DEFINITION:

COMPUTER is an electronic device which accepts input data process

it according to a stored data and gives the output to the user.
COMPUTER comes from ‘compute’ which means to calculate.
Original objective for inventing a computer was to create a fast
calculating machine.
USES:
✓ Short listing candidates for recruiting.
✓ For preparing students result.
✓ In Airline reservation.
✓ In Railway reservation.
✓ In scientific research etc.
Why computer called as a DATA Processor?
Because, Computer capturing input data,
Manipulating the data,
And managing output data.
DATA:
Data means raw material, it may be audio, video, text, picture etc.
INFORMATION:
Processed data obtained as an output.
➢ Evolution of Computer:
Charles Babbage, in 19th century, Prof.at Cambridge University, is
considered the Father of modern digital computer.
➢ Computer Generation:
Generation means a step in technology.
There are five computer generation,

1st Generation 1942-1955 Vacuum tubes, punched card

2ndGeneration 1955-1964 Transistors, Primary, Secondary Memory

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 3rd Generation 1964-1975 IC’s Integrated Circuits, Mini Comp.
introduced.
4th Generation 1975-1989 Microprocessor,LAN,WAN,GUI,Multiple
window
5th Generation 1989-Present Double speed Microprocessor,VLSI-ULSI
Technology

Why computer is more powerful than others?

Because, it’s high speed, high storage capacity, and its flexibility.
Classification of Computer:
Classification of computer is depending upon its type of work and
design of computer.
1. Micro Computer:
Home usage or office usage pc, small in size, limited storage capacity,
portable easy to handle or use, user friendly. Also called as Desktop pc like,
laptop, notebook, and low weighted palmtop.
2. Mini Computer:
Personal usage computer, more powerful than pc, memory capacity
high, used in departments and company for controlling production.
3. Mainframe Computer:
Used in Network of companies, large in size, memory capacity high,
high storage area, high speed, needs air conditioned.
4. Super Computer:
At a time millions of calculations, used in aeronautic, weather
forecasting, missile launching, high storage capacity, large in size, high
speed.
‘Clip-4’ Worlds first super computer introduced in 1972.
‘PARAM’ India’s first super computer introduced in Pune by Vijay
Bhatkar from C-DAC.

Characteristics of Computer/ Features of Computer:

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 Following are the most desired characteristics of Computer system:
1. Automatic :
Computer works automatically, it work itself without any human
intervention. It carries out its job until the job is finished. But it cannot starts
it selves or cannot go out or find own problems and solutions. We need to
instruct it.
2. Speed :
Computer is a very fast device & can perform job/calculations in few
seconds. i.e. in millisec-10-3, microsec-10-6, nanosec-10-9, picosec-10-12,
billion-109 normally called as a talking speed/CPU speed of a computer
system.
3. Accuracy:
Computer is a highly accurate device; it depends upon its design. The
chances of error may be due to incorrect input data of user. This process is
often referred to as GIGO-Garbage In Garbage Out.
4. Diligence :
Computer can works continuously for hours together without any
tiredness and lack of concentration or creating any errors / grumbling.
5. Versatility:
This is the most wonderful thing of a computer that it works on several
tasks at a time.
6. Power of remembering:
Human brain is subconscious, but pc stores data in its memory for a
long time. Information can be retained as long as desired by the user and
can be recalled; as and when required.
7. No I.Q. :
It cannot take its own decision because it cannot have brain like human
being; so its I.Q. is zero. Hence only the user can determine what task a
computer will perform.
8. No feelings :

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 Computers are devoid of emotions, feelings and instincts because they are
machines.
Anatomy Of Computer System:
STORAGE UNIT

SECONDARY
STORAGE

INPUT UNIT OUTPUT

S UNIT
PRIMARY
STORAGE

CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC AND
LOGIC UNIT

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Inputting:
Process of entering data into Computer.
Storing:
Saving of data on memory.

Processing:

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 Performing arithmetic operations (i.e. addition, multiplication,
subtraction, division etc.)Or logical operations (i.e. <,>, <=,>=, =) on
data to convert into information.
Outputting:
Processed data or result such as printed or visual report.
Controlling:
Directing the sequence of operations.
INPUT UNIT:
It is used to give the data or instructions to the computer system by
using input devices.
Input Device:
The device by which user can gives the instruction to the computer
system.e.g. Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, digitizer, digital camera,
scanner etc.
Input unit performs:
1) Accepting instructions and data
2) Converting instructions and data
3) And supplies the converted data/instructions to the computer
system/CPU.
OUTPUT UNIT:
It is used to obtain information from processed data.
Output Device:
The device by which user can get the processed data or
information.e.g.monitor, printer, speaker, plotter etc.
STORAGE UNIT:
It is used to store the input data on computer memory for further
processing. There are two types, Primary Storage and Secondary Storage.

1. Primary Storage :

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 It is also known as ‘Main memory’. It holds the programs, instructions
data and intermediate results of processing and recent work. It holds the
information only while the computer system is ON; as soon as the computer
switches OFF the information held in primary storage is erased. It has limited
storage capacity. And it is made-up of semiconductor devices.
RAM: - Random Access Memory.
Often called as Computer memory. It consists of IC’s, which is situated
on motherboard. It is a volatile in nature; it is temporary memory; it stores
data while working on pc.It temporarily holds data, whenever power cuts
OFF/shuts down, whole data will be lost. It is made-up of large number of
cells; cells capable to stores one bit.RAM made-up of semiconductor devices
like Flip-flop (Capacitor).It are reusable memory.
There are two types:
a) Static RAM
b) Dynamic RAM
Normally called as DDR (Double Data Rate) 1, DDR2 and SD RAM.
ROM: - Read Only Memory.
It is non-volatile memory. It is permanent memory. Data stored in ROM
chip can be read only; user cannot make changes / modify it. Data stored in
ROM are not lost when power is switched OFF. It is not a reusable memory.
There are three types:
a) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory )
b) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory )
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is the type
of EPROM.Which is often called as Flash Memory, like Pen drive, memory
card etc.
Cache Memory is situated in between CPU and main memory. It is a virtual
memory .It is extremely fast and small memory .Its access time is closer to
the processing speed of CPU also acts as a high speed buffer.

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Difference between RAM and ROM:

RAM ROM

Random Access Memory Read-only memory

RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are
lost when the device is powered off. retained even when the device is
powered off.

The two main types of RAM are The types of ROM include PROM,
static RAM and dynamic RAM. EPROM and EEPROM.

RAM allows the computer to read ROM stores the program required to
data quickly to run applications. It initially boot the computer. It only
allows reading and writing. allows reading.

Random Access Memory or RAM is Read-only memory or ROM is also a

a form of data storage that can be form of data storage that cannot be
accessed randomly at any time, in easily altered or reprogrammed.
any order and from any physical
location.

2. Secondary Storage:
Also known as ‘auxiliary storage’. It can retain information even when
a computer system switches off or resets.
Secondary storage device holds the programs, instructions, data and
information permanently and transfer them to further processing. Magnetic

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disks are the most commonly used secondary storage medium. It is slower
in operation, larger in capacity and cheaper in cost/price.
2. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT :
In this unit actual execution of instructions takes place during
processing operation. This unit performs arithmetic and logical operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, less than, greater than,
equal to respectively.
3. CONTROL UNIT :
It does not perform actual processing on data. It is a central nervous
system of computer. It manages and co-ordinates the operations of all other
components of the computer system.
4. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT :
CPU is the’ brain’ of computer system.CU and ALU are together known as
Central Processing Unit. All major calculations and comparisons take place
inside the CPU; it is responsible for activating and controlling the operations
of the other units of computer system.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are electromechanical devices that accept data and
translate into a form that computer can interpreted.
a) Keyboard :
Allow to data entry in computer system by pressing keys.
Popular keyboard have 101 keys. This is known as QWERTY keyboard.
Multimedia keyboard has special type of keys like mail, internet, volume etc.

Type of Keyboard:
1. Mechanical Keyboard.
2. Flexible Keyboard.
3. Wireless Keyboard.
Above keyboard may be PS/2 (Personal System 2) or USB (Universal Serial
Bus).

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 Various types of keys on keyboard are:
1. Toggle Key: On/Off the Caps Lock, Scroll Lock and Num Lock.
2. Combination Key: ALT , CTRL , DEL , SHIFT
3. Navigation Key: Arrow key:
4. Function Key: F1 to F12.
5. Numeric Key: 0 to 9.
6. Type writer key: Alphabet Key: A to Z.
b) Mouse:
Popular pointing device.
Handheld device.
It supports GUI (Graphical User Interface).
More sensitive, easier and smoother to use.
Mouse Type:
1. Optical Mouse: Optical sensor-light source-reflection-light detector.
2. Mechanical Mouse:
Also called as a Scroll mouse. It has Scroller ball to move the cursor position.
3. Wireless Mouse:
It has sensor and dongle. It has limited range to connect with the system.

Type of Click:
1. Single Click : To select the Object.
2. Double Click : To open the Menu.
3. Right Click : To open the properties for selected items.
4. Left Click : To select the item.
5. Scroller : Wheel for scrolling the screen/page/window.
c) Track Ball :
It’s working like Mouse.
This is pointing stick on Laptop.
d) Joy Stick :
It is a pointing device. Same work like track ball.
Useful as a remote control, for playing video games, and a flight simulator to
control the industrial robot, trolleys.
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 Click Button
Stick
Light Indicator
Ball Socket

e) Light pen :
Use directly on screen or pad to operate.
Use as like ink pen (electronic pen).
By pressing buttons select the object/menu.
Used in digital signature for driving license.
f) Touch screen :
Uses LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Screen.
Operate it by touching on screen with finger or stick.
Used at railway station, air port, Bank for ATM, Hotels for billing, Post office
etc.
g) Scanner :
It is used to direct data entry into computer system.
It translate document into an electronic format and stores it on
memory.
Scanning image may be text, picture, graphs, or even hand written
document.
Editing, cropping images or photos.
Type of scanner:
a) Flatbed Scanner :
Like Xerox machine.
Glass plate-Image-Light source-Light beam-Reflects.
b) Handheld Scanner :
This type of scanner uses LED (Light Emitting Diode).
I) OCR: Optical Character Reader.

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 It scans characters only.
It uses OCR software& converts Bitmap image of characters in ASCII code.
It uses special font, italic, bold fonts not detected.
II) OMR: Optical Mark Reader.
It scans marks on paper.
This is used in CET- exam. etc. for checking the answer sheet.
III) Bar Code Reader:
It reads (decodes) bar code data.
Used in Malls, Book stalls, Currier, Postal packages, tags, goods etc.
For decoding the Mfg date, company Name, Batch Code, and Plot Number
etc.
IV) MICR: Magnetic Ink Character Recognition.
Similar to OCR scanner. Specially used in Banks for reading Cheques.
For decoding the Identification code, Name, Branch code, cheque Number
etc.Special Ink used which containing Iron Oxide (Magnetized).
It uses special Characters, Fonts, and Numbers.
Special E13B font used; which contains 10 digits and 4 special characters.
Accessing speed is too high.
Case sensitive alphabets are not recognized.
h) Digitizer :
Used for converting pictures, maps, drawings into digital form for storage.
It consists of a digitized tablet associated with stylus.
X-Y axis co-ordination makes changes in drawing, whenever necessary.
Used for drawing, sketches lines, arcs, straight lines, smooth curves etc.
Architects, engineer’s uses digitizer for designing cars, robots, medical
devices, mechanical parts etc.
Also used in CAD (Computer Aided Design) Application and GIS (Graphical
Information System) for Geographical maps.
i) Card Reader :
It has encoded data on electronic card.
Used in Banks as an ATM card for depositing and withdrawing cash.

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j) Speech Recognition Device :
Like Microphone/mike.
This is used to inputting passages, long text recording songs, sounds etc.
It must be in vocabulary and pronouncing correct.

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are electromechanical devices, which accepts data

from computer and translate into a suitable form for users.

1. Monitor :
It is used for soft copy.
It is like a Television screen.
Also called as VDT (Video Display Terminal).

Type:
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor:
Heavy, not easily portable, and occupies more space on desk.
Flat screen Monitor: LED (Light Emitting Diode) & LCD (Liquid
Crystal Display) type
Flat panel monitors are thinner, lighter, and easily portable.
2. Plotter:
Useful to plot or design graphs, maps etc.
It is ideal output device for architects, engineers, city planners, and others
who need to generate high precision hardcopy graphics output.
Type:
1. Drum Plotter:
It consists one or more pen holders mounted perpendicular to the
drum surface. A graph plotting program controls the movement of drum and
pen.

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2. Flatbed plotter:
It is like a printer or Xerox machine type.
It also available in multi-color.
It etches on plastic or metal plates. Drawing pen has sharp edged needle.
3. Projector:
A group of people can view simultaneously.
Useful in presentation or full-fledged multimedia presentation with audio,
video, image and animation.
4. Voice Response System:
This system allows user to talk with computer.
Audio response device produces audio output; it is a temporary soft copy
Output.

Type:
a) Voice Reproduction System.
b) Speech Synthesizer.
a) Voice Reproduction System:
This system gives an output from a pre-recorded audio eg. This is used
in ATM for guidance. Normally also used in telephone enquiries, mobile
enquiries, alarm clock, toys, in pc for animated multimedia presentation.
b) Speech Synthesizer:
It converts text information into spoken sentences. It is useful for
reading Braille for blind person and the person who cannot speak.
5. Printer:
Most popular output device for hard copy.
Type:
i) Impact Printer.
ii) Non-impact Printer.
i) Impact Printer:
Use a device to strike an inked ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto
paper.
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e.g.
➢ Dot-Matrix Printer.
➢ Drum Printer.
➢ Chain or Band Printer.
DOT MATRIX PRINTER:-
It is a character printer. It prints one character at a time in dot pattern.
It has head, hammering pins, inked ribbon, and printing is done by
impressing ink on paper.
It prints both sides which are bi-directionally.
Advantages: -
It gives multiple copies by using carbon.
Special character, fonts you can use in different size and shape also print the
graphs, maps, charts etc.
Disadvantages: -
Its working is so noisy and slower as compare to non-impact printer.
Speed range 30 to 600 cps (characters per seconds).
DRUM PRINTER: -
It is a line printer. It prints one line at a time.
It has solid cylindrical embossed character drum, hammer etc.Drum
rotates speedily.
Advantages:-
It gives multiple copies by using carbon.
Disadvantages: -
Its working is so noisy and slower.
Drum cannot change; it is so expensive.
It has no ability to print special characters, graphs, charts, maps in any
shape and size. Speed range 300 to 2000 lpm (lines per minutes).
CHAIN OR BAND PRINTER:-
It is also a line printer. It prints one line at a time.
It has metallic chain or band with embossed characters, hammer etc.Chain
rotates speedily.
Advantages:-
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It gives multiple copies by using carbon.
Chain or band changes easily.
Disadvantages: -
Its working is so noisy and slower.
It has no ability to print special characters, graphs, charts, maps in any
shape and size.
Speed range 400 to 3000 lpm (lines per minutes).

ii) Non-Impact Printer:

Use different methods to place ink (or another substance) on the paper.
e.g.
➢ Ink-Jet Printer.
➢ Laser Printer.
INK-JET PRINTER: -
It is a character printer. It prints one character at a time.
It has tiny nozzles; a resistor heat up and vaporizes near ink and nozzle head
spaying dots on paper.
It has 360 dpi (dots per inches) resolutions.
It also available in tri-colour cartridge i.e.R-Y-B (Red-Yellow-Blue) and Black.
Advantages:-
Its working is so smoother and quieter.
It has ability to print special characters, graphs, charts, maps in any shape
and size.
It is an inexpensive printer.
Disadvantages: -
It does not give multiple copies by using carbon.
It gives single copy at a time.
It is so slower printing than others.
Speed range 40 to 300 cps (characters per seconds).
LASER PRINTER: -
It is a page printer. It prints one page at a time.
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It has laser beam source, electrostatic charged photoconductive drum,
multisided mirror and tonner.
It has high 600 to 1200 dpi (dots per inches) resolutions.
It also available in color cartridges and consists four tonner.Which is used
as a network printer in companies.

Advantages:-
Its working is so smoother and quieter.
It has ability to print special characters, graphs, charts, maps in any shape
and size.
It is a high quality printer.
It is faster printer than others.
Disadvantages: -
It does not give multiple copies by using carbon.
Speed range 4 to 12 ppm (pages per minutes).
HARDWARE
Any physical part or equipments of a computer system is known as
hardware.e.g.CPU, motherboard, RAM, power supply, printer, scanner, et
Secondary Storage Devices:-
Commonly known as additional memory or auxiliary memory. It is a
non-volatile memory.
e.g. punched paper tape, punched card, magnetic tape, magnetic disk,
optical disk etc.
Magnetic Tape:
It has small cassette cartridge made up of plastic ribbon which
magnetized with iron oxide and chromium dioxide. Data stored on disk is
like spot i.e. 0’s and 1’s.
Magnetic Disk:
It uses circular plastic material thin film coated with both sided and
also magnetized with iron oxide. User can erase the data easily.
Floppy Disk:

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 It has double sided circular flexible plastic coated material that
magnetized with iron oxide and it has read/write head.
Hard Disk:
Primary online storage device. It is made up of number of rigid metallic
plates (Disk pack) mounted on a single shaft and also has read/write head
to each platter. Also USB Hard Disk is available in market which is portable.
Zip Disk:
It is a plastic Cartridge.
Disk Pack:
It has a number of rigid metallic plates mounted on a single shaft, like
hard disk.
Features of Secondary Storage Devices:
Low cost, slow in speed, high storage capacity.
Optical Disk:
CD - Compact Disk.
DVD- Digital Versatile/Video Disk.
It stores data on thin plastic material which is highly reflective
material. Laser technology is used to read/write the data on disk. Data stored
on number of tracks and sectors. Its storage capacity is high. Also called as
Laser disk.
Flash Drive:
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is the
type of ROM. Pen drive, memory card(SD-Secure Digital,MMC-Multimedia
Card)these are the examples of flash memory/drive.
SOFTWARE
A set of programs means software.
Software is written programs or procedures or rules and associated
documentation pertaining to the operation of a computer system and that
are stored in read/write memory.
Program: -
Step by step instructions are called as program.

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Software Package: -
Group of programs that solves a specific problem or specific type of job is
called as software package.
Computer Program: -
A sequence of instructions written in a language that computer can
understood is known as computer program.
System Programs: -
The programs included in a system software package are called as system
programs.
Types of Software: -
i) System Software
ii) Application Software

i) System Software :-
A set of one or more programs design to control the operations and
extend the processing capabilities of a computer system. System software
helps to run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes
operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing
systems, utilities and more.

Functions:
1) It supports in development of application software.
2) It supports in execution of application software.
3) It monitoring the use of hardware resources like CPU, Memory, and
peripheral devices.
4) It controls and communicates with the peripheral devices.
Types of System Software: -
a) Operating System :-
It is a set of programs that controls the hardware resources of a computer
system and provides it to user with an interface.

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b) Programming Language Translators :-
It translates the instructions prepared by programs in a programming
language into a form that can be interpreted and executed by a computer
system.
c) Communication Software :-
It enables to transfer of data and programs from one computer system to
another.
d) Utility Programs :-
A set of programs that helps user in system maintenance task and
performing task of routine nature.

ii) Application Software :-

A set of one or more programs design to solve a specific problem or
specific task.
A set of program necessary to carry out operations for specified application.
Such type of software used in banking, administration, insurance,
publishing, weather forecasting, space shuttle launching, engineering
application etc.Commonly known application software’s are;

1) Word-processing Software :-
Used for creating, editing, viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving and
printing document.
2) Spreadsheet Software :-
Used for numerical data analysis.
3) Database Software :-
A set of programs that enables us to create a database, maintain it, organize
it data in desired fashion.
4) Graphics Software :-

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Used for creating, editing, viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving, designing,
drawing and printing of a pictures, graphs, maps etc.

What is a virus?
A virus or worm is a computer program that can spread across
computers and networks by making copies of itself, usually without the user’s
knowledge.
Viruses can have harmful effects. These can range from displaying
irritating messages to stealing data or giving other users control over your
computer.
How does a virus infect computers?
A virus program has to be run before it can infect your computer.
Viruses have ways of making sure that this happens. They can attach
themselves to other programs or hide in code that is run automatically when
you open certain types of file. Sometimes they can exploit security flaws in
your computer’s operating system to run and to spread them automatically.
You might receive an infected file in an email attachment, in a download from
the internet, or on a disk. As soon as the file is launched, the virus code runs.
Then the virus can copy itself to other files or disks and make changes on
your computer.
Trojan horses
Trojan horses are programs that pretend to be legitimate software, but
actually carry out hidden, harmful functions. For example, DLoader-L arrives
in an email attachment and claims to be an urgent update from Microsoft for
Windows XP. If you run it, it downloads a program that uses your computer
to connect to certain websites, in an attempt to overload them (this is called
adenial of service attack).Trojans cannot spread as fast as viruses because
they do not make copies of themselves. However, they now often work hand-
in-hand with viruses. Viruses may download Trojans which record
keystrokes or steal information. On the other hand, some Trojans are used
as a means of infecting a computer with a virus.

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Worms:
A computer worm is a program which copies itself across a network. A
computer worm differs from a computer virus in that a computer worm can
run itself. A virus needs a host program to run, and the virus code runs as
part of the host program. A computer worm can spread without a host
program, although some modern computer worms also use files to hide
inside.Worms are similar to viruses but do not need a carrier program or
document. Worms simply create exact copies of them and use
communications between computers to spread (see the “Internet worms”
section).Many viruses, such as MyDoom or Bagle, behave like worms and use
email to forward themselves.
What can viruses do?
Viruses used to play pranks or stop your computer working, but now
they compromise security in more insidious ways. Here are the things that
viruses can do.
■ Slow down email.
Viruses that spread by email, such as Sobig, can generate so much email
traffic that servers slow down or crash. Even if this doesn't happen,
companies may react to the risk by shutting down servers anyway.
■ Steal confidential data.
The Bugbear-D worm records the user's keystrokes, including passwords,
and gives the virus writer access to them.
■ Use your computer to attack websites.
MyDoom used infected computers to flood the SCO software company's
website with data, making the site unusable (a denial of service attack).

■ Let other users hijack your computer

Some viruses place “backdoor Trojans” on the computer, allowing the virus
writer to connect to your computer and use it for their own purposes.
■ Corrupt data.
The Compatible virus makes changes to the data in Excel spreadsheets.

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■ Delete data.
The Sircam worm may attempt to delete or overwrite the hard disk on a
certain day.
■ Disable hardware.
CIH, also known as Chernobyl, attempts to overwrite the BIOS chip on April
26, making the computer unusable.
■ Play pranks.
The Netsky-D worm made computers beep sporadically for several hours
one morning.
■ Display messages.
Cone-F displays a political message if the month is May.
■ Damage your credibility.
If a virus forwards itself from your computer to your customers and
business partners, they may refuse to do business with you, or demand
compensation.
■ Cause you embarrassment.
For example, PolyPost places your documents and your name on sex related
newsgroups.
Where are the virus risks?
Programs and documents:
Programs and documents can be infected with viruses. When you
share them with other users, by putting them on your network or intranet or
by sending them out, the infection can spread.

The internet:
You may download programs or documents that are infected.
Security vulnerabilities in your operating system can also allow viruses to
infect your computer via the internet connection, without your having to do
anything at all.
Email:

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 Email can include infected attachments. If you double-click on an
infected attachment, you risk infecting your machine. Some emails even
include malicious scripts that run as soon as you preview the mail or read
the body text.
CDs and floppies:
Floppy disks can have a virus in the boot sector. They can also hold
infected programs or documents.CDs may also hold infected items.
Which files can viruses infect?
Viruses can attach themselves to any code that runs on your
computer: programs, documents, or the files that start up the operating
system.
Boot sectors:
When you switch on your computer, it accesses a part of the disk
called the “boot sector”and runs a program that starts the operating
system. The earliest viruses replaced this boot sector with their own,
modified version. If the user started up their computer from an infected
disk, the virus became active.
Boot sector: The part of the operating system which is read into memory from
disk first when a PC is switched on. The program stored in the boot sector is
then run, which in turn loads the rest of the operating system.
Boot sector virus: A type of virus which subverts the booting process.
Programs:
Some viruses infect programs. When you start the infected program,
the virus is launched first. This type of virus appeared early in virus history
but still poses a threat, as the internet makes it easy to distribute programs.
Documents:
Word processing or spreadsheet applications often use “macros” to
automate tasks. Some viruses take the form of a macro that can spread from
one document to another. If you open a document that contains the virus, it
copies itself into the application’s startup files and infects other documents
you open with that application.

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Email viruses:
Many of the most prolific viruses are email-aware: they distribute
themselves automatically by email.Typically; email-aware viruses depend on
the user clicking on an attached document. This runs a script that can
forward infected documents to other people. The Netsky virus, for example,
searches the computer for files that may contain email addresses (e.g. EML
or HTML files), and then uses the email program on your computer to send
itself to those addresses. Some viruses, like Sobig-F, don’t even need to use
your email browser; they include their own “SMTP engine” for sending mail.
Email viruses may compromise your computer’s security or steal data, but
their most common effect is to create excessive email traffic and crash
servers.
Mail attachments:
Any attachment that you receive by email could carry a virus;
launching such an attachment can infect your computer. Even an
attachment that appears to be a safe type of file, e.g. a file with a .txt
extension, can pose a threat. That file may be malicious VBS script with the
real file type (.vbs) hidden from view.
Internet worms:
You may be at risk whenever you are connected to the internet, even if
you don’t open suspicious email.Internet worms can travel between
connected computers by exploiting security “holes” in the computer’s
operating system.The Blaster worm, for example, takes advantage of a
weakness in the Remote Procedure Call service that runs on Windows NT,
2000 and XP computers and uses it to send a copy of itself to another
computer. As the worm spreads, it creates a lot of traffic on the internet,
slowing down communications or causing computers to crash. This
particular worm also later uses the computer to deluge a Microsoft website
with data, with the aim of making the site inaccessible.

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 Microsoft (and other operating system vendors) issue patches to fix
security loopholes in their software. You should update your computer
regularly by visiting the vendor’s website.
Backdoor Trojans:
A backdoor Trojan is a program that allows someone to take control of
another user’s computer via the internet.
A backdoor Trojan may pose as legitimate software, just as other
Trojan horse programs do, so that users run it. Alternatively – as is now
increasingly common – a virus may place a backdoor Trojan onto a computer.
Once the Trojan is run, it adds itself to the computer’s startup routine.
It can then monitor the computer until the user is connected to the
internet.Once the computer is online, the person who sent the Trojan can
run programs on the infected computer, access personal files, modify and
upload files, track the user’s keystrokes, or send out spam mail. Well-known
backdoor Trojans include Subseven, BackOrifice and Graybird, which was
disguised as a fix for the notorious Blaster worm.
Spyware:
Spyware is software that enables advertisers to gather information
about a computer user’s habits. Spyware programs are not viruses (you
cannot spread them to other computers) but they can have undesirable
effects. You can get spyware on your computer when you visit certain
websites.
A pop-up message may prompt you to download a software utility that
you “need”, or software may be downloaded automatically without your
knowledge. The spyware then runs on the computer, tracking your activity
(for example, visits to websites) and reports it to others, such as advertisers.
It can also change the home page displayed when you start your
internet browser, and can use a dial-up modem to call 0900 (premium rate)
phone numbers.

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 Spyware also uses memory and Processing capacity and can slow or
crash the computer. Software is available that detects known spyware
programs and enables you to remove them.
Cookies:
When you visit a website, it can place a small data packet called a
“cookie” on the computer. This enables the site to remember your details and
keep track of your visits. Cookies do not pose a threat to your data. However,
they do threaten your confidentiality. If you prefer to remain anonymous, use
the security settings on your browser to disable cookies.
Cookie: A small packet of data that stores infmation on a user’s computer.
Cookies are usually used to enable a website to track visits and remember
visitors’ details.
Anti-virus software:
Anti-virus software can detect viruses, prevent access to infected files and
often eliminate the infection.
Virus scanners:
Virus scanners detect, and often disinfect, the viruses known to the
scanner.Scanners are easily the most popular form of anti-virus software but
they have to be updated regularly to recognize new viruses.
There are on-access and on-demanding scanners. Many packages offer both.
On-access scanners stay active on your machine whenever you are using it.
They automatically check files as you try to open or run them, and can
prevent you from using infected files. On-demand scanners let you start or
schedule a scan of specific files or drives.

Heuristics:
Heuristic software tries to detect viruses – both known and unknown
– by using general rules about what viruses look like. This software doesn’t
rely on frequent updates. However, heuristics can also be prone to false
alarms.
Vaccines:

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 To write a vaccine for a particular virus, we should know how behaves.
We can get a sequence of virus code (after analyzing the code of virus), a few
bytes we call as virus signature. So a virus scanner searches for this
signature in a file, the presence of which indicates that file is infected. After
analyzing the virus code, we could know that where it is infecting, like at the
bottom of the target program or at the beginning. Then we could delete that
much number of bytes as the virus length from the file.

Who writes viruses?

If your computer, or your network, is hit by a virus, the first thing
you’re likely to say – expletives apart – is “Why do people write these viruses?”
Virus writers sometimes want to spread a political message, or to
disrupt companies of which they disapprove (many viruses and worms have
criticized or targeted Microsoft, for example). They can also break into other
users’ computers, or gather email addresses, and then sell that information
to spammers.
However, virus writers are more often motivated by the notoriety that
their exploits can gain them. Virus writers tend to be male, under 25 and
single. Their self-esteem is bound up with the approval of their peer group,
or at least of a small electronic community.
Virus-writing, like graffiti art, is a kind of performance that wins the
writer status. Viruses also give their writers powers in cyberspace that they
could never hope to have in the real world. No doubt that’s why virus writers
choose names inspired by heavy metal music or fantasy literature, which
thrive on similar illusions of prowess and potency.

A brief history of viruses:

1950s Bell Labs develop an experimental game in which players use
malicious programs to attack each other’s computers.
1975 Sci-fi author John Brunner imagines a computer “worm” spreading
across networks.

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1984 Fred Cohen introduces the term “computer virus” in a thesis on such
programs.
1986 The first computer virus, Brain, is allegedly written by two brothers in
Pakistan.
1987 The Christmas tree worm paralyses the IBM worldwide network.
1988 The Internet worm spreads through the US DARPA internet.
1992 There is worldwide panic about the Michelangelo virus, although very
few computers are infected.
1994 Good Times, the first major virus hoax, appears.
1995 The first document virus, Concept, appears.
1998 CIH or Chernobyl becomes the first virus to paralyse computer
hardware.
1999 Melissa, a virus that forwards itself by email, spreads worldwide.
Bubbleboy, the first virus to infect a computer when email is viewed,
appears.
2000 Love Bug becomes the most successful email virus yet. The first virus
appears for the Palm operating system, although no users are infected.
2001 A virus claiming to contain pictures of tennis player Anna Kournikova
infects hundreds of thousands of computers worldwide.
2002 David L Smith, the author of Melissa, is sentenced to 20 months in
prison by US courts.
2003 The Blaster worm spreads itself across the internet via a security
weakness in Microsoft software. Together with the Sobig email virus, it
makes August 2003 the worst month ever for virus incidents.
2004 The creators of the Netsky and Bagle series of worms compete to see
which can have the greater impact.
Preventing viruses:
There are simple measures you can take to avoid being infected or to
deal with viruses if you are infected. For more details, see the “Tips for safer
computing” chapter.
Make users aware of the risks
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 Tell everyone that they are at risk if they open email attachments,
download files from websites, or swap disks.
Install anti-virus software and update it regularly
Anti-virus programs can detect and often disinfect viruses. If the
software offers on-access virus checking, use it.
Use software patches to close security loopholes
Watch out for “patches” for your operating system. These often close
loopholes that make you vulnerable to viruses.
Use firewalls
A firewall can prevent unauthorized access to your network and also
prevent viruses sending out information.
Firewall: A security system that is placed between the internet and an
organization’s network, or within a network, and only passes authorized
network traffic.
Keep backups of all your data
Keep backups of all data and software, including operating systems. If
you are affected by a virus, you can replace your Files and programs with
clean copies.
Hacker: Someone who intentionally breaches computer security,
usually to cause disruption or gain confidential information such as financial
details. Originally the word “hacker” referred to any person who was
interested in computer technology, but is now commonly used by the public
and media to refer to those who have malicious intentions.
What is meant by Booting?
The computer booting means starting it up and resetting the memory
and BIOS.
Types of Booting:
-Warm Booting
-Cold Booting
The difference between a warm boot and a cold boot is simple enough.

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 A cold boot is just that, the power is shuts off and at least 10 seconds
(or so) pass before the machine is turned back on.
A warm boot never shuts off the power, but uses a command sequence
from a program or the CTRL +ALT+DELETE key combo (i.e. the three finger
salute)to force a reboot with the power still applied. Warm booting is needed
if the computer stops responding because of memory problems or the ‘Blue
Screen of Death’ appears. The computer needs to be reset before continuing
the work. If the warm boot fails to restart the computer, restart to a cold boot
by shutting off the power switch, waiting ten seconds and then turning it
back on.

PROCESSOR
Processor Speed:-
Control unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit perform operations at incredible
speed. These operations are usually synchronized by an electronic clock
known as system clock.
To fetch, decode and execute a single program instruction; several
clock cycles are required. Clock speed is measured in Hz (Hertz).

Types of Processor:-
1) CISC: - Complex Instruction Set Computer.
It has many processing features.
✓ It makes the job of machine language programmers easier.
✓ They are expensive to produce.
✓ Most personal computers use CISC processors today.
✓ Design of this type of processors is so complex.
2) RISC: - Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
It reduces the complexity of designing of a CISC processor.

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 It has following processing features.
✓ Decoding and executing of instructions are so simple and fast.
✓ It extends the speed of processing.
✓ It reduces the complexity in designing of processor.
✓ They are faster, less complex and inexpensive processors.
✓ They stores retrieve operands (Temp. Data) in register rather than
from memory.
3) EPIC: - Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing.
This type of architecture allowing the software to communicates
explicitly to the processor when operations can be done in parallel.

It has following features.

✓ It uses higher coupling (Electromechanical energy conversion)
between the compiler and processor.
✓ It enables the compiler to extract minimum parallelism in original
code and explicitly describe it to processor.
✓ It is simpler more powerful than CISC.
✓ It is used in servers and workstations etc.
4) Multi-core :-
Faster processor-Reducing in size of chip and increases the number of
transistors.

Features:
✓ It uses transistors, logic gates, and switches etc.
✓ Because of transistors the clock speed increases.
✓ A transistor switches faster, generates more heat and consumes
more power.
✓ It has multiple cooler running.
✓ It has more energy efficient processing core.
✓ It works in parallel.

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 ✓ Dual core chip running multiple applications faster than a single
core chip.
✓ On this Operating System controls the overall task.
✓ It has independent cache but in some design all cores share in
same cache.
Advantages of Multi-core processor:-
▪ Better system performance.
▪ Consume less power.
▪ Generates less heat.
▪ Share components, memory elements, memory management etc.

MS-DOS: Microsoft-Disk Operating System.

MS-DOS was first released in 1981.

MS-DOS is a single user; single tasking computer operating system
that uses a command line interface created for IBM compatible computers
that was first introduced in August 1981.
Command: Gives the instruction to the computer.
User communicates with the computer system.
System Command:
Used to communicate with the Operating system of a computer.
Types of Command:
1. Internal Command.
2. External Command.
1. Internal Command:
✓ Stored in system memory and loaded from the command.com file.
✓ Which is command embedded into the command.com file.
Following are the Internal commands:
a) cd/chdir: change directories.
b) cls: clear the screen.
c) copy: copy one or more files to an alternate location.

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d) date: view or change the system date.
e) del: deletes one or more files.
f) dir: list the contents of one or more directories.
g) md/mkdir: command to create a new directory.
h) path: view or modify the system file.
i) ren/rename: renames a file or directory.
j) time: view or modify the system time.
k) type: display the content of a file.
l) cd../cd\: exit from file.
m) copy con: copy files from one location to another.
2. External Command:
✓ Which is not embedded into command.com file and it requires separate
to be used.
Following are the External Command:
a) chkdsk: check the HD Drive running FAT for errors.
b) deltree: deletes one or more files and directories.
c) format: to erase and prepare a disk drive.
d) label: changes file label or disk drive.
e) sys: transfer system files to disk drive.
f) tree: view a visual tree of the HDD.
g) vol: displays the volume information about designated drive.
h) edit: allows viewing, creating or modifying the file.
i) ping: to see if computer able to send information out or receive.
j) print: to print file or page.
k) locate: to find system file location.
l) append: to find particular drive path.

The rules for naming files in DOS:

Files and directory names;
• Can be up to eight characters long. In addition, you can include an
extension up to three characters long.

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• Can contain only the letters A to Z,the number 0 to 9,and following special
characters: underscore(_),caret(^),dollar sign($),tilde(~),exclamation
mark(!),number sign(#),percent sign(%),ampersand(&),hyphen(-),braces({
}),at sign(@),single quotation mark(‘),apostrophe(‘),and parentheses(()).No
other special characters are acceptable.
• Can not contain space, commas, backslashes or periods. (Except the
period that separates the name from extension).
• Can not be identical to the name of another file or subdirectory in the
same directories.
• Are not case-sensitive. It does not matter whether you use upper case or
lower case when you type them.

NETWORKING & DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication :
It is a method by which data transfers from one location to another.
Communication is the process of transferring a message from one
point to another.
Computer Network:
A computer network is a network of computers that are of
geographically distributed, but connected in a manner to enable meaningful
transmission and exchange of data among them.
Whenever more than one computer are connected (internally) to each
other then there is a network called as computer network.

Main objectives of a Computer Network:

1) Sharing of Information.
2) Resources (Software and Hardware).
3) Processing Load.
Basic elements of a communication system:
1. Sender-Source that creates/sends a message.

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 2. Medium-Carries the message.
3. Receiver-Receives the message.
MEDIUM

SENDER RECEIVER

(source) (sink)
Data Transmission modes:-
a) Simplex b)Half-duplex c)Full-duplex
a) Simplex:
A simplex communication system can transmit data in one
direction only.e.g.keyboard and printer.

Sender Receiver
Simplex
b) Half-duplex:
A half-duplex communication system can transmit data in both
direction; but in only one direction at a time.e.g. Telephone.
It alternately sends and receives data. It requires two wires.
c) Full-duplex:
A full-duplex communication system can transmit data in both
directions. In this communication it allows data to flow in both directions
simultaneously.
It requires switching circuit and relay. It requires four wires.
Data Transmission Speed:
Bandwidth:
Data transfer rate of a communication system.Amount of data transfer
per unit of time.Bandwidth is measured in bits per seconds; bits/sec, bps
(band).
Basic categories of communication channel:
There are three communication channels:

1) Narrow band: Used for low data volumes and speed.

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 Ex. Telegraph line.

2) Voice band: Used only for voice communication.

Ex. Telephone line.

3)Broad band: Used for to transmit large volume data at high speed. Cost of
data transfer service is increases with the speed. Which are used in high
speed computer.

Data Transmission Media:

Telephone line, microwave line, satellite links these are the physical
channels used for transmit the data.
Types of Data Transmission Media:
1) Physical Communication System:
▪ Twisted pair wire.
▪ Coaxial Cable.
▪ Fiber Optic cable.
2) Wireless Communication System:
▪ Microwave Communication System.
▪ Satellite Communication System.

A) Physical Communication System:

1) Twisted Pair Wire:
Two bunches of thin copper wires. Each bunch enclosed separately in
a plastic insulation also called as a UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) which is
used in telephone lines for short distance up to about 1km.local telephone
lines having speed of data transmission is 1200 bps.

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 Twisted pair wire.
Adv.:-Inexpensive, easy to use and install.
Disadv:-Limited use, noisy signals and occur error, low speed and low
bandwidth.
2) Co-axial Cable:
These are group of specially wrapped and insulated wire line, capable
of transmitting data at high speed. It consists of a central copper wire
surrounded by PVC insulation over a sleeve of copper mesh. The copper mesh
sleeve is shielded again by an outer shielded of thick PVC material.
Signal transmitted by inner copper wire and it is electrically shielded
by outer copper mesh sleeve. These type of cables used in long distance
telephone lines, TV cables etc.

Co-axial cable.
Adv.:-High bandwidth, high speed, cleaner and crisper data transmission
without any distortion or loss of signal.
Disadv:-Requires long cables, digging in land.
3) Optical Fibers:
These are hair thin threads of glass or plastic, used as data
transmission medium like copper wire or co-axial cables. They transmit light

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signal instead or electrical signal; light travels much faster than electricity.
It is made up of glass, plastic or silica.

Fiber Optic Cable.

Adv.:-High bandwidth, low significant loss, immunity to electromagnetic
interference because of glass or plastic, no affect of magnetic or electrical
interference, small in size, light weighted, high security or safety, both analog
and digital signal transmission.
Disadv:-Fragile, joining of fiber optic cable is hard, special equipments
needed.
B) Wireless Communication System:
1) Microwave Communication:
These uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit through space
(wireless communication).
Microwave frequencies, electromagnetic waves cannot bend or pass
obstacles like tall buildings or hills.

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 Microwave communication system.

Adv.:-Repeaters are used for rejoining/resends the break signals, it is a

wireless communication, and speed is up to 16 gbps, it does not requires
cables and wires laid or land digging.
Disadv:-cannot pass over obstacle, need line of sight towers, not be possible
for long distance transmission, if distance high the signal will be low/weak
or breaks, requires power amplification, installation cost is high, data traffic
in big cities, requires several repeat stations.

2) Satellite Communication:
These are placed in outer space. They are launched by rockets or space
shuttles (INSAT-Indian Satellite in Outer Space).
In this satellite communication microwave signal (GHz) is transmitted
from a transmitter on earth to a satellite positioned in space.

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 Satellite Communication.

Adv.:-Reduced in size, easy to install in private earth station, low power

transmitter/receiver used,VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals) antenna
used, high data communication capability, detects error, no cables no wires
and no cost of land digging.
Disadv:-High in cost, cause of long distance there is a delay in signal, need
a security to access information, occurs atmospheric disturbances or bad
weather.
DATA TRANSMISSION Types:
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission:
Asynchronous transmission means data is transmitted character by
character at irregular intervals.
Synchronous transmission means data is transmitted group of
characters is blocked in same way as records are blocked on magnetic tape.
DATA TRANSMISSION SERVICES:
Data Transmission Service providers (popularly known as Common
carriers) i.e. VSNL, BSNL, and MTNL in India.
AT & T, MCI, Western Union and GTE in USA. They offer following
types of services:

1) Dial-Up:
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 Switched line; like telephone service. It sends or receives data over the
telephone line. Like telephone, call charges apply for data transmission; its
depends upon its distance.
2) Leased Line:
Private line or dedicated line. Special conditioned telephone line
directly and permanently connecting two computers or routers (stores and
forwards packets of data).It can be used for both voice and data transmission.
Charges based on channel capacity (bps) and distance (air miles).
3) Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN):
Telephonic system providing digital (not analog) telephone and data
service. It supports digital services (digitized voice) noise free service, CD-
quality sound. No need of modems because it supports digital transmission
of all types of data (including voice).
4) Value Added Network (VAN):
Some companies providing this type of network. It is a standard
service. It carries e-mail, data encryption/discryption, access to commercial
data base and code conversion between incompatible computers. These
companies normally take dedicated lines of common carrier on long term
lease, do value addition to enhance communication facilities and then sell to
users.

❑ Modem
Modulates a digital signal into an analog signal for transmission via
analog medium, and then demodulates the signal into digital for receiving.
Acronym for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or Program that
enables a computer to transmit data over telephone lines. Computer
information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over
telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts
between these two forms.

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 Fortunately, there is one standard interface for connecting external
modems to computers called RS-232. Consequently, any external modem
can be attached to any computer that has an RS-232 port, which almost all
personal computers have. There are also modems that come as an expansion
board that you can insert into a vacant expansion slot. These are sometimes
called onboard or internal modems.
Types of Modem:
1) Internal Modem
2) External Modem
Advantages:
Transmission speed is high.
Facsimile facility available;
Modem works like FAX machine.
❑ Multiplexer
Allows several telecommunications signals to be transmitted over a
single communications medium at the same time. A communications device
that multiplexes (combines) several signals for transmission over a single
medium. A demultiplexor completes the process by separating multiplexed
signals from a transmission line. Frequently a multiplexor and demultiplexor
are combined into a single device capable of processing both outgoing and
incoming signals. A multiplexor is sometimes called a mux.
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❑ Network Topology:
▪ A logical model that describes how networks are structured or
configured.
▪ Computers are connected or linked with each other means
Topology.
▪ Types of topologies:
• Ring Topology:

Adv.: No routing decision, more reliable

Disadv: Delay in communication; if adding new a node.
• Bus Topology:

Single Shared Line

Adv: It reduces number of physical lines, any node failure; no affects on

network, easily add new nodes.

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Disadv: Shared communication line fails; entire network fails.
• Star Topology:

HOST

Adv: Low in cost, one node fail no affected.

Diadv: Host node fails, entire network fails.
• Hybrid / Hierarchical Topology:
It is the combination of Ring and Star topology.

✓ Network Types:

❑ Local area network (LAN)

▪ Connects computer systems and devices in the same
geographic area (can be Ring, Bus, Hierarchical, Star,
Hybrid).
▪ Communication within building and campus. Area around
10km radius.

❑ Metropolitan area network (MAN)

▪ Links systems between metropolitan cities.

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 ▪ Communication within the cities. Area around 100km
radius.
❑ Wide area network (WAN)
▪ Ties together large geographic regions using microwave
and satellite transmission or telephone lines.
▪ Communication within nationwide or worldwide. Long
haul network.
`Terminal-to-Host Connection:
▪ Applications and databases reside on the same host
computer.
▪ User interacts with the application using a “dumb
terminal”.

Host
computer

Target PC“dumb
terminal”

File Server Connection:

▪ Applications and databases reside on the same host
computer.
▪ File server transfers data and programs to PCs on the
network, where these target PCs perform most of the

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 processing.

Host
computer
Target PC File downloaded to user File server

Client/Server Connection:
▪ Applications and databases reside on specialized host
computers.
▪ Servers do most or all of the processing and transmit the
results to the client.

Client Server

Server Client Server

Advantages &
Disadvantages of Client/Server:
Advantages:
▪ Reduced cost potential
▪ Improved Performance
▪ Increased Security
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Disadvantages:
▪ Increased cost potential
▪ Loss of control
▪ Complex multi-vendor environment.

Internet
Global collection of the computers connected to each other. A
worldwide network of computers. Several thousands of individual computer
networks are interconnected to form the internet. Internet provides electronic
mail, telnet (remote login to computer), file transfer services and enormous
amount of information through various discussion groups and information
retrieval facilities.
It is a worldwide system of computer networks. A network of networks
in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get
information from any other computer ( and sometimes talk directly to users
at other computer ).
Internet used in ARPANET (Advance Research Project Agency) systems
of the U.S. department of defense. It is first WAN and had four sites in
1969.Then this ideas of ARPANET used by research organizations and
universities to share and exchange information. In 1989 US government
lifted its restrictions on use of internet and allows using for commercial
purpose.
Internet Basic services:
1) Electronic-Mail: e-mail:
An internet user enables to send or receive mail to another internet
user within minutes it reaches its destination.
It is similar with postal mail service.
Internet users have an e-mail address just like postal address. It have
logical mailbox, and get the feedback also.
Messages in e-mail service not only in text, documents but also images,
video, audio data too and it should be digitized.

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Advantages:
Faster than paper mail.
Person not need to available at the delivery time.
It stores in memory and easily edited later.
It sends in group also.
E-mail address: ex. [email protected]

User name Domain name

<Name of addressee>@<identity of internet service provider>.<country code>
2) File Transfer Protocol:FTP:
Protocol means a set of rules and procedure established to interconnect
and communicate computers.
It is enables an internet users to move a file from one computer to another
on the internet. The file contains digital information like text, document,
image, art work, movie, sound, software etc.
Moving files from internet to own computer is known as downloading.
And moving files from own computer to internet is known as uploading.
For remote computer users needs rights for transfer files to or from
it.(Restriction)-User name and password for more secure.
3) Telnet: Remote Login:
Enables to log in users computer to another computer via internet called
as remote login. In this user enters login name (ID) and password. Login
session is established with remote computer then user can access data with
authentication.
4) Usenet News :
This enables to internet users to exchange their views, ideas, information
on some common topic. Interested members, groups exist on internet called
newsgroup.
5) World Wide Web :WWW:W3:

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 It is created in 1989 in Switzerland. It is the most popular and promising
method of accessing internet. Main reason for its popularity is use of concept
called Hypertext.
Hypertext information storage and retrieval that enables authors to
structure information in novel ways. It gives vast information on internet.
It enable by using a series of links.
It is shown on screen in labelled buttons, highlighted text, or different
colour of text.
It provides more information about linked item.
The hypertext documents on internet are known as Web Pages.
Web site means incredible resource, providing information on nearly any
topic imaginable.
It is created by using special language called HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up
Language).
Every web page has its unique address called as URL (Uniform Resource
Locator).
WWW uses client-server model:
In client-server model www is used as an internet protocol called HTTP
(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) for interaction between computers on the
internet.
Web server-A computer on internet uses HTTP.
Web client-A computer accessing the server.
Web Browser:
A software by which obtain an information from web called browser.
Some popular browsers are Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator,
Mozilla Firefox,etc.
Browsers are normally good GUI.
A web page containing information about them called Homepage.
Ex. http://www.google.com

Search Engine:

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 Several web sites provide software known as search engine.
It can also use to locate specific information on the web.ex.Google,
yahoo, rediff, web crawler, AltaVista, Firefox, and Mozilla etc.

Different types of search engines:

When people mention the term "search engine", it is often used
generically to describe both crawler-based search engines and human-
powered directories. In fact, these two types of search engines gather their
listings in radically different ways and therefore are inherently different.
Crawler-based search engines, such as Google, and AltaVista, create
their listings automatically by using a piece of software to “crawl” or “spider”
the web and then index what it finds to build the search base. Web page
changes can be dynamically caught by crawler-based search engines and will
affect how these web pages get listed in the search results.
Crawler-based search engines are good when you have a specific
search topic in mind and can be very efficient in finding relevant information
in this situation. However, when the search topic is general, crawler-base
search engines may return hundreds of thousands of irrelevant responses to
simple search requests, including lengthy documents in which your keyword
appears only once.
Human-powered directories, such as the Yahoo directory, Open
Directory and LookSmart, depend on human editors to create their listings.
Typically, webmasters submit a short description to the directory for their
websites, or editors write one for the sites they review, and these manually
edited descriptions will form the search base. Therefore, changes made to
individual web pages will have no effect on how these pages get listed in the
search results.
Human-powered directories are good when you are interested in a
general topic of search. In this situation, a directory can guide and help you
narrow your search and get refined results. Therefore, search results found
in a human-powered directory are usually more relevant to the search topic

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and more accurate. However, this is not an efficient way to find information
when a specific search topic is in mind.
Table summarizes the different types of the major search engines.

Search Engines Types

Google Crawler-based search engine

AllTheWeb Crawler-based search engine

Teoma Crawler-based search engine

Inktomi Crawler-based search engine

AltaVista Crawler-based search engine

LookSmart Human-Powered Directory

Open Directory Human-Powered Directory

Human-Powered Directory, also provide crawler-

Yahoo
based search results powered by Google

Human-Powered Directory powered by

MSN Search LookSmart, also provide crawler-based search
results powered by Inktomi

Provide crawler-based search results powered by

AOL Search
Google

Provide crawler-based search results powered by

AskJeeves
Teoma

Provide crawler-based search results powered by

HotBot AllTheWeb, Google, Inktomi and Teoma, “4-in-1”
search engine

Provide crawler-based search results powered by

Lycos
AllTheWeb

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 Provide crawler-based search results powered by
Netscape Search
Google

From the table above we can see that some search engines like Yahoo
and MSN Search provide both crawler-based results and human-powered
listings, therefore become hybrid search engines. A hybrid search engine will
still favor one type of listings over another as its type of main results.
There is another type of search engines that is called meta-search
engines.
Meta-search engines, such as Dogpile, Mamma, and Metacrawler,
transmit user-supplied keywords simultaneously to several individual search
engines to actually carry out the search. Search results returned from all the
search engines can be integrated, duplicates can be eliminated and
additional features such as clustering by subjects within the search results
can be implemented by meta-search engines.
Meta-search engines are good for saving time by searching only in one
place and sparing the need to use and learn several separate search engines.
"But since meta-search engines do not allow for input of many search
variables, their best use is to find hits on obscure items or to see if something
can be found using the Internet."
Several sites provide software known as Search Engines to get the
retrieve information from web pages. Also it locates the specific information
on the web.ex. Google search, yahoo, altavista, web crawler etc.
Web portal: Individual website for sending e-mails only.

Uses of Internet:
1) On line communication.
2) Software sharing: (By using share software tools like mail server,
compilers, code libraries, and O.S.ex.FTP).
3) Exchange of views on topics of common interest: Newsgroups.
4) Posting of information of general interest.
Career opportunities, conference, event announcements, recruitment.etc.
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5) Product Promotion:
Information about product announcement, alliance, release etc.
6) Feedback about products: Views, opinions etc.
7) Customer Support Service:General advice or problems about product.
8) On line journals and magazines: Electronic versions of journals and
magazines, electronic library-new concept, no paper work or wastage.
9) On line Shopping.
10) Video Conferencing: Global talk, discussion in a single room.

Applications/Uses of Internet in Horticulture and Agriculture:

1) Weather Forecasting.
2) Warning systems for diseases.
3) Information on prices of installations and machinery.
4)Information on technologies for reduction of environmental impact.
5) Information on prices of pesticides.
6) Information on prices of fertilizers.
7) Information on reduction techniques for fertilizers.
8) Information about government schemes.
9) Information from the research institutes.
10) Promotions and advertisement of product.
11) Online banking.
12) Video conferencing.

DBMS: Database Management System.

A database is a collection of related data. It is the electronic equivalent
of a file cabinet.
A Database Management System (DBMS) or database manager is a
program that sets up or structures, a database. It also provides tools to enter
,edit and retrieve data from the database.
Three of the most widely used database management systems designed
to microcomputers are,
1) Microsoft Access
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 2) Corel Paradox
3) Lotus Approach
Features:
A relational database is the most widely used database structure.
Data is organised into related tables.
Each table is made-up of rows called Records and columns called
Fields.
Each record contains fields of data about some specific person, place
or thing.
A DBMS provides a variety of tools to create and use database.
A sort tool will quickly rearrange a tables records according to a
selected fields.
The greatest power of a DBMS is its ability to quickly find out and bring
together information stored in separate tables using queries, forms and
reports.
Query: A query is a question or a request for specific data contained in a
database.
Database forms are electronic forms displayed on the computer
monitor looks similar to traditional printed forms.
Primary Key:
It is the unique identification number like employee’s last name etc.
Fields:
Name that are displayed at the top of each table.
Tables:
Makeup the basic structure of a relational database with column and
rows (i.e. name ,address, telephone no.,etc.)
Records:
Contains information about one employee (person, place or thing).

Forms:

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 Like printed paper forms, electronic forms should be designed to be
easy and use. (i.e. easy for edit and view)
Most popular RDBMS are MS-SQL Server, DBL, Oracle and MS-SQL

Database:
A database is an organized collection of data, typically in digital form.
The data are typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality (for
example, the availability of rooms in hotels), in a way that supports processes
requiring this information (for example, finding a hotel with vacancies).
The term database is correctly applied to the data and their supporting
data structures, and not to the database management system (DBMS). The
database data collection with DBMS is called a database system.

DATABASE SYSTEM
A database system is a computer based record keeping System whose
overall purpose is to record and maintain information that is relevant to the
organization necessary for making decisions.

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYSTEM

A database system is composed of four components;
• Data
• Hardware
• Software
• Users
which co-ordinate with each other to form an effective database
system.
1. Data - It is a very important component of the database system. Most of
the organizations generate, store and process 1arge amount of data. The data
acts a bridge between the machine parts i.e. hardware and software and the

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users which directly access it or access it through some application
programs.
Data may be of different types.
• User Data - It consists of a table(s) of data called Relation(s) where
Column(s) are called fields of attributes and rows are called Records for
tables. A Relation must be structured properly.
• Metadata - A description of the structure of the database is known as
Metadata. It basically means "data about data". System Tables store the
Metadata which includes.
- Number of Tables and Table Names
- Number of fields and field Names
- Primary Key Fields
• Application Metadata - It stores the structure and format of Queries,
reports and other applications components. '
2. Hardware - The hardware consists of the secondary storage devices such
as magnetic disks (hard disk, zip disk, floppy disks), optical disks (CD-ROM),
magnetic tapes etc. on which data is stored together with the Input/output
devices (mouse, keyboard, printers), processors, main memory etc.
3. Software - The Software part consists of DBMS which acts as a bridge
between the user and the database or in other words, software that interacts
with the users, application programs, and database and files system of a
particular storage media (hard disk, magnetic tapes etc.) to insert, update,
delete and retrieve data. For performing these operations such as insertion,
deletion and updation we can either use the Query Languages like SQL,
QUEL, Gupta SQL or application softwares such as Visual Basic, Developer
etc.
4. Users - Users are those persons who need the information from the
database to carry out their primary business responsibilities i.e. Personnel,
Staff, Clerical, Managers, and Executives etc.

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Glossary:

ActiveX: A Microsoft technology that extends the capabilities of a web

browser.
Applet: A small application. Usually refers to Java applets (q.v.).

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ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The standard
system for representing letters and symbols.
Attachment: A document, spreadsheet, graphic, program or any other kind
of file attached to an email message.
Back door: An undocumented means of bypassing the normal access control
system of a computer. See Backdoor Trojan.
Backdoor Trojan: A Trojan horse (q.v.) program that gives a remote user
unauthorized access to and control over a computer.
Backup: A copy of computer data that is used to recreate data that
has been lost, mislaid, corrupted or erased.
Bayesian filtering: A statistical approach to determining whether email is
spam (based on Bayesian probability theory).
BIOS: The Basic Input/output System. The lowest level of software which
interfaces directly with hardware.
Black hole list: A published list, usually commercial, of addresses known to
be sources of spam. See also Real-time black hole list.
Blacklist: A list of email addresses and domains from which no mail will be
accepted.
Boot sector: The part of the operating system which is read into memory
from disk first when a PC is switched on. The program stored in the boot
sector is then run, which in turn loads the rest of the operating system.
Boot sector virus: A type of virus which subverts the booting process.
Booting: A process carried out when a computer is first switched on, in
which the operating system is loaded from disk.
CGI: Common Gateway Interface. A mechanism that allows a web server to
run programs or scripts and send the output to a user’s web browser.
Checksum: A value calculated from item(s) of data which can be used to
verify that the data has not been altered.
Companion virus: A virus that exploits the fact that when there are two
programs with the same name, the operating system uses the file extension
to decide which one to run. For example, DOS computers will run a .com file
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in preference to an .exe file. The virus creates a .com file containing the virus
code and gives it the same name as an existing .exe file.
Complex dictionary checking: A feature of anti-spam software that finds
words often used in spam, even if letters are replaced with lookalike
numerals or characters (such as “1nterest r@te”).
Cookie: A small packet of data that stores information on a user’s computer.
Cookies are usually used to enable a website to track visits and remember
visitors’ details.
CSV: Comma Separated Values. A file format in which values
(E.g. the values from an Excel spreadsheet) are shown separated by commas.
The format does not support macros, so that it cannot spread macro viruses.
Denial of service attack: An attempt to prevent the use of an email system
or web server by sending unusual or excessive messages or attachments.
Dictionary attack: A program that bombards a mail server with
alphabetically-generated email addresses in the hope that some addresses
will be guessed correctly. The same method can be used to guess passwords.
Digital signature: A means of ensuring that a message has not been
tampered with and that it originates from the claimed sender.
DOS boot sector: The boot sector which loads DOS into PC RAM. Common
point of attack by boot sector viruses.
Downloading: The transfer of data from one computer, typically a server,to
another computer.
False positive: A report that a virus has been found (or that an email is
spam) when this is not the case.
File server: A computer which provides central data storage and often other
services for the workstations on the network.
Firewall: A security system that is placed between the internet and an
organization’s network, or within a network, and only passes authorized
network traffic.
Floppy disk: Removable magnetic disk used to store data.

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FTP: File Transfer Protocol. A system that allows internet users to connect
to remote sites and upload or download files.
Gateway: Either a computer that serves for the transfer of data (e.g. a mail
gateway that handles all the mail coming into an organization), or a computer
that converts data from one protocol to another.
Greylist: Email senders who are not blacklisted (excluded) or white listed
(accepted) can be placed on a greylist and requested to prove that they are
sending legitimate mail.
Hacker: Someone who intentionally breaches computer security, usually to
cause disruption or gain confidential information such as financial details.
Originally the word “hacker” referred to any person who was interested in
computer technology, but is now commonly used by the public and media to
refer to those who have malicious intentions.
Ham: Email that a recipient does not consider to be spam (q.v.).
Hard disk: A sealed magnetic disk, generally inside a computer, which is
used to store data.
Harvesting: Scanning the internet for email addresses that can be put on
spammers’ mailing lists.
Heuristic scanner: A program that detects viruses by using general rules
about what viruses are like or how they behave.
Hoax: A communication, often by email, which is intended to deceive.
Honeypot: A computer system on the internet set up to attract and trap
spammers and hackers.
HTML: Hypertext Markup Language. The format for most documents on the
web.
HTTP: Hypertext Transport Protocol. A protocol used by web servers to make
documents available to web browsers.
HTTP scanning: Real-time scanning of HTTP traffic to ensure web pages you
are viewing or downloading are free from viruses.
Hypertext: Computer-readable text which allows extensive linking of files.

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Internet: A network consisting of many connected networks. “The internet”
is by far the largest of these.
Java: Platform-independent programming language for the web, developed
by Sun Microsystems. Programs written in Java are either applications or
applets (small applications).
Java applet: Small application generally used to create effects on web
pages. Applets are run by the browser in a safe environment (see Sandbox)
and cannot make changes to your system.
Java application: Java-based program that can carry out the full functions
that might be expected, e.g. saving files to disk.
Laptop: A portable computer small enough to be used on your lap.
Link virus: A virus which subverts directory entries so that they point to the
virus code, allowing it to run.
Macro: Sets of instructions inside data files that can carry out program
commands automatically, e.g. opening and closing files.
Macro virus: A virus which uses macros in a data file to become active and
attach itself to other data files.
Mail drop: An email address set up to receive replies to spam. The spammer
then cancels the account from which the spam was sent in an attempt to
avoid detection.
Master boot record: Also known as the partition sector. The first physical
sector on the hard disk which is loaded and executed when the PC is booted.
The most critical part of the startup code.
Memory-resident virus: A virus that stays in memory after it becomes active
and after its host program is closed (unlike other viruses that are activated
only when an infected application runs).
Modem: A MOdulator/DEModulator converts computer data into a form
suitable for transmission via telephone line, radio or satellite link.
Multipartite virus: A virus which infects both boot sectors and program
files.

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Munging: Disguising email addresses so that they cannot be harvested.
Recipients are told how to decode the address.
Newsgroup: An electronic forum where readers post articles and follow-up
messages on specified topics.
Notebook: A computer even smaller than a laptop computer.
Obfuscation: Spammers’ attempts to hide messages so that they will not
be detected. Sometimes used to refer to disguising email addresses so that
spammers cannot harvest them.
Open relay: An SMTP email server that allows the third-party relay of email
messages. Spammers can hijack such servers and use them to send spam.
Operating system: The program which controls the use of the computer’s
hardware resources and performs basic functions such as maintaining lists
of files and running programs.
Palmtop: A computer small enough to be held in the palm of the hand.
Parasitic virus: See Program virus.
Password: Sequence of characters which gives access to a system.
PC: Personal Computer. A desktop or portable single-user computer.
PDA: Personal Digital Assistant. A small, mobile computing device used
mostly for managing data such as address books and calendars.
Phishing: Tricking users into submitting confidential information or
passwords by creating a replica of a legitimate website.
Polymorphic virus: Self-modifying virus. By changing its code, the virus
tries to make itself harder to detect.
Program: A set of instructions that specifies actions a computer should
perform.
Program virus: A computer virus which attaches itself to another computer
program, and is activated when that program is run.
Proxy server: A server that makes requests to the internet on behalf of
another machine. It sits between a company and the internet and can be
used for security purposes.

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RAM: Random Access Memory. A form of temporary memory in a computer.
RAM acts as the computer’s workspace, but data stored there is lost once the
computer is switched off.
Real-time black hole list (RBL): A list that rejects all mail, valid or not, from
addresses known to send spams or host spammers. This can induce internet
service providers to take anti-spam measures.
Reverse DNS check: Checking an email’s sender address against a Domain
Name System database to ensure that it originated from a valid domain name
or web address.
ROM: Read Only Memory. A form of permanent memory in a computer. A
ROM is usually used to store a computer’s startup software.
RTF: Rich Text Format. A document format that does not support macros,
so that it cannot spread macro viruses.
Sandbox: A mechanism for running programs in a controlled environment,
particularly used with Java applets.
SHS: File extension for Windows “scrap object” files. SHS files can include
almost any code and run automatically if you click on them. The extension
may be hidden.
SMTP: Simple Mail Transport Protocol. The delivery system for internet
email.
Spam: Unsolicited commercial email (UCE) and unsolicited bulk email (UBE)
that a recipient does not want.
Spambot: A program that spammers use to harvest email addresses from
the internet.
Spoofing: Forging the sender’s address in email. Spoofing can be used to
hide the origin of spam, or to convince recipients that unsafe email is from a
reliable source.
Spyware: Software that tracks user activity and reports information to
others, such as advertisers. Usually, the tracking is concealed from the
software user.

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Stealth virus: A virus which hides its presence from the computer user and
anti-virus programs, usually by trapping interrupt services.
Tarpitting: Monitoring email traffic to identify addresses sending a
suspiciously large volume of email, which may be spam.
Tarpit: An intentionally slow email server that aims to trap spammers
using harvesting programs.
TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The collective
name for the standard internet protocols.
Trojan horse: A computer program with (undesirable) effects that are not
described in its specification.
URL: Uniform Resource Locator. A web “address”.
VBS: Visual Basic Script. Code embedded in an application, document, or
web page that can run as soon as the page is viewed.
Virus: A program which can spread across computers and networks by
attaching itself to another program and making copies of itself.
Virus identity: A description of virus characteristics used for virus
recognition.
Virus scanner: A program that detects viruses. Most scanners are virus-
specific, i.e. they identify those viruses that are already known. See also
Heuristic scanner.
WAP: Wireless Application Protocol. Internet-type protocol that provides
information to mobile phones and organizers.
Web: See World Wide Web.
Web browser: A program used to access information on the web, i.e. the
client side of the web.
Web bug: A small graphic inserted in an email or web page that alerts a
spammer when a message is read or previewed.
Web server: A computer connected to the internet that makes web
documents available, generally using HTTP.

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Whitelist: A list of external email addresses IP addresses and domains
from which email is accepted without being checked for spam and/or
viruses.
Workstation: A single-user computer, often connected to a network.
World Wide Web: A distributed hypertext system for the reading of
documents across the internet.
Worm: A program that distributes multiple copies of itself. Unlike a virus, a
worm does not need a host program.
WWW: See World Wide Web.
Zombie: An insecure computer that is hijacked and used to send spam or
launch a denial of service attack (q.v).

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