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study of prolog

for Prolog refer

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Lakshminarayana Gumma
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4 views

study of prolog

for Prolog refer

Uploaded by

Lakshminarayana Gumma
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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AI TOOLS & TECHNIQUES LAB

Using Prolog
Study of PROLOG
Introduction
Artificial Intelligence (or simply AI) is the study and development
of machines that are capable of having an intelligence equal to or
better than a human being. As a result, AI has many different
applications today. AI is used in everything from gaming, to creating
smarter computerized opponents, to robots that can assist humans in
nearly every facet of life.

Additionally, AI can be used to create software such as facial


recognition software and language processing software. Today, there
are a couple of different programming languages that are used to
create artificial intelligence, one of these is Prolog.
Prolog evolved out of research at the University of Aix-Marseille back
in the late 60's and early 70's.
Alain Colmerauer and Phillipe Roussel, both of University of
Aix-Marseille, colaborated with Robert Kowalski of the University of
Edinburgh to create the underlying design of Prolog as we know it
today.
Kowalski contributed the theoretical framework on which Prolog is
founded while Colmerauer's research at that time provided means to
formalize the Prolog language.
1972 is referred to by most sources as the birth date of Prolog.
To this day Prolog has grown in use throughout North America and
Europe. Prolog was used heavily in the European Esprit programme
and in Japan where it was used in building the ICOT Fifth Generation
Computer Systems Initiative. The Japanese Government developed
this project in an attempt to create intelligent computers.
Prolog as the name itself suggests, is the short form of Logical
Programming. It is a logical and declarative programming language.

Logic Programming is one of the Computer Programming


Paradigm, in which the program statements express the facts
and rules about different problems within a system of formal
logic.

Prolog is a declarative language, which means that a program


consists of data based on the facts and rules (Logical
relationship) rather than computing how to find a solution. A
logical relationship describes the relationships which hold for
the given application.
Representation of Logical Programming:
Prolog language basically has three different elements −
Facts − The fact is predicate that is true, for example, if we
say, “Tom is the son of Jack”, then this is a fact.
Rules − Rules are extinctions of facts that contain conditional
clauses. To satisfy a rule these conditions should be met. For
example, if we define a rule as −
grandfather(X, Y) :- father(X, Z), parent(Z, Y) This implies that
for X to be the grandfather of Y, Z should be a parent of Y and
X should be father of Z.
Questions − And to run a prolog program, we need some
questions, and those questions can be answered by the given
facts and rules.
Applications of Prolog
•Intelligent Database Retrieval
•Natural Language Understanding
•Specification Language
•Machine Learning
•Robot Planning
•Automation System
To start Prolog, download the software from website
https://www.swi-prolog.org/
SWI-Prolog has the following menu commands
File/Reload modified files:
This menu reloads all loaded source files that have been modified.

File/Navigator ...Opens an explorer-like view on Prolog files and the


predicates they contain.

Settings/Font ...Allows for changing the font of the console. On some


installations the default font gives redraw and cursor dislocation
problems. In this case you may wish to select an alternative. Some
built-in commands assume non-proportional fonts.

Run/Interrupt: Try to interrupt the running Prolog process.

Run/New thread: Creates a new interactor window running in a


separate thread of execution. This may be used to inspect the database
or program while the main task continues.

Debug/Edit spy points ..Edit break points on predicates


Prolog Program Structure:
domains
It is an optional section. This keyword is used to mark a section declaring the
domains that would be used in the code. E.g.:
person = symbol
disease, indication = symbol

predicates
This section contains the declarations of the predicates that would be later
defined in the clauses section of the code. e.g.:
father(person,person)
symptom(disease, indication)

clauses
It contains the actual definitions of the previously declared predicates.

goal
This section is used to query prolog database
Example:

1. Open notepad type the following clauses

parent( pam, bob).


parent( tom, bob).
parent( tom, liz).
parent( bob, ann).
parent( bob, pat).
parent( pat, jim).

This program consists of six clauses .Each of these clauses


declares one fact about the parent relation.

2. After designing in notepad save it as “sample.pl”


3. Now open the swi prolog interactive window and select the file menu
and open the designed pl fie.

File new sample.pl

4. Now select compile menu to compile the prolog file.

compile compile buffer


This command will display error messages if there is any error otherwise
it display compiled.

5 When this program has been communicated to the Prolog system


Prolog can be posed some questions about the parent relation. For
example:
2. simple fact for the statements using PROLOG.

A Prolog program consists of a number of clauses. Each clause is


either a fact or a rule. After a Prolog program is loaded (or consulted)
in a Prolog interpreter, users can submit goals or queries, and the
Prolog interpreter will give results (answers) according to the facts
and rules.
FACT:
A fact is a predicate expression that makes a declarative statement
about the problem domain. A fact must start with a predicate (which
is an atom) and end with a fullstop. The predicate may be followed
by one or more arguments which are enclosed by parentheses.
The arguments can be atoms (atoms are treated as constants),
numbers, variables or lists. Arguments are separated by commas.

If we consider the arguments in a fact to be objects, then


the predicate of the fact describes a property of the objects.

In a Prolog program, a presence of a fact indicates a statement that


is true. An absence of a fact indicates a statement that is not true.
RULE:
A rule can be viewed as an extension of a fact with added conditions
that also have to be satisfied for it to be true.
It consists of two parts. The first part is similar to a fact (a predicate
with arguments). The second part consists of other clauses (facts or
rules which are separated by commas) which must all be true for the
rule itself to be true.
These two parts are separated by ":-". You may interpret this
operator as "if" in English.
Queries
The Prolog interpreter responds to queries about the facts and rules
represented in its database. The database is assumed to represent what is
true about a particular problem domain.

In making a query you are asking Prolog whether it can prove that your
query is true. If so, it answers "yes" and displays any variable
bindings that it made in coming up with the answer. If it fails to prove the
query true, it answers "No".
Example:

Facts
English meanings
food(burger). // burger is a foodf
food(sandwich). // sandwich is a food
food(pizza). // pizza is a food
lunch(sandwich). // sandwich is a lunch
dinner(pizza). // pizza is a dinner

Rules
meal(X) :- food(X). // Every food is a meal OR Anything is a meal if it is a food

Queries / Goals
?- food(pizza). // Is pizza a food?
true.
?- meal(X), lunch(X). // Which food is meal and lunch?
X = sandwich .
?- dinner(sandwich). // Is sandwich a dinner?
false.
Write predicates One converts centigrade temperatures to
Fahrenheit, the other checks if a temperature is below
freezing.

c_to_f(C,F) :-F is C * 9 / 5 + 32.

freezing(F) :-F =< 32.

Output:
c_to_f(100,X).
X = 212.

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