CHPC 204 Heat Transfer

INTRODUCTION

by
Dr Raj Kumar Arya
[PhD(IITB), M.Tech.(IITD), B.Tech.(HBTIK)]
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
Webpage: https://www.nitj.ac.in/index.php/nitj_cinfo/Faculty/180
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCbbCr7YE-vDAtpn3sivdsoQ/
www.drrajkumararya.com
[email protected]
Understanding Heat Transfer,
Conduction, Convection and
Radiation
Heat Transfer

• Heat always moves from a warmer place to a cooler place.

• Hot objects in a cooler room will cool to room temperature.
• Cold objects in a warmer room will heat up to room temperature.

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Heat Transfer Methods

•Heat transfers in three ways:

•Conduction
•Convection
•Radiation

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Conduction
When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat
travels to the other end.

As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these

vibrations make the adjacent particles vibrate, and so on
and so on, the vibrations are passed along the metal and
so is the heat. We call this? Conduction
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Metals are different

The outer e______

lectrons of metal atoms
drift, and are free to move.

When the metal is

heated, this ‘sea of
inetic
electrons’ gain k_____
energy and transfer it
throughout the metal.

Insulators, such as w___

ood and p____,
lastic do not
have this ‘sea of electrons’ which is why they
do not conduct heat as well as metals.

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Why does metal feel colder than wood, if they
are both at the same temperature?

Metal is a conductor, wood is an insulator. Metal

conducts the heat away from your hands. Wood
does not conduct the heat away from your hands as
well as the metal, so the wood feels warmer than
the metal.

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Convection
What happens to the particles in a liquid or a
gas when you heat them?

The particles spread out and

become less dense.

This effects fluid movement.

What is a fluid?
A liquid or gas.
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Fluid movement

Cooler, more d____,

ense fluids
sink through w_____,
armer less
dense fluids.

In effect, warmer liquids and

gases r___
ise up.

Cooler liquids and gases s___.

ink

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Water movement

Cools at the Convection

surface current

Cooler Hot water

water sinks rises

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Why is it windy at the seaside?

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Cold air sinks

Where is the Freezer

freezer compartment
compartment
put in a fridge?
It is warmer
at the
It is put at the bottom, so
top, because this warmer
cool air sinks, air rises and
so it cools the a convection
food on the current is
way down. set up.

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The third method of heat transfer

How does heat energy get

from the Sun to the Earth?
There are no particles
between the Sun and the
Earth so it CANNOT
travel by conduction or
by convection.

RADIATION
?

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Radiation

Radiation travels in straight lines

True/False
Radiation can travel through a vacuum
True/False
Radiation requires particles to travel
True/False
Radiation travels at the speed of light
True/False

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Emission experiment

Four containers were filled with warm water. Which

container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?

Dull metal Shiny black

Shiny metal Dull black

shiny metal container would be the warmest after ten

The __________
minutes because its shiny surface reflects heat radiation
_______ back
dull black container
into the container so less is lost. The ________
emitting heat
would be the coolest because it is the best at _______
radiation.
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Absorption experiment

Four containers were placed equidistant from a heater. Which

container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?

Dull metal Shiny black

Shiny metal Dull black

dull black container would be the warmest after ten

The __________
minutes because its surface absorbs heat radiation
_______ the best.
shiny metal container would be the coolest because it is
The _________
the poorest at __________
absorbing heat radiation.

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Convection questions

Why does hot air rise and cold air sink?

Cool air is more dense than warm air, so the
cool air ‘falls through’ the warm air.

Why are boilers placed beneath hot water

tanks in people’s homes?

Hot water rises.

So when the boiler heats the water, and the hot water
rises, the water tank is filled with hot water.

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Radiation questions

Why are houses painted white in hot countries?

White reflects heat radiation and keeps the house cooler.

Why are shiny foil blankets wrapped around marathon

runners at the end of a race?

The shiny metal reflects the heat radiation from the runner
back in, this stops the runner getting cold.

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1. Which of the following is not a
method of heat transfer?

A. Radiation
B. Insulation
C. Conduction
D. Convection

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2. In which of the following are
the particles closest together?

A. Solid
B. Liquid
C. Gas
D. Fluid

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3. How does heat energy reach
the Earth from the Sun?

A. Radiation
B. Conduction
C. Convection
D. Insulation

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4. Which is the best surface for
reflecting heat radiation?

A. Shiny white
B. Dull white
C. Shiny black
D. Dull black

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5. Which is the best surface for
absorbing heat radiation?

A. Shiny white
B. Dull white
C. Shiny black
D. Dull black

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 Thermodynamics vs Heat Transfer?
“Energy in transit due to temperature difference.”
Thermodynamics tells us:
• how much heat is transferred (δQ)
• how much work is done (δW)
• final state of the system

Heat transfer tells us:

• how (with what modes) δQ is transferred
• at what rate δQ is transferred
• temperature distribution inside the body

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 APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER

➢ Energy production and conversion

- steam power plant, solar energy conversion etc.
➢ Refrigeration and air-conditioning
➢ Domestic applications
- ovens, stoves, toaster
➢ Cooling of electronic equipment
➢ Manufacturing / materials processing
- welding, casting, soldering, laser machining
➢ Automobiles / aircraft design
➢ Nature (weather, climate etc.)

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ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer equipment such as
• heat exchangers,
• boilers,
• condensers,
• radiators,
• heaters,
• furnaces,
• refrigerators,
• and solar collectors are designed primarily on the basis of
heat transfer analysis.

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The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups:
(1) rating and (2) sizing problems.
The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing
system at a specified temperature difference.
The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.

An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing and taking
measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).

The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical
system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits of
experimental error. However, this approach is expensive, timeconsuming, and often
impractical.

The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage that it is
fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the
assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.

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HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
• thermal,
• mechanical,
• kinetic,
• potential,
• electrical,
• magnetic,
• chemical,
• nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of a
system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy
of a system.

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 • Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself.

What is thermal energy?

What is the difference between thermal energy and heat?

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Internal Energy and Enthalpy
• In the analysis of systems
that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u
and Pv.

• The combination is defined

as enthalpy (h = u + Pv).

• The term Pv represents the

flow energy of the fluid (also
called the flow work).

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Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

• Specific heat: The energy required to raise the

temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree.
• Two kinds of specific heats:
• specific heat at constant volume cv
• specific heat at constant pressure cp
• The specific heats of a substance, in general,
depend on two independent properties such
as temperature and pressure.
• At low pressures all real gases approach ideal
gas behavior, and therefore their specific
heats depend on temperature only.

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• Incompressible substance: A substance
whose specific volume (or density) does
not change with temperature or pressure.
• The constant-volume and constant-
pressure specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature only.

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Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a
given mass by two mechanisms: when is constant:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per
unit area normal to the direction of heat
transfer.
Power:
work done per
unit time.

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle) states
that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.
The net change (increase
or decrease) in the total
energy of the system
during a process is equal
to the difference between
the total energy entering
and the total energy
leaving the system during
that process.

The energy balance for

any system undergoing
any process in the rate
form
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 In heat transfer problems it is
convenient to write a heat balance
and to treat the conversion of
nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and
electrical energies into thermal
energy as heat generation.

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Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems encountered
in practice consists of the internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary systems
since they don’t involve any changes in their
velocity or elevation during a process.

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Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
A large number of engineering devices such as
water heaters and car radiators involve mass flow
in and out of a system, and are modeled as control
volumes.
Most control volumes are analyzed under steady
operating conditions.
The term steady means no change with time at a
specified location.
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section of a flow device per unit
time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing
through a pipe or duct per unit time.

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Surface Energy Balance
A surface contains no volume or mass, and
thus no energy. Therefore, a surface can be
viewed as a fictitious system whose energy
content remains constant during a process.

This relation is valid for both steady and

transient conditions, and the surface
energy balance does not involve heat
generation since a surface does not have a
volume.

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HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
• A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer
as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers is the heat transfer.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when
the two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
• conduction
• convection
• radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference.

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 HEAT TRANSFER MODES
Conduction
- needs matter
- molecular phenomenon (diffusion process)
- without bulk motion of matter

Convection
- heat carried away by bulk motion of fluid
- needs fluid matter

Radiation
- does not needs matter
- transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves

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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across
the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely Heat conduction
proportional to the thickness of the layer. through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.

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When x → 0 Fourier’s law of
heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with increasing
x. The negative sign in the equation ensures that heat
transfer in the positive x direction is a positive
quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the
The rate of heat conduction
direction of heat
through a solid is directly
transfer.
proportional to its thermal
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conductivity. 42
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 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat

transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to
conduct heat.
A high value for thermal conductivity
indicates that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value indicates that the
material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.

A simple experimental setup

to determine the thermal
conductivity of a material.

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 The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.

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 The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the
highest thermal conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different
phases of a substance.
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 The variation of the
thermal conductivity of
various solids, liquids, and
gases with temperature.

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Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
 cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
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CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air
the adjacent fluid is by pure
by convection.
conduction.

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Forced convection: If
the fluid is forced to flow
over the surface by
external means such as
a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
differences due to the The cooling of a boiled egg by
variation of temperature forced and natural convection.
in the fluid.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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 Newton’s law of cooling

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter
whose value depends on all
the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
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RADIATION
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is
the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon
for solids.
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 Stefan–Boltzmann law
 = 5.670  10−8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from
a surface at a specified temperature.
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Absorptivity  : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity .
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Net radiation heat transfer: When a surface is completely enclosed by a
The difference between the much larger (or black) surface at temperature
rates of radiation emitted by the Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that
surface and the radiation does not intervene with radiation, the net rate
absorbed. of radiation heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by
The determination of the net
rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to
each other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but
negligible relative to Radiation heat transfer between a
forced convection.
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57 it.
 When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids,
but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by
radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by
convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a
fluid is either by conduction or convection, depending
on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Although there are three mechanisms of
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation. heat transfer, a medium may involve
Most gases between two solid surfaces only two of them simultaneously.
do not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation.
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PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

• Step 1: Problem Statement

• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

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Engineering Software Packages
Thinking that a person who can use the
engineering software packages without
proper training on fundamentals can
practice engineering is like thinking that a
person who can use a wrench can work as
a car mechanic.

EES (Engineering Equation Solver)

(Pronounced as ease): EES is a program that
solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically.
It has a large library of built-in thermodynamic
property functions as well as mathematical
functions. Unlike some software packages,
EES does not solve engineering problems; it
only solves the equations supplied by the
user.
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A Remark on Significant Digits
In engineering calculations, the
information given is not known to
more than a certain number of
significant digits, usually three
digits.
Consequently, the results
obtained cannot possibly be
accurate to more significant
digits.
Reporting results in more
significant digits implies greater
accuracy than exists, and it A result with more significant
should be avoided. digits than that of given data
falsely implies more accuracy.

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 Summary
• Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Application areas of heat transfer
• Historical background
• Engineering Heat Transfer
• Modeling in engineering
• Heat and Other Forms of Energy
• Specific heats of gases, liquids, and solids
• Energy transfer
• The First Law of Thermodynamics
• Energy balance for closed systems (Fixed Mass)
• Energy balance for steady-flow systems
• Surface energy balance

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 • Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Conduction
• Fourier’s law of heat conduction
• Thermal Conductivity
• Thermal Diffusivity
• Convection
• Newton’s law of cooling
• Radiation
• Stefan–Boltzmann law
• Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Problem Solving Technique
• Engineering software packages
• Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
• A remark on significant digits

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