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Final Exam

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21 views33 pages

Final Exam

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Unkown
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Slides 1

The history of Oceanography

Oceanography is a broad field encompassing


- Geological (paleo) oceanography
- Physical oceanography
- Chemical oceanography
- Biological oceanography
- Marine engineering

Meteor Expedition

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Argo Floats

3,000 independent floats

Can dive to up to 2,000 m depth and remain there for 10 to 14 days

Measure temperature and salinity

Data transmitted via satellite to shore observatories when floats surface

(Sink, drift, collect data, and rise)

Origin of ocean

Source of water: mantle and asteroid

Earth Age and Time

4.5 to 4.6 billion years old

Earth is a Water Planet

Hydrologic cycle
- Evaporations, transpirations and sublimation
- Precipitation, rain, and snow

Hydrologic cycle
- Oceans and sea ice
- Ice caps and glaciers
- Freshwater lakes
- Rivers

Reservoirs and residence time


- Large reservoirs -> long residence time
- Small reservoirs -> short residence time

Five ocean
- Pacific
- Indian
- Atlantic
- Southern Ocean
- Artic

Earth Interior

Earthquakes waves reveals Earth’s structure


- Arrival times of seismic waves: that are generated from earthquakes,
volcanic eruption, human made explosions

Earth Models

Isostasy
Paleomagnetisms

Lithosphere is broken in plates

Three Types of Plate boundaries

Divergent boundary
- Mantle upwelling
- Layers of oceanic crust
Convergent boundary
- Plates collide
- Often subduction

Transform boundary
- Usually offset segments of ocean ridges (tow divergent boundaries)
- Cal aso join up different combination of divergent and convergent
boundaries

Hawaiian Islands Hotspot

Marry Hess and Mantle Convection


Generalized Ocean Basin Cross-Section

Location: Distance from the Shore


Dissolution of CaCo3

Lysocline: dissolution begins


Carbonate compensation depth: supply = dissolution
Slides 2

The water molecule

H2O: two hydrogen and one oxygen atom

Covalent bonds
Polar molecule
Hydrogen bonds

Specific Heat and Heat Capacity

Specific heat of a material


- Amount of heat required to produce a unit change in temperature in a
unit mass of the material
Heat capacity
- Amount of heat required to produce a unit change in temperature of
the material
- Function of the materia’s specific heat and its mass

Earth Modeals

Density: Effect of Temperature

Effect of temperature on pure water


- Density increases with decreasing temperature to 3.98 degrees C
- Density decreases with decreasing temperature from 3.98 degrees C to
0 degrees C
- Density decreases at the phase transition from liquid to solid
Density: Effect of Salt
Surgave salinity

Ocean salinities
- Spatial variations
- Provesses that affect salinity
 Evaporation
 Precipitation
 Runoff
 Freezing
 Thawing
Ventilation is the process that transports water from the surface mixed
layer into the ocean interior
SLIDES 3

Unequal radiation with latitude


- Heat capacity of ocean is greater than that of land
- Ocean currents can transfer ehat downward in summer and upward in
winter
- Larger seasonal variations over land

Atmoshphere’s Layers

Troposphere
- Temperature decreases with altitude
- Tropopause minimum temperature zone
Stratrosphere
- Temperature increases with altitude
- Ozone layer

Coriolis Effect

Borthern Hemisphere
- To the right
Souther hemishphere
- To the left
Equator
- Zero
Poles
- Maximum
El nino

Occur every three to seven years

Couple interaction between ocean and atmoshphere in the tropical Pacific


- Collapse of southeast trade winds
- Surface warm pool in western pacific moves eastward
- Upwelling shuts down off west coast of south America

Global Effect
- Unusually dry periods in someregions
- Higher than normal rainfall in other regions

Temperature vs Depth at Mid-Latitudes

Surface processes
- Air-sea heat exchange
- Absorption of solar energy
Charges with depth
- Mixed layers 0 to 100 m
- Thermocline: 100 to 1000 m
- Relatively constant tempeture below 1000 m

Density Varies with Temperature and salinity


Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport

Northern Hemishphere to ther right


Southern Hemishphere to the left

Atanrtic Circumpolar Current (ACC)


- 1 Sverdrup (Sv) = 1,000,000 m^3/s
- ACC transports about 125 Sv
- Carrier Dome: 527, 320 square feet, 165 feet tall
- Drake Passage
Seasonal Changes in Wind Direction along the Coat

North America’s NW coast experiences northerly winds and coastal upwelling


in summer

North America’s NW coast experiences southerly winds and coastal


downwelling in winter

Stages of Tsunami Evolution

- Generation
- Propagation
- Inundation
Slides 4

Great Oxidation Event

- 2.4-2.1 billion years ago


- Direct evidence in the atmosphere

Groups of Organisms

Marine ecosystems are composed of diverse communities


- Plankton
 Phytoplankton
 Zooplankton
 Bacterioplankton
- Nekton
- Benthic

Spatially, ecosystems can be divided into:


- The planktonic environment
- The benthic environment
- Can be further divided by depth

Environmental zones

The ocean can be divided into different zones:


- Pelagic zone: water environment, away from the land
- Benthic zone: seafloor
- Neritic: above the continental shelf

The Plankton

Plankton are the drifters of the sea

Phytoplankton are photoautotrophs


- Eukaryotic phytoplankton
- Prokaryotic phytoplankton

Zooplankton are heterotrophs


- Both unicellular and multicellular

Bacterioplankton
- Includes archaea and bacteria

Phytoplankton

Common members include


- Diatoms
- Dinoflagellates
- Coccolithophorids
- Cyanobacteria
- Green algae

Phytoplankton

Harmful Algal Blooms


- Any phytoplankton that causes harm human or the environment
- Includes toxin production, high biomass, nuisance blooms
- Most (but not all) HABs are dinoflagellates
- Ecologically disruptive algal blooms (EDABs) disrupt ecosystem
function

Measuring Primary productivity

Primary productivity (the rate) us mot often measured by tacking the amount
of oxygen produced or the amount of carbon dioxide consumed

Redfield Ratio provides the typical ratio of different elements

Radio-labeled carbon can be used to measured primary productivity by


tracking carbon dioxide conversion to organic carbon

Oxygen measurements can be used to estimate gross and net productivity


as well as respiration

Primary production
Gross primary production
Net primary production

Phytoplankton Biomass

Standing stock is the total biomass of phytoplankton at any instant in time


- Function of growth, reproduction, death, grazing
- All photoautotrophs use chlorophyll a; it provides a direct measure of
standing stock
- Chlorophyll can be estimated using fluorescence or ocean color

Controls on Productivity and Biomass


The Benthic Environment

The benthos is incredibly diverse


- More than 200,000 species, many more than pelagic environments
- 80% are epifaunal
- Rest are infaunal

Coral Reefs

Tropical coral reefs are the most diverse of marine communities

Deep-water corals found at depths up to 2,00 m lack zooxanthellae

Reef-building corals are colonial animals


- Symbiosis with zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates) in shallow-water corals
- Coral provides shelter, nitrogen, carbon dioxide
- Zooxanthellae process the waste products from the coral and produce
sugars
Coral are subject to
- Coral bleaching (loss of zooxanthellae)
 Warm or cold temperature
 Bacterial infection
 Change in salinity, light
 Various toxins
- Predation and disease
 Crown of thorns sea star (Acanthaster)
 Coraline Lethal Orange Disease (CLOD)
- Human Activities
 Physical damage, runoff, harvesting

Deep Ocean Chemosynthetic Communities

Hot vents discovered in 1977


- Symbiosis is common
- Tube worms, clams, mussels with symbiotic bacteria that produce
energy from vent chemicals
- Chemosynthesis: primary production driven by chemical reactions
other than photosynthesis

Cold seeps
- Slower growing, symbiotic communities
- Associated with oil, gas, brine seeps

Symbiosis

- Commensalism
- Mutualism
- Parasitism
Ventilations (supply

Oxygen distribution and controls

- Colder -> more dissolved O2


- Ventilation: better ventilation -> higher O2
- Utilization: Less nutrient, Lower productivity -> higher O2

Oceanic Anoxic Events


- High CO2 -> warming -> less O2 dissolved and delivered to ocean
interior
- Warming -> more nutrient -> algae bloom

Climate change impacts

- Ice sheet melting


- Sea-level rise
- Hurricane
- Drought
- Ocean acidification
- Ocean deoxygenation

Glacial interglacial Co2

- 190 to 280 ppm


- Hand-in-hand with temperature and ice volume
- Stable over many glacial cycles
Both radioactive and stable carbon isotopic data indicate fossil fuel being the
source of CO2

Carbon sequestration

1. Mineral sequestration
2. Ocean sequestration

3. Geologic Sequestration

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