GRAMMAR REVIEW

By Trinh

I. NAMES BY FORM AND FUNCTION

N/ ITEMS FORM FUNCTION

O
1 WORDS Noun Subject: Girls like cats.
- proper, common nouns Direct object: I love ice-
- countable, uncountable nouns cream with jellies on top.
- singular, plural nouns Indirect object: Can you pass
- abstract, concrete nouns me the salt?
Subject complement: My
father is an astronaut at
NASA.
Object complement: I name
my cat Rose.
Object of preposition: I’m
fond of flowers.

Verb Verb
- transitive, intransitive, ditransitive
- linking verbs: be, get, become,
seem, taste, smell, feel, look, sound,
appear
- auxiliary verbs: be, have, do, does,
did, were, was, been
- modal verbs: can, would, will, shall,
could, might, may, must, should,
need
- finite verbs/ non-finite verbs
Adjective Subject complement

Megan appears gorgeous in a

long red gown.
Part of a noun phrase
Appositive

Adverb Adverbial
- adverb of time: now, then,
tomorrow, next time, today,
yesterday, annually, daily, monthly
- adverb of place: here, there,
nationwide, worldwide
- adverb of manner: surprisingly,
fast, slowly….
- adverb of frequency: never,
seldom, rarely, hardly, sometimes,
occasionally, frequently, regularly,
usually, often, always, almost
- adverb of degree: slightly, fairly,
quite, significantly, considerably,
substantially, really, very,
immensely, extremely, way too
much, far too, so
- conjunctive adverbs: however,
nevertheless, moreover,
furthermore, besides, additionally,
plus, also, as well, instead, likewise,
similarly
Article A part of noun phrase
- definite article: the
- indefinite article: a, an
Preposition A part of adverbial phrase
- preposition of place: on, in, at, next
to, behind, in front of, above, under,
over, below, between
- preposition of time: on, in, at, for,
since, from…to, until, between…and
Conjunction Adverbial (conjunct)
- coordinating conjunction: first,
second…, then, but, or, so, for, yet,
nor, and
- subordinating conjunction: before,
after, while, when, until, as soon as,
as long as, as though, as if, if,
unless, although, though, because, Similar to nouns
as, since
Pronoun
- personal pronoun: I, you, he, she,
it, we, they, me, you, him, her, it, us,
them
- reflexive pronoun: myself, yourself,
yourselves, himself, herself, itself,
themselves, ourselves
- possessive pronoun: your, my, his,
her, its, our, their
- indefinite pronoun: everyone,
everything, everybody, anyone,
anything, anybody, noone, nothing,
 nobody, anytime, anywhere, anyhow
- interrogative pronoun: who, which,
what A part of noun phrase
- relative pronoun: who, whom, Similar to pronouns
which, that, whose

Determiners

Demonstratives: this, that, these,

those
Distributives: each, every, both…
and, neither..nor, either…or, not
only…but also, half of, most of,
almost, all
Quantifiers: some, any, most, plenty
of, lots of, a lot of, a little, little, few,
a few, many, much, a fair amount of
PHRASE Noun phrases One of the biggest problem
S to run a company is
management. (S)
I love eating pizza and
hotdogs.(DO)
I give learning a new
language a lot of passion.
(IO)
An easy way to do exercise is
walking the dog every
evening (S.C).
I find him walking into that
restaurant yesterday. (OC)
I love lying on the beach.
(Object of preposition)

Verb phrase Verb

Adjective phrase Subject complement…
Adverb phrase Adverbial…
CLAUSE Finite clause
Coordinate clauses
Main clause
Subordinate clause
1 Noun clause
2 Relative clause
3 Adverbial clause
4 Non finite clause
5 Verbless clause
 6 Ellipted clause
Part of N, V, A, Adv, Prep, Art, Pro, Conj, Det S, V, D.O, I.O, S.C, O.C,
speech/ Adverbial
Element
s of a
sentenc
e
Adverbial (Adjunct)
Adverbial (Disjunct)
Adverbial (Conjunct)
Vocative
Interjection
Sentenc By structure of clauses By function
es
Simple sentence
Compound sentence
Complex sentence
Compound -Complex sentence
By mood
Active, passive voice
Imperative
Exclamatory
Interrogative (Wh-question,
yes/no question, statement,
tag question)
Declarative

II. DEFINITIONS- FORMATION - FUNCTION

What is grammar?

• the study of the classes of words, their inflections, and their functions and
relations in a language
• the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases,
and words in any given natural language

Aims

• Identify different parts of speech

• Recognize the basic elements of a sentence
• Distinguish different types of phrases, clauses, and sentences
• Apply grammatical knowledge to making sentences and communication

WORD
Content words: Noun, verb, adjective, adverb

Grammar words: pronoun, determiner, preposition, conjunction, interjection

PHRASES

• A phrase is a group of two or more words occupying the same slot as a

single word.
• The head of a phrase is the word in the phrase that defines what sort of
phrase it is.

e.g. A very silly mistake (NP)

the head

Types: Noun phrase, adjective phrase, adjectival phrase, adverb phrase,

adverbial phrase, verb phrase, phrasal verb, prepositional phrase, co-
ordination

1. Noun phrase:

- A NP is any phrase that has a noun as its head and that can occupy the
same slot as a single noun or pronoun in a larger phrase or in a sentence.

Formation

Noun phrase = a noun (girls)

= article + noun (a girl)

= (article) + ( adjective )+ (adjective) + noun (a beautiful girl, a great

big kiss, big dogs)

= article + adverb + adjective + noun ( a very beautiful girl)

= article + noun + relative clause (The girl who lives next door)

= article + noun + present participle (the guitar leaning against

the table)

= article + noun + prepositional phrase (The cat on the table is bigger

than mine.)

= pronoun + pronoun (They both knew the truth.)

Function

The boy near the window is her son. (S)

He loves the girl next door. (DO)

He offered the girl next door a bouquet of flowers. (IO)

He went out with the girl next door last night. (Object or complement of a
preposition)

Laura is a gorgeous lady. (S.C)

Paul calls her his expected sweetheart. (OC)

I’ll see you tomorrow night. (Adverbial)

It’s a lot worse than I expected. (Adverbial)

2. Adjective phrase

• An AP is any phrase that has an adjective as its head and that can
occupy the same position as a single adjective in a NP or fill the same
slot as a single adjective in a sentence.

e.g. Her behavior was absolutely unbelievable.

head

It was a very happy marriage.

head

Formation

Adjective phrase = an adjective (beautiful)

= an adverb + an adjective (very beautiful)

= an adjective + an adjective (beautiful, young)

= an adjective + conjunction + an adjective (beautiful and

young/ beautiful but silly)

Function

• as adjectival modifier (modifying NOUNs )

A very exciting proposal

• as Subject complements

Her proposal was very exciting.

• as Object-complements
You’ve made us very proud.

3. Adjective phrase vs. Adjectival phrase

• An adjective phrase is a phrase that has an adjective as its head.

I was absolutely amazed at what I saw.

• An adjectival phrase is any phrase that can function like an

adjective.

We had a five-minute delay at the airport. (noun phrase as an adjectival

phrase)

I must have reliable, up-to-date information.(prepositional phrase as an

adjectival phrase)

4. Adverb phrase

Definition

- An adverb phrase is a group of words that has an adverb as its head.

e.g. She got out of bed very slowly.

- The head of an adverb phrase is the adverb that carries the main meaning
of the phrase.

e.g. very slowly, fast enough, more quickly

Formation

Adverb phrase = an adverb (quickly)

= an adverb + an adverb (very quickly, fast enough, more

quickly)

Function

• as adverbials.

I so often feel that no-one is listening to me.

Quite frankly, I don’t want to know your reasons.

She might agree. Then again, she might not.

5. Adverb phrase vs. Adverbial phrase

- An adverb phrase is a group of words that has an adverb as its head.

He runs very fast.

- An adverbial phrase is any phrase that can function as an adverbial in

a sentence.

I’ll visit Susan tomorrow morning. (NP as adverbial)

School starts again on Tuesday.(PP as adverbial)

Formation

Adverbial phrase = Noun phrase (tomorrow night, next Wednesday)

= Prepositional phrase (on Monday)

6. Verb phrase

Definition

• A VP is a group of two or more words that can function in a sentence in

the same way as a single verb.

We have been looking for you everywhere.

Anna should have known what to do.

• The head of a VP is the main verb or lexical verb in that phrase, the word
that carries the main meaning of the phrase.

I have been reading some very interesting books.

• The other words in a VP are Aux verbs or helping verbs (e.g. modal
verbs).

Formation

Verb phrase = auxiliary verb + main verb (have learned)

= modal verb + main verb (can swim)

= modal verb + auxiliary verb + main verb (could have finished)

= phrasal verb (main verb + adverb/ main verb + preposition/

main verb + adverb + preposition)

e.g. get off (the bus), get up

Function
• VP as (part of) the predicate of a sentence.

The small boy is sleeping.

The boy is playing chess with his friends in the class.

7. Phrasal verb

A phrasal verb is an expression that consists of a lexical verb plus an adverb

or a preposition or both.

Everybody please stand up. (v+adv)

This calls for immediate action. (V+P)

I get along with her very well. (V+Adv+p)

8. Prepositional phrase

Definition

- A pp is a phrase that consists of a preposition followed by, for example, a

noun, a pronoun, a noun phrase or an adverb.

We saw her in town the other day.

Is she really going out with that guy?

- The head of a PP is the prep it begins with.

In silence On the bed To my room

- The rest of the PP is called the object or complement of the prep.

Formation

Prepositional phrase = a preposition + a noun (for girls)

= a preposition + a noun phrase (on a table)

= a preposition + a pronoun (for her)

Function

• as adverbials

The cat was on the table.

To my surprise, there was no-one there.

On the one hand, he’d like the job that pays more. On the other hand, he
enjoys the current job.

• as Subject-complements

Your work is of great value.

• as Object-complements

We considered the information of little importance.

• as adjectival modifier (modify a Noun)

Who is that man with red hair?

We need an in-depth survey of the state of the roads.

I must have reliable, up-to-date information.(prepositional phrase as an

adjectival phrase -> function as adjectival modifier)

• as complement of an adjective, adverb, or a verb

I am afraid of dogs.

She quickly moved away from the wall.

Tom insisted on a vote.

9. Coordination:

CLAUSE

Definition

A clause

• is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb

• forms a simple sentence or part of a non-simple sentence

The children are playing on the beach.

When he saw his mother, he burst into tears.

Types:

- Coordinating clause
- main clause

- subordinate clause (noun clause, relative clause, adverbial clause, non-

finite clause, verbless clause, ellipsis)

1. Coordinating clause

• are parts of a sentence

• are of equal importance in the sentence
• are joined by a coordinating conjunction (AND, BUT, OR, NOR, SO, FOR,
YET) or comma (,)

e.g. You can travel by bus, you can drive or you can take the train.

I need life insurance, I need a vacation, I need a home in this city.

2. Main clause

• is sometimes known as an independent clause

• usually expresses a complete thought
• can stand alone as a sentence

e.g. We can all go for ice cream if I can find my wallet.

My sister who lives in Moscow is getting married.

• but if the slot filled by the subordinate clause is an obligatory

slot, the main clause cannot form a complete sentence

e.g. What you say sounds very encouraging.

I did not know that you were here.

I know what you did last summer.

(The underlined clauses are main clauses but cannot stand alone to form
complete sentences)

3. Subordinate clauses

• does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a

separate grammatical entity
• depends on the main clause
• gives additional information to the main clause

E.g. We can all go for ice cream if I can find my wallet.

My sister who lives in Moscow is getting married.

 What you say sounds very encouraging.

I did not know that you were here.

I know what you did last summer.

* 5 kinds of subordinate clauses: noun clause, relative clause, adverbial

clause, non-finite clause, verbless clause, ellipsis

3.1. NOUN CLAUSE

Definition

• is a subordinate clause

• can have the same function or fill the same slot in a sentence as a
noun (phrase) or pronoun

• may begin with

+ the subordinating conjunction that, if, whether, how, when, where and
why

+ the interrogative pronouns who, whose, what and which

E.g. I was confused about her speech. (Noun phrase)

I was confused about what she said. (Noun clause)

His arrival at the party surprised me. (Noun phrase)

That he arrived at the party surprised me. (Noun clause)

Take whichever you need. (Noun clause)

I’ll give whoever answers the question correctly a prize. (Noun clause)

Formation

1. Noun clause = That + SVO

e.g. That he failed the scholarship upsets his mom immensely.
2. Noun clause = Whether/ if + SVO
e.g. I don’t know whether I should study abroad or not.
He asked me if I wanted to go to the party this weekend with
him. (indirect speech)
3. Noun clause = Wh-word + ( S) VO

e.g. I don’t know who I should get married with.

They can’t decide which road they should follow.

 The first and foremost issue to solve is how much money can be raised
in the first year of startup.

Function

- The subject of the sentence

What he said was unforgettable.

That he came to class late was quite unusual.

- The direct object

I didn’t know that he used to live in my neighborhood.

• The indirect object

He offered whoever came to the shop on the opening day a discount.

- The subject complement

The problem is that he is frightened of being home alone at night.

- The object complement

You can call him whatever you like.

- The complement of a preposition

The policemen came into whatever house they suspected there were
criminals.

3.2. RELATIVE CLAUSE

• is a subordinate clause
• identifies someone or something or provides information about them

• is sometimes called an adjectival clause because, like an adjective, it

modifies or describes a noun.

• is introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that)

or a conjunction like where, when and why

• functions as an adjectival modifier (modifies the preceding noun)

e.g. He needs someone whom / who he can trust.

 I have a friend whose mom is a doctor.

She's going to the museum, which is full of interesting artifacts.

Let's go to a theme park where there are lots of rollercoasters.

I like to sit in the garden on the day when it's sunny.

• The relative pronoun may be preceded by a preposition.

Can you see the man to whom she is speaking?

• The relative pronoun may be preceded by both a preposition and a

word such as some, several, all, both, most, etc. or a number.

She was attacked by a group of boys, most of whom were in their

teens.

I bought a dozen eggs, five of which were broken on my way home.

• When can a relative pronoun be omitted?

The relative pronoun who / whom, which or that can be omitted when it
functions as the object of the relative clause.

e.g. She is the woman (who/that) I always admire.

Is this the book (that/which) you are looking for?

• But if they are the subject of the clause, they cannot be omitted.

e.g. Is that the man who wrote this report?

He is interested in the book which is about natural disasters.

He likes the picture that is painted by an Italian artist.

Relativ Examples Notes

e
pronou
ns
Person Who Is that the man who wrote this defining
report?
Her mother, who works in a bank, Non-defining
is very easy-going.

Thing Which He is interested in the book which defining

is about natural disasters.
 That is his favorite book, which is Non-defining
about dinosaurs.

Person/ That He likes the picture that is painted defining

thing/ by an Italian artist.
both

Possessi Whose
ve
Time When
Place where

* Reduced Relative Clause

Is that the man who wrote this report?

He is interested in the book which is about natural disasters.

He likes the picture that is painted by an Italian artist.

Is that the man writing this report?

He is interested in the book about natural disasters.

He likes the picture painted by an Italian artist.

* Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive Relative Clause/ Defining vs. Non-

defining Relative Clause

• A restrictive clause identifies or describes a particular person / thing.

Please return the book I lent you last week.

She doesn’t like the guy who lives next to her house.

• A non-restrictive clause doesn’t identify or describe a particular

person / thing but provide some further information about them.

Her mother, who works in a bank, is very easy-going.

That is his favorite book, which is about dinosaurs.

* That as a Subordinating Conjunction and as a Relative Pronoun

Relative Pronoun Subordinating Conjunction

- has an antecedent - has no antecedent
e.g. This is the book that she is e.g. They said that they wanted to
looking for. go back to their home country.

- can be replaced by which / who / - cannot be replaced by which /

whom who / whom
e.g. They said that they wanted to
e.g. This is the book which she is go back to their home country.
looking for.

- what follows it cannot make a - what follows it can make a

complete statement complete statement
e.g. This is the book that she is They said that they wanted to go
looking for. back to their home country.

*Appositive Clauses vs. Relative Clause

• Appositive Clauses provide information about a preceding noun such

as belief, thought, saying, possibility, and feeling.

The belief that the world is flat was widespread in the Middle Ages.

In an appositive clause (a kind In a relative clause

of subordinating clause)
• that is a subordinating • that is a relative pronoun, so
conjunction, so cannot be it can be replaced by which.
replaced by which. I don’t like the feeling that / which I
I have a feeling that something is have when I stay home alone.
wrong.

• the words that follow that • the words that follow that
make a complete statement. do not make a complete
I have a feeling that something is statement.
wrong. I don’t like the feeling that I have
when I stay home alone.

3.3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

DEFINITION

• An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an

adverbial in the main clause.

E.g. Call me as soon as you get home.

 • An adverbial clause can be modified by adverbs.

e.g. She left just before you came in.

Types of adverbial

1. Adverbial clause of time: I’ll come when I’m ready.

2. Adverbial clause of place: People often buy a house where they

work./You can go wherever you want.

3. Adverbial clause of manner: I didn’t do like I intended./She is

dressing as though it were winter./ You must do it exactly as I told you.

4. Adverbial clause of reason: Since I have a lot of homework to do, I

can’t go with you./ She had to support him, seeing that she had
chosen him herself against the opinion of many.
5. Adverbial clause of purpose: Wear sunglasses so your eyes can be
protected./ He decided to study Korean so that he can communicate
with his boss.
6. Adverbial clause of result: He was so tired that he couldn’t walk an
inch./ This is such a difficult exercise that it took me much time to
solve it.
7. Adverbial clause of concession / Adverbial clause of contrast:
However she tries, she’ll never please the people surrounding her.
She decided to leave him no matter what he did for her.
He is an outstanding footballer whereas his brother doesn’t know how
to kick a soccer ball.
8. Comment clause
As you know, she has a passionate interest in music.
The moon is, as it is well known, closer to the earth than the sun.
9. Adverbial clause of comparison
He runs much faster than his brother does.
Life in his hometown is not as easy as it used to be.

10. Adverbial clause of proportion

The more we destroy the environment, the worse our lives will
become.
As the wind became more and more violent, so it rained more and
more heavily.

Adjunct Disjun Conjunct Prepositio

 ct (phrase as n
adverbial, not
adverbial
clause as
adverbial)
Relationsh Subordinato Conjunction, Simple
ip rs Conjunctive sentence
adverbs and
expressions
1 Time order When, while, Then, at first,
before, after, to begin with,
as soon as, first of all,
as, once, second/secondl
since, till, y, finally
until,
whenever
2 Place Where,
wherever
3 Manner as, as if, as
though, how,
however, like
4 Reason Because, as,
since, in case,
seeing, seeing
as, seeing
that
5 Purpose So, so that, in
order that
6 Result So… that, As a result, Because of,
such….that therefore, due to,
consequently, thanks to,
thus, as a but for
consequence
7 Concession/ Although, In spite of,
contrast even though, despite
though,
even if,
however, no
matter
what/who/wh
ere etc.,
whatever,
wherever,
while, whilst,
whoever,
 whereas,
whether…or
8 Comment as you know, as you To be honest,
as it is well know, gererally
known as it is speaking
well
known
9 comparison As, than
10 Proportion The more
…..the more
The
less…..the
less
11 Condition If, unless, in In case of
case, as long
as, , on
condition
that, provided
(that),
providing
(that), so long
as
Addition And, as well, as
well as, too
Additionally, in
addition,
moreover,
furthermore,
besides

3.4. Finite vs. non-finite clause

Finite verbs vs. non-finite verbs

• A finite verb is one that agrees with its subject.

e.g. My sister has a pair of new shoes.

• Non-finite verbs are verbs that do not have to agree with a subject.

• Infinitives, present participles and past participles, and verbal nouns

are non-finite verbs.

e.g. To buy (non-finite) a new car, they need (finite) to save (non-finite)
more money.
Seeing (non-finite) me from a far distance, he waved (finite) his arm to
greet (non-finite) me.

Exhausted (non-finite) from the hard-working day, he couldn’t walk (finite)

an inch.

Finite Clauses

A finite clause contains a verb that shows tense, person, and number. It can
stand alone as a complete sentence or be part of a larger sentence.

e.g. She sings beautifully.

When he arrived, we started the meeting.

If you study hard, you will pass the exam

I love the peace and quiet scenery of the countryside.

Non-finite clause

• is a subordinate clause that has only a non-finite verb, and no finite

verb in it
• may be formed with a to-infinitive

e.g. He wanted his daughter to go home soon.

He decided to study English in order to get a good job.

• may be formed with a bare infinitive

e.g. All he wanted to do is go home as soon as possible.

Her mother had that man repair her car.

• may be formed with a participle

e.g. The young man arrested yesterday is from Scotland.

Walking along the street, I ran into a high school friend of mine.

• may be formed with a verbal noun

e.g. He kept on talking during the class.

Because of missing the bus, she got to the morning’s class late.

Function
Non-finite Clauses function as noun clauses, adverbial clauses or relative
clauses and have the same functions in sentences as other subordinate
clauses.

• The subject

Reading books is one of his favorite things to do.

• The direct object

He loves reading books in his free time.

She wanted her son to study abroad.

• The indirect object

He gave writing this book a lot of thoughts.

• The subject complement

The biggest problem is to decide on which place to celebrate their

anniversary.

• The object complement

They elected her to be the spokesperson.

• The object of preposition

Without knowing the answer, the student remained silent for more than 5
minutes.

He kept on talking during the class.

Because of missing the bus, she got to the morning’s class late.

• Adverbial

He took the English course in order to get a promotion at the workplace.

To be honest, I don’t want to reply to his email.

• Adjectival modifier

The man giving the speech is the city’s mayor.

The house built by his grandparents needs repairing.

3.5. A verbless clause

 • is a subordinate clause that has no verb in it at all

e.g. Call me tonight if necessary.

Now much weaker, she could hardly raise herself from her bed.

• Despite lacking a verb, it can still convey a complete idea or function

as part of a sentence. Verbless clauses often rely on context or other
parts of the sentence to provide meaning.

e.g. If possible, please arrive at the airport 2 hours before the departure
time.

The stories on the social media, whether true or untrue, are spreaded
really fast if they are sensational enough.

Although tired, she continued working.

When in doubt, ask for help.

If necessary, we can reschedule the meeting.

While on vacation, they visited several museums.

Function

• Adjectival modifier

She is looking at the baby, now fast asleep in her cot.

• Adverbial

Whether successful or not, he always puts his best efforts into his work.

* Phrases vs. Clauses

• A non-finite or verbless clause can be expanded into a full clause with

a finite verb.

1. While walking along the street, I ran into a high school friend of mine.

While I was walking along the street,…

2. Call me tonight if necessary.

Call me tonight if that / it is necessary.

• It is not possible to do this with a phrase.

• A non-finite or verbless clause has words in it representing more than
one sentence function (subject, verb, object, etc.).
1. When ripe, strawberries are red. (conjunction + subject complement)

2. I don’t like Peter doing that. (subject + verb + direct object)

• A non-finite or verbless clause has words in it representing more than

one sentence function (subject, verb, object, etc.).

3. I want to be a pilot. (verb + subject complement)

4. Though always helpful, Diana sometimes drove me crazy. (conjunction +

adverbial + subject-complement )

• A phrase never has elements belonging to more than one sentence

function.

3.6. Ellipted clause/ Ellipsis

• Ellipsis occurs when one or more elements of a sentence are left

unexpressed because they can be deduced from the context or
situation in which the sentence is being spoken.
• Ellipsis creates incomplete but understandable sentences.

* Ellipsis in Coordinate Clause

• When some element of the first clause applies equally in the second
and subsequent clauses

Examples

(1) She has just cleaned the floor and done the cooking.

(2) He likes watching sports programs, his wife soap operas, and his
daughter talk shows.

* Ellipsis in Main Clauses and Subordinate clauses

• If the main clause comes before the subordinate clause, the main verb
in the subordinate clause may be ellipted, leaving only the auxiliary in
the predicate slot.

E.g. (3) I’ll go if you will.

• If the subordinate clause comes first, the verb in the main clause will
be ellipted.

E.g. (4) If you’ll go, I will too.

• Sometimes both a main verb and a direct object are ellipted, leaving
an auxiliary verb in the predicate slot.
E.g. (5) If you wash the dishes today, I will tomorrow.

• Another type of ellipsis occurs when we delete predictable pronouns

and verbs from subordinate clauses, change relative clauses and
adverbial clauses into non-finite and verbless clauses.

Examples

(6) The man wearing sunglasses is a detective.

(7) Though a bit nervous, he pleased the audience with the nice
performance.

4. SENTENCES

4.1. Basic elements of a sentence:

- Subject
- Predicate
- Verb
- Direct object
- indirect object
- subject complement
- object complement
- adverbial
- adjectival modifier
- vocative
- exclamation

4.2. Types of sentence

Structure: simple, compound, complex, compound- complex

Function: declarative, interrogative (question tags, yes/no question, wh-

question, statement question), imperative, exclamatory

By structure

1 simple sentence = 1 main clause/ independent clause

A Compound sentence = 02 Coordinating clauses = main clause 1,

conjunction main clause 2 (A, conjunction B)

e.g. I have been saving money for years, for I want to buy my mom a new
house.
A Compound sentence includes at least 02 Coordinating clauses/main
clauses/independent clauses

Or a compound sentence = main clause 1; conjunctive adverb, main clause

2(A; conjunctive adverb, B)

e.g. The weather in the Middle East is terribly harsh in summer; however, the
scenery is completely amazing in spring.

A complex sentence = Main clause + subordinate clause (A >B)

e.g. Although John ran fast, he missed the flight to the U.S.

A complex sentence = a subordinate clause standing inside a larger main

clause (B belongs to A)

A: The woman who lives next door (B) is strange.

4.2.1. Simple sentence = 1 finite clause

e.g. He is running in the park with his girlfriend. (single subject)

All flowers and foodstuffs will be delivered freshly the following day.
(compound S)

There must be something worrying her.

Can I help you, madam?

Gosh, that’s amazing!

4.2.2. Compound sentence = 2 finite clauses

e.g. He loves to ride and hates to walk.

It was raining heavily yesterday morning in the city center; therefore, he

couldn’t ride his bike home.

It rains so heavily, so I can’t hang out with my friends.

You can go and I will stay.

Either she goes or I do.

He looked at her, scratched his head and laughed.

He came in, he looked at us, he left again.

4.2.3. Complex sentences = 1 main clause, at least 1 subordinate clause.

e.g. When I came home, the argument was just over.

The town where I grew up has changed so much recently.

I’ll tell you when I get home.

He said that he had finished what he was doing.

Being aware of the dangers ahead, he took a different route.

4.2.4. Compound – complex sentence = at least 2 independent clause,

one or more dependent clause.

e.g. Although it was raining, we decided to go for a walk, and we enjoyed the
fresh air.

I’ll go with her and show her that there are no monsters under her bed.

Come if you can and I’ll meet you there.

I did it because I love you and (because) we need the money. (conjunction
added)

By function:

Declarative sentence

Interrogative sentence

Imperative sentence

Exclamatory sentence

Sentence Paragraph

Addition And, as well, too, as well Additionally, in addition,

as moreover, furthermore,
besides

Contrast But However, nevertheless,

in contrast, on the
contrary
Yet (Cp)

Although, though, even

though (Cpl)
 In spite of, despite of
(Simple)

Cause- effect So, for (Cp) Therefore, thus,

consequently, as a
Due to, thanks to
consequence, as a result,
(Simple)
Condition- Result subsequently
If/ unless

Alternative Or Or else, otherwise,

instead of, likewise

Similarity As well, as Similarly, in a similar

way, likewise

Example Like, such as For example, for

instance

Time order After, before, while, After that, before this, in

when the mean time, at the
same time

Sequencing First, second, next, then, First/ firstly, to start with,

finally to begin with, secondly,
next, then, in the
consequent stage, in the
next step, finally

Manner Obviously, apparently, (same)

certainly…..