CHPC 204 Heat Transfer

Convection

by

Dr Raj Kumar Arya

[PhD(IITB), M.Tech.(IITD), B.Tech.(HBTIK)]
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar

Webpage: https://www.nitj.ac.in/index.php/nitj_cinfo/Faculty/180
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCbbCr7YE-vDAtpn3sivdsoQ/

[email protected]

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CONVECTION

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Convection heat transfer strongly depends on
The fluid properties
 Dynamic viscosity µ
 Thermal conductivity k,
 Density ρ,
 Specific heat Cp,
 Fluid velocity v .
 Flow geometry
 Roughness of the solid surface,
 Type of fluid flow (such as being streamlined or turbulent)

Thus, we expect the convection heat transfer relations to be

rather complex because of the dependence of convection on
so many variables.

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Newton’s law of cooling

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A fluid and a solid surface will have the same temperature at
the point of contact. This is known as no-temperature-jump
condition

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An implication of the no-slip and the no-temperature jump
conditions is that heat transfer from the solid surface to the
fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction, since
the fluid layer is motionless, and can be expressed as

convection heat transfer from a solid surface to a fluid is

merely the conduction heat transfer from the solid surface to
the fluid layer adjacent to the surface. Therefore, we can
equate Eqs. for the heat flux to obtain

6
Nusselt Number (Dimensionless convection heat
transfer coefficient)
The dimensionless heat transfer coefficient, Nu is defined
as

Heat transfer through the fluid layer will be by

convection when the fluid involves some motion and by
conduction when the fluid layer is motionless. Heat flux
(the rate of heat transfer per unit time per unit surface
area) in either case will be

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The development of the Momentum boundary layer for flow over a flat plate, and the
different flow regimes.

The transition from laminar to

turbulent flow occurs when

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The region of the flow above the plate bounded by δ, velocity
boundary layer or momentum boundary layer.

The boundary layer thickness, δ , is typically defined as the

distance y from the surface at which u = 0.99u∞.

The hypothetical line of u =0.99u∞ divides the flow over a

plate into two regions:
1. The boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects
and the velocity changes are significant, and
2. The inviscid flow region, in which the frictional effects
are negligible and the velocity remains essentially
constant.

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Thermal boundary layer
The flow region over the surface in which the temperature
variation in the direction normal to the surface is significant is
known as thermal boundary layer. The thickness of the
thermal boundary layer δt at
any location along the surface is defined as the distance from
the surface at
T -Ts = 0.99(T∞- Ts)

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 Prandtl Number
The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary
layers is best described by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl
number, defined as

The Prandtl numbers of fluids

range from less than 0.01 for
liquid metals to more than
100,000 for heavy oils

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Assumptions:
 Steady
 Two-dimensional,
 Newtonian fluid with constant properties (density,
viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.).

Considering the parallel flow of a fluid over a surface. The

flow direction along the surface to be x and the direction
normal to the surface to be y, and we choose a differential
volume element of length dx, height dy, and unit depth in the
z-direction (normal to the paper) for analysis. The fluid flows
over the surface with a uniform free-stream velocity u∞, but
the velocity within boundary layer is two-dimensional: the x-
component of the velocity is u, and the y-component is v. Note
that u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y) in steady two-dimensional flow.

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Next we apply three fundamental laws to this fluid element:
 Conservation of mass,
 conservation of momentum, and
 conservation of energy

to obtain
 The continuity,
 Momentum and
 Energy equations for laminar flow in boundary layers.

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Conservation of Mass Equation

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Repeating this for the y direction and substituting the results
into mass balance Eq.

This is the continuity equation, or mass balance for steady 2-dimensional

flow of a fluid with constant density
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Conservation of Momentum Equations

…………….(1)

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 Neglecting Fbody, x

Substituting above terms in Eq. (1) and divided by

Hence,

This is the relation for the conservation of momentum in the x-direction,

and is known as the x-momentum equation

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 Conservation of Energy Equation
During a steady-flow process,
• The total energy content of a control volume remains constant
• Energy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass only,
• The energy balance for a steady-flow control volume can be written
explicitly as

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The total energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass is

estream = h+ ke + pe
where h is the enthalpy (which is the sum of internal energy and flow
energy), pe =gz is the potential energy, and ke = (u2 + v2)/2 is the
kinetic energy of the fluid per unit mass.
The kinetic and potential energies are usually very small relative to
enthalpy, and therefore it is common practice to neglect them.

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Energy is a scalar quantity,
and thus energy
interactions in all
directions can be
combined in one equation.
Noting that mass flow rate
of the fluid entering the
control volume from the
left is ρu(dy×1), the rate of
energy transfer to the
control volume by mass in
the x-direction is,

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Repeating this for the y-direction and adding the results, the net rate of
energy transfer to the control volume by mass is determined to be

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Repeating this for the y-direction and adding the results, the net rate of
energy
transfer to the control volume by heat conduction becomes

the net energy convected by the fluid out of the control

volume is equal to the net energy transferred into the control
volume by heat conduction.

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Example

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SOLUTION
Parallel flow of oil between two plates is considered. The velocity and
temperature distributions, the maximum temperature, and the total heat
transfer rate are to be determined.

Assumptions
Steady operating conditions exist.
Oil is an incompressible substance with constant properties.
Body forces such as gravity are negligible.
The plates are large so that there is no variation in the z direction.

Properties
The properties of oil at 20°C are

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Analysis
(a) We take the x-axis to be the flow direction, and y to be the normal
direction. This is parallel flow between two plates, and thus v =0.
Then the continuity equation reduces to

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Natural Convection
 Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the physical mechanism of natural convection,
• Derive the governing equations of natural convection, and obtain the
dimensionless Grashof number by nondimensionalizing them,
• Evaluate the Nusselt number for natural convection associated with
vertical, horizontal, and inclined plates as well as cylinders and
spheres,
• Examine natural convection from finned surfaces, and determine the
optimum fin spacing,
• Analyze natural convection inside enclosures such as double-pane
windows, and
• Consider combined natural and forced convection, and assess the
relative importance of each mode.
• Buoyancy forces are responsible for the fluid motion
in natural convection.
• Viscous forces appose the fluid motion.
• Buoyancy forces are expressed in terms of fluid
temperature differences through the volume
expansion coefficient
1  V  1   
      1 K  (9-3)
V  T  P   T  P

Viscous Buoyancy
Force Force
 volume expansion coefficient 
• The volume expansion coefficient can be
expressed approximately by replacing
differential quantities by differences as

1  1   
    at constant P  (9-4)
 T  T  T
or
     T  T   at constant P  (9-5)

• For ideal gas

1
ideal gas  1/K  (9-6)
T
 Equation of Motion and the Grashof
Number
• Consider a vertical hot flat plate g
immersed in a quiescent fluid body.
• Assumptions:
– steady,
– laminar,
– two-dimensional,
– Newtonian fluid, and
– constant properties, except the density
difference -∞ (Boussinesq
approximation).
• Consider a differential volume element.
• Newton’s second law of motion
 m  ax  Fx (9-7)
g
 m    dx  dy 1
• The acceleration in the x-direction is
obtained by taking the total
differential of u(x, y)
du u dx u dy
ax   
dt x dt y dt

u u
ax u v
x y
(9-8)
• The net surface force acting in the x-direction
Net viscous force Net pressure force
Gravitational force
    P 
Fx   dy   dx 1   dx   dy 1   g  dx  dy 1
 y   x 
  2u P 
  2    g   dx  dy 1 (9-9)
 y x 

• Substituting Eqs. 9–8 and 9–9 into Eq. 9–7 and

dividing by ·dx·dy·1 gives the conservation of
momentum in the x-direction
 u u   2u P
 u  v    2   g (9-10)
 x y  y x
• The x-momentum equation in the quiescent fluid
outside the boundary layer (setting u=0)
P
   g (9-11)
x
• Noting that
– v<<u in the boundary layer and thus ∂v/ ∂x≈ ∂v/∂y ≈0, and
– there are no body forces (including gravity) in the y-
direction,
the force balance in the y-direction is
P P P
0     g
y x x
Substituting into Eq. 9–10
 u u   2u
  u  v    2       g (9-12)
 x y  y
• Substituting Eq. 9-5 it into Eq. 9-12 and dividing both
sides by  gives
u u  2u
u v   2  g  T  T  (9-13)
x y y
• The momentum equation involves the temperature,
and thus the momentum and energy equations must
be solved simultaneously.
• The set of three partial differential equations (the
continuity, momentum, and the energy equations)
that govern natural convection flow over vertical
isothermal plates can be reduced to a set of two
ordinary nonlinear differential equations by the
introduction of a similarity variable.
 The Grashof Number
• The governing equations of natural convection
and the boundary conditions can be
nondimensionalized
x y u v T  T
x 
*
;y 
*
;u  ;v  ;T 
* * *

Lc Lc V V Ts  T
• Substituting into the momentum equation
and simplifying give
* u
*
v * u
*


g   T  T  L3
 T *
1  u (9-14)
2 *

 2 
s c
u
x *
y *
  2
 Re L Re L y
*2

GrL
• The dimensionless parameter in the brackets represents
the natural convection effects, and is called the Grashof
number GrL
g  Ts  T  L3c
GrL  (9-15)
 2
Viscous
force
Buoyancy force
GrL=
Viscous force

• The flow regime in natural convection is Buoyancy

force
governed by the Grashof number
GrL>109 flow is turbulent
 Natural Convection over Surfaces
• Natural convection heat transfer on a surface depends
on
– geometry,
– orientation,
– variation of temperature on the surface, and
– thermophysical properties of the fluid.
• The simple empirical correlations for the average
Nusselt number in natural convection are of the form
hLc
Nu   C   GrL  Pr   C  RaLn (9-16)
n

k
• Where RaL is the Rayleigh number
g  Ts  T  L3c
RaL  GrL  Pr  Pr (9-17)
2

• The values of the constants C and n depend on the
geometry of the surface and the flow regime (which
depend on the Rayleigh number).
• All fluid properties are to be evaluated at the film
temperature Tf=(Ts+T∞).
• The Nusselt number relations for the constant
surface temperature and constant surface heat flux
cases are nearly identical.
• The relations for uniform heat flux is valid when the
plate midpoint temperature TL/2 is used for Ts in the
evaluation of the film temperature.
• Thus for uniform heat flux:
hL qs L
Nu  
k  
k TL 2  T
(9-27)
Empirical correlations for Nuavg
 Natural Convection from Finned Surfaces

• Natural convection flow through a channel formed

by two parallel plates is commonly encountered in
practice.
• Long Surface
– fully developed channel flow.
• Short surface or large spacing
– natural convection from two
independent plates in a quiescent
medium.
• The recommended relation for the average Nusselt
number for vertical isothermal parallel plates is
0.5
hS  576 2.873 
Nu     (9-31)
k   Ras S L   Ras S L  
2 0.5
 
• Closely packed fins
– greater surface area
– smaller heat transfer coefficient.
• Widely spaced fins
– higher heat transfer coefficient
– smaller surface area.
• Optimum fin spacing for a vertical heat sink
0.25
S L
3
L
Sopt  2.714    2.714 0.25 (9-32)
 Ras  RaL
 Natural Convection Inside Enclosures
• In a vertical enclosure, the fluid adjacent to the
hotter surface rises and the fluid adjacent to the
cooler one falls, setting off a rotationary
motion within the enclosure that enhances
heat transfer through the enclosure.
• Heat transfer through a horizontal enclosure
– hotter plate is at the top ─ no convection
currents (Nu=1).
– hotter plate is at the bottom
• Ra<1708 no convection currents (Nu=1).
• 3x105>Ra>1708 Bénard Cells.
• Ra>3x105 turbulent flow.
Nusselt Number Correlations for Enclosures

• Simple power-law type relations in the form of

Nu  C  RaLn
where C and n are constants, are sufficiently
accurate, but they are usually applicable to a narrow
range of Prandtl and Rayleigh numbers and aspect
ratios.
• Numerous correlations are widely available for
– horizontal rectangular enclosures,
– inclined rectangular enclosures,
– vertical rectangular enclosures,
– concentric cylinders,
– concentric spheres.
 Combined Natural and Forced Convection
• Heat transfer coefficients in forced convection are
typically much higher than in natural convection.
• The error involved in ignoring natural convection may be
considerable at low velocities.
• Nusselt Number:
– Forced convection (flat plate, laminar flow):
Nuforced convection  Re 12

– Natural convection (vertical plate, laminar flow):

Nunatural convection  Gr 14

• Therefore, the parameter Gr/Re2 represents the

importance of natural convection relative to forced
convection.
• Gr/Re2<0.1
– natural convection is negligible.
• Gr/Re2>10
– forced convection is negligible.
• 0.1<Gr/Re2<10
hot isothermal vertical plate
– forced and natural convection are not negligible.
• Natural convection may help or hurt forced convection
heat transfer
depending on the
relative directions
of buoyancy-induced
and the forced
convection motions.
Nusselt Number for Combined Natural and
Forced Convection
• A review of experimental data suggests a
Nusselt number correlation of the form

 
1n
Nucombined  Nu n
forced  Nu n
natural
(9-66)

• Nuforced and Nunatural are determined from the

correlations for pure forced and pure natural
convection, respectively.
SOLUTIONS OF CONVECTION EQUATIONS FOR FLAT PLATE

Consider laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate, as shown in Fig.

The x-coordinate is measured along the plate surface from the
leading edge of the plate in the direction of the flow, and y is
measured from the surface in the normal direction. The fluid
approaches the plate in the x-direction with a uniform upstream
velocity, which is equivalent to the free stream velocity u∞. When
viscous dissipation is negligible, the continuity, momentum, and
energy equations reduce for steady, incompressible, laminar flow
of a fluid with constant properties over a flat plate to

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54
with the boundary conditions

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Knowing the velocity profile, we are now ready to solve the energy
equation for temperature distribution for the case of constant wall
temperature Ts . First we introduce the dimensionless parameters
as

substitution into the above equations

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with the non dimensional boundary conditions as

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The average friction coefficient and Nusselt number are expressed
in functional form as

59
ANALOGIES BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND HEAT
TRANSFER

It is very desirable to have a relation between Cf and Nu so that we

can calculate one when the other is available. Such relations are
developed on the basis of the similarity between momentum and
heat transfers in boundary layers, and are known as Reynolds
analogy and Chilton–Colburn analogy.

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Reynolds analogy:

Stanton number:

Modified Reynolds analogy or Chilton–Colburn analogy

Here jH is called the Colburn j-factor

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Average Coefficient of friction for
Laminar Flow
1 1 0.664 1 1
L L   1
C f , average  C f ( x) dx  1
 0.664
L
Re 2  xU   2
 
  
1
L  1
2
1 1 1 1 x
L 1 
 0.664 1
 0.664
L 1
 xU  
 2  U    1
 2 0

    2
     
1
1 1 1 1.328
 1.328 1
L 2
 1.328 1
 1
L
 U  2  LU    2  Re 
2

   
     

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 Average Nusselt Number for
Laminar Flow
1 1
1 1 k
  0.332  Re   Pr 
2 3
h average  h( x) dx  dx
L L x
1 1
1
2 2  1

 U  x   U  
1 1 2
1 k 1 x
  Pr   x 0.332    dx  0.332 L  Pr  k    
3 3

1
L  1
2
1 1
2 2
 U    
 L U  
1 1 1
1 1
 0.664  Pr  k    L   0.664  Pr  k 
3 2 3


L      L   
1 1
k
 Re   Pr 
2 3
 0.664
L
1 1
h average L
 0.664  Re   Pr 
2 3
Nu 
k

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Average Coefficient of friction for Turbulent Flow
1 1 0.0592 1 1
L L   1
C f , average  C f ( x) dx  1
 0.0592
L
Re 5  xU   5
 
  
1
L  1
5
1 1 1 1 x
L 1 
 0.0592 1
 0.0592
L 1
 xU  
 5  U    1
 5 0

    5
     
1
1 1  1 1 0.074
 0.074 1
L5
 0.074 1
 1
L
 U    LU     Re 
5
2 5
   
     

65
 Average Nusselt Number for
1
Turbulent
1 k
Flow 1

 h( x ) dx  0.0296  Re   Pr 
Lx
3
h average 
0.8
dx
L
0.8 0.8
0.811
 U x  
 U  
1 1
1 k 1 x
 Pr   x 0.0296    dx  0.0296 L  Pr  k    
3 3
 0.811
L
0.8 0.8

 U   0.8  
 L U  
1 1
1 1
 0.037  Pr  k    L   0.037  Pr  k 
3 3


L    L   
1
k
 Re   Pr 
0.8 3
 0.037
L
1 4 1
h average L
 0.037  Re   Pr   0.037  Re   Pr 
0.8 3 5 3
Nu 
k

66
Average Nusselt Number for Mixed
Boundary Layer Common
Approach
1  xc L

h average ,mixed    h( x ), La min ar dx   h( x ), Turbulent dx 
L  0 xc


 1

4 4
 3
1

Nu mixed  0.664 R e, xc   0.037 R e, L  0.037 R e, xc

2 5 5

  Pr
  
when R e, xc  5 105
  3
4 1
h average L
Nu mixed    0.037 R e, L  871 Pr
5

k  
Laminar boundary layer transitions into turbulent boundary
layer at critical Re , Re x,c

67
When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux instead of
uniform temperature, the local Nusselt number is given by

68
Example:
Engine oil at 60°C flows over the upper surface of a 5-m-long flat
plate whose temperature is 20°C with a velocity of 2 m/s.
Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per
unit width of the entire plate.

69
70
71
72
EXAMPLE :
The local atmospheric pressure in Denver, Colorado (elevation
1610 m), is 83.4 kPa. Air at this pressure and 20°C flows with a
velocity of 8 m/s over a 1.5 m 6 m flat plate whose temperature is
140°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer from the plate if the air
flows parallel to the (a) 6-m-long side and (b) the 1.5-m side.

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75
76
 Internal forced convection
MEAN VELOCITY AND MEAN TEMPERATURE

In external flow, the free-stream velocity served as a convenient reference

velocity for use in the evaluation of the Reynolds number and the friction
coefficient. In internal flow, there is no free stream and thus we need an
alternative.

The fluid velocity in a tube changes from zero at the surface because of
the no-slip condition, to a maximum at the tube center. Therefore, it is
convenient to work with an average or mean velocity m, which remains
constant for incompressible flow when the cross sectional area of the
tube is constant.

77
the conservation of mass principle

78
Similarly, conservation of energy principle

79
80
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow In Tubes

where m is the mean fluid velocity, D is

the diameter of the tube.
For flow through noncircular tubes, the
Reynolds number as well as the Nusselt
number and the friction factor are based
on the hydraulic diameter Dh defined as

81
The fluid in the tube is being cooled

82
83
84
85
Entry Lengths

86
The variation of local Nusselt number along a tube in turbulent flow for
both uniform surface temperature and uniform surface heat flux is given
in Figure for the range of Reynolds numbers encountered in heat transfer
equipment. We make these important observations from this figure:

 The Nusselt numbers and thus the convection heat transfer coefficients
are much higher in the entrance region.

 The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a distance of less than

10 diameters, and thus the flow can be assumed to be fully developed
for x >10D.

 The Nusselt numbers for the uniform surface temperature and uniform
surface heat flux conditions are identical in the fully developed regions,
and nearly identical in the entrance regions.

Therefore, Nusselt number is insensitive to the type of thermal boundary

condition, and the turbulent flow correlations can be used for either type
of boundary condition.
87
88
NATURAL CONVECTION

89
In a gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes upward a light
fluid placed in a heavier fluid. The upward force exerted by a fluid on a
body completely or partially immersed in it is called the buoyancy force.
The magnitude of the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body

90
Archimedes’ principle

91
In heat transfer studies, the primary variable is temperature,
and it is desirable to express the net buoyancy force in terms
of temperature differences.

But this requires expressing the density difference in terms

of a temperature difference.

The property that provides that information is the volume

expansion coefficient , β.

92
93
Equation of motion

94
95
96
Substituting Eqs. and dividing by ρ.dx.dy.1 gives the
conservation of momentum in the x-direction as

97
98
99
Substituting it into the last equation and dividing both sides by
ρ gives the desired form of the x-momentum equation,

This is the equation that governs the fluid motion in the

boundary layer due to the effect of buoyancy. Note that the
momentum equation involves the temperature, and thus the
momentum and energy equations must be solved
simultaneously.
100
The Grashof Number

101
102
 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐺𝑟 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

 The transition to turbulent flow occurs in the range 108 < GrL < 109 for
natural convection from vertical flat plates.

 At higher Grashof numbers, the boundary layer is turbulent; at lower

Grashof numbers, the boundary layer is laminar.

 The product of the Grashof number and the Prandtl number gives
the Rayleigh number, a dimensionless number that characterizes
convection problems in heat transfer.

103
The energy equation in non-dimensional form

𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝒖 +𝒗 +𝐰 = 𝟐
+ 𝟐+ 𝟐
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝑹𝒂𝑳 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

104
Combined natural & forced convection

105
106
In case of mixed convection problems, Richardson number
represents the importance of natural convection relative to
the forced convection. The Richardson number in this context is
defined as

107
Example
The vertical 0.8-m-high, 2-m-wide
double-pane window shown in
Fig. consists of two sheets of
glass separated by a 2-cm air gap
at atmospheric pressure. If the
glass surface temperatures across
the air gap are measured to be
12°C and 2°C, determine the rate
of heat transfer through the
window.

108
109
110
111
Forced Convection in
Tubes
 Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile, and
average temperature from a knowledge of temperature profile in
internal flow,
• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in internal flow,
such as the entry and the fully developed flow regions, and calculate
hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths,
• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under
constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux
conditions, and work with the logarithmic mean temperature
difference,
• Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure drop,
friction factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed laminar flow,
and
• Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully developed
turbulent flow using empirical relations, and calculate the pressure
drop and heat transfer rate.
 Introduction
• Pipe ─ circular cross section.
• Duct ─ noncircular cross section.
• Tubes ─ small-diameter pipes.
• The fluid velocity changes from zero at the surface
(no-slip) to a maximum at the pipe center.
• It is convenient to work with an
average velocity, which remains
constant in incompressible flow
when the cross-sectional area
is constant.
 Average Velocity
• The value of the average velocity is determined from
the conservation of mass principle
m  Vavg AC   u  r  dAC
Ac
(8-1)

• For incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R

 u  r  dA
C

R
 u  r  2 rdr 2
R
Vavg    2  u  r  rdr
Ac 0
 AC  R 2 R 0
(8-2)
 Average Temperature
• It is convenient to define the value of the
mean temperature Tm from the conservation of
energy principle.
• The energy transported by the fluid through a
cross section in actual flow must be equal to
the energy that would be transported through
the same cross section if the fluid were at a
constant temperature Tm
E fluid  mc pTm   c pT  r   m    c T  r  u  r VdA
p c
(8-3)
m Ac
• For incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R

 c pT  r   m  c T  r  u  r  2 rdr
p

Tm  
m Ac

mc p Vavg  R 2  c p (8-4)
R
2
2     
 T r u r rdr
Vavg R 0
• The mean temperature Tm of a fluid changes during
heating or cooling.

Idealized Actual
Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
• For flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number is
defined as
Vavg D Vavg D
Re   (8-5)
 
• For flow through noncircular tubes D is replaced by
the hydraulic diameter Dh.
4 Ac
Dh  (8-6)
P
• laminar flow: Re<2300
• fully turbulent: Re>10,000.
 The Entrance Region
• Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform
velocity.
• Because of the no-slip condition a velocity gradient
develops along the pipe.
• The flow in a pipe is divided into two regions:
– the boundary layer region, and
– the and the irrotational (core) flow region.
• The thickness of this
boundary layer Irrotational Boundary
layer
flow
increases in the flow
direction until it
reaches the pipe
center.
• Hydrodynamic entrance region ─ the region from the
pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer
merges at the centerline.
• Hydrodynamically fully developed region ─ the
region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged.
• The velocity profile in the fully developed region is
– parabolic in laminar flow, and
– somewhat flatter or fuller in turbulent flow.
 Thermal Entrance Region
• Consider a fluid at a uniform temperature entering a circular
tube whose surface is maintained at a different temperature.
• Thermal boundary layer along the tube is developing.
• The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow
direction until the boundary layer reaches the tube center.
• Thermal entrance region.
• Thermally fully developed region ─ the region beyond the
thermal entrance region in which the dimensionless
temperature profile
expressed as
(Ts-T)/(Ts-Tm)
remains unchanged.
– Hydrodynamically fully developed:
u  r , x 
 0  u  u r  (8-7)
x
– Thermally fully developed:

  Ts  x   T  r , x  
 0
x  Ts  x   Tm  x  
(8-8)

  Ts  T    T r  r  R
    f  x  (8-9)
r  Ts  Tm  r  R Ts  Tm
• Surface heat flux can be expressed as
T k  T r  r  R
qs  hx Ts  Tm   k  hx  (8-10)
r r=R Ts  Tm
• For thermally fully developed region From (Eq. (8-9))

 T r  r  R
 f  x
Ts  Tm

hx  f  x  Fully developed flow

hx  constant Fully developed flow

 The Heat Transfer coefficient and Friction
factor

Developing Fully
region developed
region
 Entry Lengths
Laminar flow
– Hydrodynamic
Lh ,laminar  0.05 Re D (8-11)
– Thermal
Lt ,laminar  0.05 Re Pr D  Pr Lh ,laminar (8-12)

Turbulent flow
– Hydrodynamic
Lh ,turbulent  1.359 D  Re1 4 (8-13)

– Thermal (approximate)
Lh ,turbulent  Lt ,turbulent  10 D (8-14)
 Turbulent flow Nusselt Number
• The Nusselt numbers are much
higher in the entrance region.
• The Nusselt number reaches
a constant value at a distance
of less than 10 diameters.
• The Nusselt numbers for the
uniform surface temperature and uniform surface heat
flux conditions are identical in the fully developed
regions, and nearly identical in the entrance regions.
 Nusselt number is insensitive to the type of
thermal boundary condition.
 General Thermal Analysis
• In the absence of any work interactions, the conservation
of energy equation for the steady flow of a fluid in a tube

Q  mc p Te  Ti  (W) (8-15)

• The thermal conditions at the surface can usually be

approximated as:
– constant surface temperature, or
– constant surface heat flux.
• The mean fluid temperature Tm must
change during heating or cooling.

• Either Ts= constant or qs = constant at the surface of a

tube, but not both.
 Constant Surface Heat Flux
• In the case of constant heat flux, the rate of heat transfer
can also be expressed as
Q  qs As  mc p Te  Ti  (W) (8-17)
• Then the mean fluid temperature at the tube exit becomes
qs As
Te  Ti  (8-18)
mc p
• The surface temperature in the case of constant surface
heat flux can be determined from
qs
qs  h Ts  Tm   Ts  Tm  (8-19)
h
• In the fully developed region, the
surface temperature Ts will also
increase linearly in the flow direction
• Applying the steady-flow energy
balance to a tube slice of thickness
dx, the slope of the mean fluid
temperature Tm can be determined
dTm qs p
mc p dTm  qs  pdx     constant (8-20)
dx mc p
• Noting that both the heat flux and h
(for fully developed flow) are
constants dTm dTs
 (8-21)
dx dx
• In the fully developed region (Ts-Tm=constant)
  Ts  T  1  Ts T  T dTs
 0    0 
x  Ts  Tm  Ts  Tm  x x  x dx
(8-22)

• Combining Eqs. 8–20, 8–21, and 8–22 gives

T dTs dTm qs p
    constant (8-23)
x dx dx mc p
• For a circular tube
T dTs dTm 2qs
    constant (8-24)
x dx dx Vavg c p R
 Constant Surface Temperature
• The energy balance on a differential control volume

 Q  mc p dTm  h Ts  Tm  dAs (8-27)

• Since the mean temperature of the fluid Tm increases in

the flow direction the heat flux decays with x.
• The surface temperature is constant (dTm=-d(Ts-Tm)) and
dAs=pdx, therefore,

d Ts  Tm  hp
 dx (8-28)
Ts  Tm mc p
• Integrating Eq. 6-28 from x=0 (tube inlet
where Tm=Ti) to x=L (tube exit where Tm=Te)
gives
Ts  Te hAs
ln  (8-29)
Ts  Ti mc p
• Taking the exponential of both sides and
solving for Te
Te  Ts  Ts  Ti  exp   hpL mc p  (8-30)
• or
Tm  x   Ts  Ts  Ti  exp  hpx mc p 
• The temperature difference between the fluid and the
surface decays exponentially in the flow direction, and the
rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the exponent
hAs mc p
• This dimensionless parameter is
called the number of transfer
units (NTU).
– Large NTU value – increasing tube
length marginally increases heat
transfer rate.
– Small NTU value – heat transfer increases
significantly with increasing tube length.
• Solving Eq. 8–29 for mcp gives
hAs
mc p  (8-31)
ln Ts  Te  Ts  Ti  

• Substituting this into Eq. 8–15 Q  mc p Te  Ti 

Q  mc p  hAs Tln (8-32)

where
Ti  Te Te  Ti
Tln   (8-33)
ln Ts  Te  Ts  Ti  ln  Te Ti 
Tln is the logarithmic mean temperature
difference.
 Laminar Flow in Tubes
Assumptions:
• steady laminar flow, • The velocity profile u(r)
• incompressible fluid, remains unchanged in
• constant properties, the flow direction.
• fully developed region, • no motion in the radial
and direction.
• straight circular tube. • no acceleration.
• Consider a ring-shaped
differential volume element.
• A force balance on the volume
element in the flow direction
gives

 2 rdrP  x   2 rdrP  xdx

  2 rdr r   2 rdr r  dr  0
(8-34)

• Dividing by 2drdx and rearranging

Px  dx  Px  r r  dr   r r (8-35)
r  0
dx dr
• Taking the limit as dr, dx → 0 gives
dP d  r 
r  0 (8-36)
dx dr
• Substituting =(du/dr) gives
 d  du  dP
r  
(8-37)
r dr  dr  dx
• Rearranging and integrating it twice to give
1  dP 
u r      C1 ln r  C2
(8-38)
4  dx 
• Boundary Conditions:
– symmetry about the centerline ∂u/∂r=0 at r=0,
– no-slip condition u=0 at r=R.
• Eq. 6-38 with the boundary conditions
R 2  dP   r2 
u r       1   (8-39)
4  dx   R 2 
• Substituting Eq. 8–39 into Eq. 8–2, and performing the
integration gives the average velocity
2
R
2 R  dP 
R 2
 r 
2
Vavg  2  u  r  rdr   2    1  2  rdr
R 0 R 0 4  dx   R 
R 2  dP  (8-40)
  
8  dx 
• Combining the last two equations, the velocity profile is
rewritten as
 r2 
u  r   2Vavg 1  2  ; umax  2Vavg (8-41)
 R 
 Pressure Drop
• One implication from Eq. 8-37 is that the
pressure drop gradient (dP/dx) must be constant
(the left side is a function only of r, and the right
side is a function only of x).
• Integrating from x=x1 where the pressure is P1 to
x=x1=L where the pressure is P2 gives
dP P2  P1
 (8-43)
dx L
• Substituting Eq. 8–43 into the Vavg expression in
Eq. 8–40 8 LV 32  LV
P  P1  P2  
avg avg
2 2 (8-44)
R D
• A pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an
irreversible pressure loss.
• It is convenient to express the pressure loss for all
types of fully developed internal flows in terms of
the dynamic pressure and the friction factor
dynamic pressure
friction factor
L Vavg
2
(8-45)
PL  f  
D 2
• Setting Eqs. 8–44 and 8–45 equal to each other and
solving for f gives

64 64
– Circular tube, laminar: f  
 DVavg Re (8-46)
 Temperature Profile and the Nusselt
Number
• Energy is transferred by mass in the
x-direction, and by conduction in the
r-direction.
• The steady flow energy balance for a
cylindrical shell element can be
expressed as mc pTx  mc pTx  dx  Qr  Qr  dr  0 (8-49)
• Substituting
m   uAc   u  2 rdr 
and dividing by 2rdrdx gives, after rearranging
Tx  dx  Tx 1 Qr  dr  Qr
 c pu  (8-50)
dx 2 rdx dr
 T 1 Q
• Or u  (8-51)
x 2  c p rdx r
Q   T    T 
• Since   k 2 rdx   2 kdx  r 
r r  r  r  r 
(8-52)
Eq 8-51 becomes
T    T  k
u  r  ;  (8-53)
x r dr  r  cp
 Constant Surface Heat Flux
• Substituting Eqs. 8-24 and 8-41 into Eq. 8.53
 r2  T 2 qs
u  r   2Vavg 1  2    constant
 R  x Vavg c p R
(8-41) (8-24)

T    T 
u  r 
(8-53)
x r dr  r 

4 qs  r 2  1 d  dT  (8-55)
1  2   r 
kR  R  r dr  dr 
• Separating the variables and integrating twice
qs  2 r 4 
T  r  2   C1r  C2 (8-56)
kR  4R 
• Boundary conditions

T  r  0  C1=0
– Symmetry at r=0: 0
r
C2
– At r=R: T(r=R)=Ts

qs R  3 r 2 r4 
T  Ts    2 4 (8-57)
k 4 R 4R 
• The bulk mean temperature Tm is determined by
substituting the velocity and temperature profile relations
(Eqs. 8–41 and 8–57) into Eq. 8–4 and performing the
integration
qs  h Ts  Tm 
11 qs R
(8-58) Tm  Ts 
24 k

24 k 48 k k
h   4.36 (8-59)
11 R 11 D D
Constant heat flux (circular tube, laminar)
hD
Nu   4.36 (8-60)
k
Constant Surface temperature (circular tube, laminar)
hD
Nu   3.66 (8-61)
k
 Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes

• The friction factor (f)

and the Nusselt number
relations are given in
Table 8–1 for fully
developed laminar flow
in tubes of various cross
sections.
 Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance
Region
• For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant
surface temperature, the average Nusselt number for
the thermal entrance region (hydrodynamically
developed flow)
0.065  D L  Re Pr
Nu  3.66  (8-62)
1  0.04  D L  Re Pr 
23

• For flow between isothermal parallel plates

0.03  Dh L  Re Pr
Nu  7.54  (8-64)
1  0.016  Dh L  Re Pr 
23
 Turbulent flow in Tubes
• Most correlations for the friction and heat transfer
coefficients in turbulent flow are based on experimental
studies.
• For smooth tubes, the friction factor in turbulent flow can
be determined from the explicit first Petukhov equation

f   0.79 ln Re 1.64 

2
3000<Re<5 106 (8-65)

• For fully developed turbulent flow the Nusselt number

(Dittus–Boelter equation)
n  Re  10, 000 n  0.4 heating 
Nu  0.023Re Pr 
0.8

0.7  Pr  160 n  0.3 cooling 
(8-68)
 Developing Laminar Flow
For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature, the
average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region can be determined
from (Edwards et al., 1979)

Sieder and Tate (1936)

All properties are evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature, except for µs,
which is evaluated at the surface temperature.

153
The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of flow between
isothermal parallel plates of length L is expressed as (Edwards et al., 1979)

where Dh is the hydraulic diameter, which is twice the spacing of the plates.
This relation can be used for Re 2800.

154
155
156
157
158
159
 TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES
For smooth tubes, the friction factor in turbulent flow can be determined
from the explicit first Petukhov equation [Petukhov (1970)]

The Nusselt number in turbulent flow is related to the friction factor through
the Chilton–Colburn analogy expressed as

160
 Colburn equation
For fully developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes, a simple relation for the
Nusselt number can be obtained by substituting the simple power law relation
f=0.184 Re-0.2 for

Dittus–Boelter equation [Dittus and Boelter (1930)]

where n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling of the fluid flowing through
the tube.

when the temperature difference between the fluid and wall surface is not large by
evaluating all fluid properties at the bulk mean fluid temperature

161
 Sieder and Tate (1936)
When the variation in properties is large due to a large temperature difference

all properties are evaluated at Tb except µs, which is evaluated at Ts.

The Nusselt number relations above are fairly simple, but they may give errors as large
as 25 percent. This error can be reduced considerably to less than 10 percent by using
more complex but accurate relations such as the second Petukhov equation expressed
as

162
The accuracy of previous relation at lower Reynolds numbers is improved by
modifying it as [Gnielinski (1976)]

Properties should be evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature.

Therelations given so far do not apply to liquid metals

because of their very low Prandtl numbers.

163
For liquid metals (0.004≤ Pr ≤ 0.01),
Sleicher and Rouse (1975) for 104 ≤ Re ≤ 106

164
 For Rough Surfaces
Cyril F. Colebrook (1910–1997)

S. E. Haaland (1983)

165
In turbulent flow,
wall roughness increases the heat transfer coefficient h by a factor of 2 or more
[Dipprey and Sabersky (1963)].

The convection heat transfer coefficient for rough tubes can be calculated
approximately from the Nusselt number relations given below

using the friction factor determined from the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation.

However, this approach is not very accurate since there is no further increase in h
with f for f greater 4fsmooth [Norris (1970)] and

correlations developed specifically for rough tubes should be used when more
accuracy is desired.

166
For concentric annulus of inner diameter Di and outer diameter Do.
The hydraulic diameter of annulus is

167
Annular flow is associated with two Nusselt numbers—Nui on the inner tube surface
and Nuo on the outer tube surface—since it may involve heat transfer on both surfaces.
The Nusselt numbers for fully developed laminar flow with one surface isothermal and
the other adiabatic are given

Nusselt number for fully developed laminar flow in an annulus with one surface
isothermal and the other adiabatic (Kays and Perkins, 1972)

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For fully developed turbulent flow, the inner and outer convection coefficients
are approximately equal to each other, and the tube annulus can be treated as a
noncircular duct with a hydraulic diameter of Dh= Do- Di.

The Nusselt number in this case can be determined from a suitable turbulent flow
relation such as the Gnielinski equation.

To improve the accuracy of Nusselt numbers obtained from these relations for annular
flow, Petukhov and Roizen (1964) recommend multiplying them by the following
correction factors when one of the tube walls is adiabatic and heat transfer is through
the other wall

169
Heating of Water by Resistance Heaters in a Tube

170
171
which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent and the entry
length is roughly .

which is much shorter than the total length of the tube.

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