

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 VPN (Virtual Private Networks):
- VPNs are used in larger companies to connect individual networks at different
sites into one extended network.
- VPNs allow users to access data as if they were local, overcoming
geographical barriers
Client-Server Model:
- It involves powerful servers where data is stored and simpler client machines
on employees' desks.
- Clients access remote data from servers over a network.
- This model forms the basis of various network usages, including web
applications and remote access scenarios.

Client-server model involves requests and replies:

-it involves requests and replies Within the client-server model, communication
takes the form of a client sending a request message to a server.
-The server processes this request, performs the required actions, and sends back
a response to the client. This interaction ensures efficient data access and
manipulation.

Email and Communication:

-Computer networks enable communication among employees through email and
other forms of messaging.
-Email has become a common tool for daily communication within companies.

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 E-commerce:
-Many companies engage in electronic commerce (e-commerce) to interact with
customers and suppliers online.
-This includes online catalogs, order processing, and electronic transactions,
enhancing convenience and efficiency.

ii) Home Applications:

Some of the most popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
 Access to remote information.
 Person-to-person communication.
 Interactive entertainment.
 Electronic commerce.
Access to Remote Information:
- Home users can easily access remote information through the internet.
- They can explore a wide range of topics online, including arts, history,
hobbies, and sports.
- Newspapers and journals have transitioned to digital formats, allowing
personalized news preferences and article delivery.

Peer-to-Peer Communication:

- Peer-to-peer communication enables direct connections and interactions

between individuals.
- Systems like BitTorrent facilitate content sharing among users.
- This form of communication is commonly used for sharing music, videos, and
digital content
Interactive Entertainment:
- Home entertainment has evolved to offer interactive experiences.
- Streaming services provide access to audio and video content, including
Internet radio and platforms like YouTube.
- Future developments may involve user participation in shaping storylines and
participating in live television shows.

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 E-commerce:
- E-commerce has transformed how people shop and manage finances from
their homes.
- Home shopping allows browsing catalogs and personalizing product
configurations.
- Users can handle financial transactions, pay bills, and manage investments
online.
- Online auctions have become a significant part of e-commerce, enabling both
buying and selling by consumers.

3. Write a note on the following

i) Mobile Users:
 Mobile computers, such as laptop and handheld computers are one of the
fastest-growing segments of the computer industry.
 Connectivity to the Internet enables many of these mobile uses.
 Wireless connection: a wired connection is impossible in cars, boats, and
airplanes, there is a lot of interest in wireless networks.
 Wifi: They have sprung up everywhere that people go, resulting in a
patchwork of coverage at cafes, hotels, airports, schools, trains and planes.
 Text messaging or texting is tremendously popular. It lets a mobile phone
user type a short message that is then delivered by the cellular network to
another mobile subscriber.
 Many mobile devices have GPS technology, enhancing services like
mapping, local searches, and geo-tagging of content based on location.
 Mobile phones are used for payments through short text messages and NFC
technology, with the potential to revolutionize payment methods.
 Wireless networks are crucial for military operations, ensuring
communication and data access even in remote or hostile environments.
 Smartphones, like the iPhone, combine mobile phone and computer
features, providing fast internet access and seamless network switching.
 Sensor networks are mentioned as a future trend, revolutionizing data
collection for various purposes. Tiny mobile computers could track small
animals and insects, while wearables may control medical devices, though
security concerns are highlighted.
ii) Social Issues:
 Computer networks allow individuals to share views, but this freedom can
lead to offensive or politically incorrect content, sparking debates about
censorship.
 Computer network make it very easy to communicate. They also make it
easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the traffic.

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  Companies that provide Web-based services may maintain large amounts
of personal information about their users that allows them to study user
activities directly. For example, Google can read your email and show your
advertisements based on your interests if you use its email services, Gmail.
 The growth of peer-to-peer networks raises concerns about copyrighted
material being shared without permission, leading to legal actions and the
issuance of DMCA takedown notices.
 Profiling: Companies use cookies and personal information to track user
activities, potentially compromising privacy.
 The internet is flooded with ill-considered or false information, and spam
emails are a persistent annoyance.
 Phishing: it is when attackers send malicious emails designed to trick
people into falling for a scam.
 The interaction of computer networks with existing laws, such as in the
case of online gambling, leads to legal ambiguities when different
countries have conflicting regulations.
4. Write a note on the following:
i. LAN
ii. MAN

i. LAN

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 ii. MAN

5. Write a note on WAN

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 6. Write a note on LAN

7. Explain protocol hierarchies.

 To reduce design complexity, the network are divided into layers.

 Each host machine connected in the network have several layers.
 The function of each layer differ from each other.
 Each layer has a specific purpose, offers services to higher layers, and
shields them from implementation details.
 Each layer has a set of protocols.
 Protocol: it is a set of rules or an agreement between communicating
parties on how communication should proceed. It sets rules and
conventions for communication.
 Data and control information are passed from one layer to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest physical layer is reached.
 Interfaces: Interfaces exist between adjacent layers, defining the primitive
operations and services that the lower layer offers to the upper one.
 Network Architecture: A set of layers and protocols is known as a network
architecture, and it specifies how each layer should be implemented to
follow the appropriate protocol.
 Protocol Stack: A list of protocols used in a system, one per layer, is called
a protocol stack
 Example:- A five-layer network illustrated in below figure.

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 Figure: Layers, protocols, and interfaces
8. Explain design issues for the layers.
 Some of the key design issues that occur in computer networks will come
up in layer after layer.
 Reliability: It is the design issue of making a network that operates
correctly even when its components are unreliable. Error detection and
correction mechanisms, such as error-detecting codes, are used to identify
and fix errors that may occur during data transmission
 Routing: In large networks with multiple paths between source and
destination, finding a working path becomes important. Routing
mechanisms help the network automatically determine the best path to send
data packets.
 Addressing or Naming: Each layer of the network needs a mechanism for
identifying senders and receivers. This is achieved through addressing or
naming, depending on the layer.
 Evolution of the Network: Networks constantly grow and change. Protocol
layering is one way to handle these changes by dividing the problem into
layers and abstracting implementation details. Various strategies are used
to support network evolution
 Internetworking: Different network technologies may have various
limitations, such as message order preservation and message size
restrictions. Internetworking mechanisms are designed to handle these
differences.
 Scalability: As networks expand, scalability becomes crucial. Network
designs must continue to work effectively as the network grows larger.
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  Resource Allocation: Networks allocate resources like transmission
capacity to different hosts. Techniques like statistical multiplexing are used
to dynamically share resources based on demand.
 Flow Control: Ensuring that fast senders do not overwhelm slow receivers
is achieved through flow control mechanisms, often involving feedback
from the receiver to the sender.
 Congestion: When too many computers want to send too much data,
congestion can occur. Strategies like reducing demand during congestion
help manage this issue.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Networks must cater to applications with varying
demands, from real-time delivery to high throughput. Quality of service
mechanisms reconciles these competing demands.
 Security: Protecting the network from threats is crucial. This involves
mechanisms for confidentiality (preventing eavesdropping), authentication
(verifying identities), and integrity (ensuring data remains unchanged).
Cryptography is often used to implement these security features.

9. Differentiate connection oriented and connectionless service.

Connection oriented service Connectionless service

• Connection oriented service in • Connectionless service is

modelled after the telephone modelled after the postal system.
system.
• It includes connectiond • It does not include any connection
establishment an connection establishment and connection
termination. termination.
• In connection oriented service,d • Connectionless service does not
the Handshake method is used to give a guarantee of reliability. In
establishe the connection this, packets do not follow the
between sender and receiver. same path to reach their
destination.
• Connection oriented service setal • Connectionless service does not
up virtu path between source require a session connection
and destination systems through between sender and receiver. The
a network. sender simply starts sending
packets(called datagram) to the
destination.

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 • Transmission Control Protocoln • User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
(TCP) is a example of a Internet
connection-oriented service. Protocol (IP), and Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP) are
examples of connectionless
service.
• Connection-oriented requires • Connection-less Service does not
authentication. require authentication.

• Connection-oriented services • Connection-less Service requires a

require a bandwidth of a high bandwidth of low range.
range.

• In connection-oriented Service, • In connection-less Service,

Packets follow the same route. Packets do not follow the same
route.

• Connection-oriented Service is • Connection-less Service is not

feasible. feasible.

• It is used to create an end to end • It is used to transfer the data

connection between the senders packets between senders to the
to the receiver before receiver without creating any
transmitting the data over the connection.
same or different network.

10. Write a note on Service Primitive

 Service primitives are a set of operations or commands that provide access
to a network service.
 They are formally specified and define how user processes can interact
with a particular service.
 These primitives instruct the service to perform specific actions or provide
information about actions taken by peer entities.
 A simple example of service primitives for a reliable byte stream service
includes is illustrated in the below figure.

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 Figure: Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-oriented service
1. LISTEN: This primitive is used to block and wait for an incoming
connection request. It's typically used by a server to indicate its readiness
to accept incoming connections.
2. CONNECT: This operation establishes a connection with a waiting peer.
Clients often use this primitive to initiate a connection to a server,
specifying the server's address.
3. ACCEPT: The ACCEPT operation is used by a server to accept an
incoming connection request from a peer. It acknowledges the connection
request and allows the server process to establish the connection.
4. RECEIVE: This primitive is used to block and wait for incoming data or
messages. It is often used by a server to prepare for receiving client
requests.
5. SEND: The SEND operation is used to transmit data or messages to a peer.
It is typically used by clients to send requests to a server and by servers to
send responses to clients.
6. DISCONNECT: This operation is used to terminate an established
connection between peers. It can be initiated by either the client or the
server, and it involves a graceful disconnection process.

These primitives enable request-reply interactions in a client-server

environment. They facilitate actions like establishing connections, sending and

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 receiving data, and terminating connections, allowing for orderly communication
between processes is illustrated in below diagram.

11. Explain in brief different layers of OSI reference model.

The OSI Model or the Open Systems Interconnection Model is a
conceptual framework which describes the functions of a networking system.
It is used for the transfer of data over a network which moves through different
layers.

1. Physical Layer It is the bottom-most or the first layer of the OSI Model It
comprises the raw data which is further transmitted to the higher layers of the
structure This layer converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical
signals

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 2. Data Link Layer Access to get the data is achieved at this layer It breaks the
input data into frames which makes analysing the data easier Ensures that the
data received is free of any errors It controls the flow of data in the stipulated
time duration and along with a set speed of transmission
3. Network Layer It acts as a network controller Transferring of variable data
from one node to another, connected in a network, takes place at this layer Each
node has a specific address and the network layer ensures that the data is sent
to its destination address
4. Transport Layer The delivery of data packets is managed by the transport
layer It manages the flow of data, segmentation and desegmentation and error
control There are five classes of the transport protocol, starting from 0 and
continuing till 4 (TP0 to TP4)
5. Session Layer The connection between the computers connected in a network
is managed at this layer Establishment, management and termination between
the remote and local application takes place here Authentication and
authorization happen at this layer
6. Presentation Layer The data is converted into the syntax or semantics which
an application understands Before passing on the data any further, the data is
formatted at this stage Functions including compression, encryption,
compatible character code set, etc. are also done at this layer of the model
7. Application Layer The interaction with the user or the user application takes
place at this stage When identifying communication partners, the application
layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an
application with data to transmit

12. Explain in brief different layers of TCP/IP reference model.

 The TCP/IP Reference Model was developed to meet the needs of the
ARPANET, the precursor to the modern Internet.
 This model, named after its two primary protocols, TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol).
 One key design goal was to ensure network survivability even in the event
of hardware failures, allowing connections to persist as long as source and
destination machines were operational.
 The model had to accommodate diverse applications, ranging from file
transfers to real-time speech transmission, necessitating a flexible
architecture
 It consists of 4 layers

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 The Link Layer:
 The Link Layer is the lowest layer in the network model.
 It's responsible for managing communication between hosts and
transmission links.
 It plays a crucial role in packet-switching networks.
 It operates in a connectionless manner across different networks.
 This layer is essential for serial lines and classic Ethernet to work
effectively.
The Internet Layer:
 Its main role is to allow hosts to send packets across different networks to
reach their destination.
 The Internet Layer's concept is similar to sending international letters
through mail systems.
 It defines the IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol) to facilitate packet delivery.
 Routing and congestion management are significant challenges for the
Internet Layer, although IP is not highly effective at preventing congestion.
The Transport Layer:-
 The Transport Layer is the layer above the Internet Layer in the TCP/IP
model.
 Its main purpose is to enable communication between peer entities on
source and destination hosts.
 Two end-to-end transport protocols exist in this layer: TCP and UDP.

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  TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable, connection-oriented
protocol that ensures error-free delivery of a byte stream from one machine
to another.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an unreliable, connectionless protocol
used when applications don't require TCP's sequencing or flow control. It's
suitable for one-shot, client-server queries and applications prioritizing
prompt delivery over accuracy.
The Application Layer:-
 The topmost layer in the TCP/IP model houses higher-level protocols used
by applications.
 Applications in TCP/IP include their required session and presentation
functions.
 Some well-known examples include TELNET for virtual terminals, FTP
for file transfer, SMTP for electronic mail, DNS for host name mapping,
HTTP for fetching web pages, and RTP for real-time media delivery like
voice and video.

13. Differentiate OSI and TCP/IP reference model.

OSI TCP/IP
 OSI stands for open system  TCP/IP stands for transmission
inter connection. control protocol or internal
protocol.

 It is a structure model which  It is a communication protocol

with the functioning of a that is based on standard protocol
network. and allows the connection of hosts
over a network .

 OSI model has seven layers.  TCP/IP model has four layers
And has (inter) network, And has (inter) network,
transport, and application transport, and application layers,
layers, but the other layers are but the other layers are different.
different.

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  The TCP/IP model supports only
 The OSI model supports both one mode in the network layer
connectionless and connection- (connectionless) but both in the
oriented communication in the transport layer, giving the users a
network layer, but only choice.
connection-oriented
communication in the transport
layer, where it counts (because
the transport service is visible to
the users).
 It follows horizontal approach
 It follows vertical approach.
 It did not distinguish between
 Based on the three concepts: service, interface and protocol.
service, interface andprotocol.

 OSI Has separate session and  Combines the session and

presentation layer. presentation layer in the
application layer

 Protocol independent standard.  Protocol dependent standard.

 OSI is a implementation  TCP/IP is a Implementation of

Reference model. OSI model.

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