PHYSICS 3: ELECTRICITY AND

MAGNETISM

Phan Hiền Vũ
Department of Physics - IU VNU-HCM
Office: A1.503
Email: [email protected]
Chapter 6: Electromagnetic Oscillations and
Alternating Current
6.1. LC Oscillations
6.2. The Electrical Mechanical Analogy
6.3. Damped Oscillations in an RLC Circuit
6.4. Alternating Current
6.5. Three Simple Circuits
6.6. The Series RLC Circuit
6.7. Power in Alternating Current Circuits
6.8. Transformers

2
6.1. LC Oscillations:
6.1.1. LC Oscillations, Qualitatively:

• In RC and RL circuits, the charge, current, and potential difference

grow and decay exponentially.
• On the contrary, in an LC circuit, the charge, current, and potential
difference vary sinusoidally with period T and angular frequency .
• The resulting oscillations of the capacitor’s electric field and the
inductor’s magnetic field are said to be electromagnetic oscillations.

3
Electromagnetic oscillations

4
The energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor at any time is

q2
UE 
2C
where q is the charge on the capacitor at that time.
The energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor at any time is

Li 2
UB 
2
where i is the current through the inductor at that time.
As the circuit oscillates, energy shifts back and forth from one type of
stored energy to the other, but the total amount is conserved.

5
• The time-varying potential difference
(or voltage) vC that exists across the
capacitor C is:

1
vC   q
C
• To measure the current, we can
connect a small resistance R in series
with the capacitor and inductor and
measure the time-varying potential
difference vR across it:
v R  iR
• In an actual LC circuit, the
oscillations will not continue
indefinitely because there is always
some resistance that will dissipate
electrical and magnetic energy as
thermal energy
6
Problem 1. An oscillating LC circuit consists of a 75.0 mH inductor and a
3.60 F capacitor. If the maximum charge on the capacitor is 2.90 C,
what are (a) the total energy in the circuit and (b) the maximum
current?
q 2 Li 2
U  UE UB  
2C 2
a) When q is maximum:
2
qmax
U  U E ,max 
2C
b) i is maximum when q = 0:
2
Limax
U B ,max   U E ,max
2

7
6.2. The Electrical Mechanical Analogy:
• One can make an analogy between the oscillating LC system and an
oscillating block–spring system.
• Two kinds of energy are involved in the block–spring system. One is
potential energy of the compressed or extended spring; the other is
kinetic energy of the moving block. Here we have the following
analogies:

8
The angular frequency of oscillation of a (frictionless) block–spring
system is:

k

m
The angular frequency of oscillation for an ideal (resistanceless)
LC circuit is:
1

LC

9
The Block-Spring Oscillator:
1 2 1 2
U  U b  U s  mv  kx
2 2
dU d  1 2 1 2  dv dx
  mv  kx   mv  kx  0
dt dt  2 2  dt dt
d 2x
m 2  kx  0 x  X cos(t   ) ;   k
dt m
: phase constant
The LC Oscillator:
Li 2 q 2
U  U B U E  
2 2C
dU d  Li 2 q 2  di q dq
   Li  0
dt dt  2 2C  dt C dt
 
d 2q 1
L 2  q0 q  Q cos(t   )
dt C
10
 dq
The current i: i  Q sin(t   )
dt
The amplitude I: I  Q i   I sin(t   )
Angular Frequencies:

d 2q
2
  2
Q cos(t   )
dt
We have
d 2q 1
L 2  q0
dt C
1
 L Q cos(t   )  Q cos(t   )  0
2

1 C

LC
11
Problem 10. LC oscillators have been used in circuits connected to
loudspeakers to create some of the sounds of electronic music. What
inductance must be used with a 6.7 F capacitor to produce a
frequency of 10 kHz, which is near the middle of the audible range of
frequencies?

1
T  2 LC  1 / f L 2 2
4 f C

1 −5 𝐻
𝐿= 2 = 3.8 × 10
4𝜋 10 × 103 𝐻𝑧 2 (6.7 × 10−6 𝐹)

12
Electrical and Magnetic Energy Oscillations:
The electrical energy stored in the LC
circuit at time t is,
q2 Q2
UE   cos2 (t   )
2C 2C
The magnetic energy is:
1 2 1
U B  Li  L 2Q 2 sin 2 (t   )
2 2
1
But 
LC
Q2
Therefore UB  sin 2 (t   )
2C
Note that:
•The maximum values of UE and UB are both Q2/2C.
•At any instant the sum of UE and UB is equal to Q2/2C, a constant.
•When UE is maximum, UB is zero, and conversely.
13
6.3. Damped Oscillations in an RLC Circuit:
• A circuit containing resistance,
inductance, and capacitance is
called an RLC circuit
• With R, the total energy U of the
circuit (the sum of UE and UB) is
not constant; instead, it
decreases with time as energy is
transferred to thermal energy in
the resistance.
• The oscillations of charge,
current, and potential difference
continuously decrease in
amplitude, and the oscillations
are said to be damped.

14
Analysis: Li 2 q 2
U  U B U E  
2 2C
This total energy decreases as energy is transferred to thermal energy
dU di q dq
 Li   i 2 R
dt dt C dt
substituting dq/dt for i and d2q/dt2 for di/dt, we have:
d 2q dq 1
L 2 R  q0
dt dt C
q  Qe  Rt / 2L cos(' t   )

Where  '   2  ( R / 2 L) 2

And   1/ LC

UE  

q 2 Qe Rt / 2 L cos( ' t   )  2

Q 2  Rt / L 2
e cos ( ' t   )
2C 2C 2C
15
6.4. Alternating Current:
• The oscillations in an RLC circuit will not damp out if an external
emf device supplies enough energy to make up for the energy
dissipated as thermal energy
• The basic mechanism
of an alternating-
current generator is a
conducting loop
rotated in an external
magnetic field
• The induced emf:

   m sin  d t
i  I sin(  d t   )
d is called the driving angular frequency, and I is the amplitude of
the driven current.

16
Forced Oscillations:

A generator, represented by a
sine wave in a circle, produces an
alternating emf that establishes
an alternating current; the
directions of the emf and currents
are indicated here at only instant.

 Whatever the natural angular frequency  of a circuit may be forced

oscillations of charge, current, and potential difference in the circuit
always occur at the driving angular frequency d.
17
6.5. Three Simple Circuits:
6.5.1. A Resistive Load:
  vR  0
v R   m sin  d t  VR sin  d t
v R VR
iR   sin  d t
R R
Note: for a purely resistive load the phase constant  = 0°.
• vR (t) and iR(t) are in phase ( = 00), which means their
corresponding maxima (and minima) occur at the same times.
The time-varying quantities vR and iR can also be represented
geometrically by phasors (vectors) with the following properties:
angular speed (rotate counterclockwise about the origin with d);
length (representing the amplitude of VR and IR); projection (on the
vertical axis, representing vR and iR); rotation angle (to be equal to
the phase dt at time t)

18
19
6.5.2. A Capacitive Load:

vC  VC sin  d t
qC  CvC  CVC sin  d t
dqC
iC   d CVC cos d t
dt

1
XC 
d C

XC is called the capacitive reactance of a capacitor.

The SI unit of XC is the ohm (), just as for resistance R.

20
cosd t  sin( d t  900 )
 VC 
iC    sin( d t  900 )

 C
X
iC  I C sin(d t   ),   -900 Capacitor: VC  I C X C

21
6.5.3. An Inductive Load:
v L  VL sin  d t
di diL
 L  L vL  L
dt dt
diL VL
 sin d t
dt L
VL  VL 
iL   diL   sin d tdt    cosd t
L  d L 
Inductive reactance: X L   d L
 VL 
iL    sin( d t  900 ); iL  I L sin( d t   )
 XL 
Inductor: VL  I L X L
The value of XL , the inductive reactance, depends on the driving
angular frequency d. The unit of the inductive time constant L (=L/R)
indicates that the SI unit of XL is the ohm.
22
23
Problem 29. A 50.0 mH inductor is connected as in Fig. a to an ac
generator with m = 30.0 V. What is the amplitude of the resulting
alternating current if the frequency of the emf is (a) 1.00 kHz and (b)
8.00 kHz?

i L  I L sin(  d t   )
VL  I L X L   m
X L   d L  2fL
m m
IL  
X L 2f d L
a) f = 1kHz  IL = 0.0955 (A)

b) f = 8 kHz  IL = 0.0955/8 = 0.0119 (A)

24
6.6. RLC Circuits

a) Series RLC Circuit

25
   m sin  d t
i  I sin(  d t   )
m2  V 2  V  V 2  IR 2  IX  IX 2
R L C L C
m
I 
R 2  ( X L  X C )2

Impedance: Z  R2  ( X L  X C )2

Current amplitude:
m
I
R 2  (d L  1 / d C ) 2
Phase constant:
VL  VC IX L  IX C X L  XC
tan    tan  
VR IR R
26
27
Resonance:
m
Current amplitude: I
R 2  (d L  1 / d C ) 2
For a given resistance R, that amplitude I is a maximum when the
quantity (dL -1/dC) in the denominator is zero.

1 1
d L  d 
d C LC
The maximum value of I occurs when the driving angular frequency
matches the natural angular frequency, that is, at resonance.

1
d   
LC

28
Resonance curves
for a driven RLC
circuit with 3 values
of R. The horizontal
arrow on each
curve measures the
curve’s half-width,
which is the width
at the half-
maximum level and XC>XL XC<XL
is a measure of the
sharpness of the
resonance.

29
Problem 38. The current amplitude I versus driving angular frequency
d for a driven RLC circuit is given in Fig. The inductance is 200 H,
and the emf amplitude is 8.0 V. What are (a) C and (b) R?

a) The current I is maximum when:

d  25 103 (rad / s)
1
d   
LC
1
C
d2 L
b) At resonance:

ZR
8 m
RZ    2()
I 4
30
The Parallel RLC Circuit:
IR IL IC
   m sin  d t
 V
i  I m sin  d t   

I 2  (I  I )2
IR L C IC
2 2
V V   V V 
      
 I
Z R  X L XC  IL-IC

IR V
2 2
1 1  1 
      d C 
Z R  d L  IL 1
 d C
I L  IC d L
Phase constant: tan   tan  
IR 1
R
31
6.7. Power in Alternating Current Circuits:
• The instantaneous rate at which
energy is dissipated in the resistor:
P  i 2 R  I sin(d t   ) R
2

P  I 2 R sin 2 (d t   )
• The average rate at which energy is
dissipated in the resistor is the
average of this over time:
2
I R  I 
2
Pavg    R
2  2
rms current amplitude:
I
I rms 
2 (a) A plot of sin versus . The average
value over one cycle is zero;
Average power: (b) A plot of sin2 versus . The
Pavg  I rm
2 average value over one cycle is ½.
sR
32
rms voltage and rms emf:
V m
Vrms  and  rms 
2 2
 rms  rms
I rms  
Z R 2  ( X L  X C )2

Average power:
 rms R
Pavg  I rms R   rms I rms
Z Z

Pavg   rms I rms cos

VR IR R
where cos   
m IZ Z
33
Problem 53. An air conditioner connected to a 120 V rms ac line is
equivalent to a 12.0 Ω resistance and a 1.30 Ω inductive reactance in
series. Calculate (a) the impedance of the air conditioner and (b) the
average rate at which energy is supplied to the appliance.

a) The impedance of the circuit is

(b) The average rate at which energy has been supplied is

34
6.8. Transformers:

• In electrical power distribution systems it is desirable for reasons

of safety and for efficient equipment design to deal with relatively
low voltages at both the generating end (the electrical power
plant) and the receiving end (the home or factory).
• Nobody wants an electric toaster or a child’s electric train to
operate at, say, 10 kV.
• On the other hand, in the transmission of electrical energy from
the generating plant to the consumer, we want the lowest
practical current (hence the largest practical voltage) to minimize
I2R losses (often called ohmic losses) in the transmission line.

35
Example: Consider a 500 kV line used to transmit electrical energy
from Hòa Bình to HCM city, 1500 km away. Suppose that the current is
500 A and the power factor is close to unity. So, energy is supplied at
the average rate:
Pavg = I = IV = (500 x 103 V)(500A) = 250 MW
The resistance of the transmission line: r = 0.22 /km
So, R = 0.22 /km x 1500 km = 330 
Energy is dissipated due to R at a rate:
P’avg = I2R = 5002 x 330 = 82.5 MW, about 33%
If we increase the current to 625 A and reduce the voltage to 400 KV,
giving the same average rate of 250 MW:
P’avg = I2R = 7252 x 330 = 128.9 MW, about 52%
Hence the general energy transmission rule: Transmit at the highest
possible voltage and the lowest possible current.

36
Transformer: A device with which we
can raise and lower the ac voltage in a
circuit, keeping the product current
voltage essentially constant.
• The ideal transformer consists of two
coils, with different numbers of turns,
wound around an iron core. In the
primary coil with Np: A basic transformer circuit
   m sin t
• The secondary coil with Ns turns. The primary current Imagnetizing
(very small) lags the primary voltage VP by 900, so no power is
delivered from the generator to the transformer (cos  = 0).
• The small sinusoidally changing primary current produces a
sinusoidally changing magnetic flux B in the iron core, producing an
emf (dB/dt) in each turn of the secondary. This emf turn per turn is
the same in the primary and the secondary.
• Across the primary, the voltage Vp =turn Np. Similarly, across the
secondary the voltage is Vs = turnNs.
37
 Transformation of voltage:

NS
VS  VP
NP
• If Ns >Np, the device is a step-up transformer because it steps
the primary’s voltage Vp up to a higher voltage Vs.
• If Ns <Np, it is a step-down transformer.

38
• So far, switch S is open, so no energy is transferred from the
generator to the rest of the circuit. If we now close S to connect
the secondary to the resistive load R:
1. An alternating current IS appears, with energy dissipation rate
IS2R = VS2/R
2. IS induces an opposing emf in the primary windings
3. VP of the primary cannot change in response to this opposing
emf because it must always be equal to the emf  provided by
the generator
4. To maintain VP, the generator produces (in addition to Imag) an
alternating current IP in the primary circuit. The magnitude and
phase constant of IP are just those required for the emf induced
by IP in the primary to exactly cancel the emf induced there by
IS. Because the phase constant  of IP is not 900, so IP can
transfer energy (Pavg = rmsIrmscos) to the primary.

39
• If no energy is lost along the way, conservation of energy requires that

I PV P I SVS
NP
 Transformation of currents: IS  IP
NS
VS NP
IS   IP
R NS
2
1 NS 1  NS  VP
IP  VS    VP IP 
R NP R  NP  Req
Here the equivalent resistance Req is the value of the load resistance as
“seen” by the generator:
2
 NP 
Req    R
 NS 
40
Problem 62. A generator supplies 100 V to a transformer’s primary coil,
which has 50 turns. If the secondary coil has 500 turns, what is the
secondary voltage?

41
Solar Activity and Power-Grid Systems:
• A solar flare: A huge loop of e-
and p extends outward from the
Sun’s surface
• The particles produce a current,
called an electrojet, setting up a
B field
• The transmission line, the
ground, and the wires grounding
the transformers form a
conducting loop. An electrojet
varies in both size and location,
producing an emf and a current.
• The current IGIC (GIC:
Geomagnetically Induced
Current) saturates the iron core,
this disrupts the power
transmission. Source: National Geographic
42
https://powerbyproxi.com/

43
Homework:
Problems 2, 7, 9, 17, 23, 25, 32, 41, 48, 49, 57, 65 in Chapter 31

44