PHYSICS 3: ELECTRICITY AND

MAGNETISM

Phan Hiền Vũ
Department of Physics - IU VNU-HCM
Office: A1.503
Email: [email protected]
Chapter 3: Current and Resistance.
Direct Current Circuits.
3.1. Electric Current
3.2. Resistance and Resistivity
3.3. Ohm’s Law and a Microscopic View of Ohm’s Law
3.4. Semiconductors and Superconductors
3.5. Work, Energy, and Emf
3.6. Kirchhoff’s Rules
3.7. Resistors in Series and in Parallel
3.8. RC Circuits

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3.5. Work, Energy, and Emf
3.5.1. Concepts
• To make charge carriers flow through a device we must establish a
potential difference between the ends of the device, e.g., connecting
the device to a charged capacitor but the duration time is very short
• To produce a steady flow, we need a charge pump, an emf device
ε (emf: electromotive force, outdated phrase)
• Some examples for emf devices: battery, electric generators (solar
cells, fuel cells, thermopiles), living systems (electric eels)

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• When an emf is connected (in a closed circuit), within the emf
device, positive charge carriers move from a region of low electric
potential (low electric potential energy, negative terminal) to a
region of higher potential (higher potential energy, positive terminal)

• This flow of positive charge and the

current have the same direction

• As this motion is the opposite

of what the electric field between
the terminals would cause the
positive charges to move, therefore
there must be a energy source to
do work on the charges

• The source may be chemical, or involves

mechanical forces, temperature differences,
or the Sun

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3.5.2. Work, Energy, and Emf:
Emf ε:
• We analyze a circuit as shown: in any time interval dt, a charge dq
passes through any cross section of the circuit
• The emf device does an amount of work dW:, we define the emf of
the emf device as follows:

dW

dq

• So, the emf of an emf device is the work per unit charge that the
device does in moving charge from its low-potential terminal to its
high-potential terminal (symbol: )
• SI unit: 1 Volt (V) = 1 Joule / 1 Coulomb
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• An ideal emf device: the potential difference between the terminals is
equal to the emf of the device (no internal resistance r = 0), V = ε
(open or closed circuit)
• A real emf device: V = ε if there is no current through the device and
V < ε if there is a current, it means the real devices have internal
resistance (r is not 0)

• Power of an emf device:

dW  dq  idt  Pdt

P  i
A real emf device

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Problem 5. A 5.0 A current is set up in a circuit for 6.0 min by a
rechargeable battery with a 6.0 V emf. By how much is the chemical
energy of the battery reduced?

dW
The emf of the battery: 
dq
For 6 min:

W  q  it
W  (6V )  (5 A)  (6  60 s)  10800 ( J )

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3.6. Kirchhoff’s Rules
3.6.1. Loop Rule (Voltage Law): The algebraic sum of the changes in
potential encountered in a complete traversal of any loop of a
circuit must be zero
Example: We consider a circuit as
shown, from point a we follow the
clockwise direction, we have:

  iR  0
Important Notes:
• For a move through a resistance in the direction of the current, the
change in potential is –iR; in the opposite direction it is +iR
(resistance rule)
• For a move through an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf
arrow, the change in potential is +ε; in the opposite direction it is -
ε (emf rule)

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• If you follow the counter-clockwise
direction:

   iR  0

Checkpoint 1: The figure shows the current i in a single-loop circuit

with a battery B and a resistance R (and wires of negligible resistance).
(a) Should the emf arrow at B be drawn pointing leftward or rightward?
At points a, b, and c, rank (b) the magnitude of the current, (c) the
electric potential, and (d) the electric potential energy of the charge
carriers, greatest first.

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3.6.2. Junction Rule (Current Law):
The sum of the currents entering any
junction must be equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction

i1  i2  i3

This rule is a statement of the conservation

of charge for a steady flow of charge, there
is neither a buildup nor a depletion of
charge at a junction

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 3.7. Resistors in Series and in Parallel:
In this section, we study resistances in series and in parallel using
Kirchhoff’s rules. First, we apply the rules for a single-loop circuit
3.7.1. A single-loop circuit:
Internal Resistance:
 A real battery has internal
resistance r
Using the loop rule clockwise
beginning at point a:

Vb  Va  Vd  Vc  0
As the battery has a resistance r:
Vb  Va    ir
(  ir )  (iR)  0 
So, we can calculate the current i: i
rR
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 The changes in electric potential around the circuit

Note: in general, if a battery is not described as real or if no internal

resistance is indicated, you can assume that it is ideal

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3.7.2. Multiloop circuits:
Example: The figure shows a
multiloop circuit consisting of
three branches
Junction rule for point b:
i1  i3  i2 (1)
Applying the loop rule for
left-hand loop badb in a
counter-clockwise direction:

1  i1R1  i3 R3  0 (2)
For right-hand loop bdcb: i3 R3  i2 R2   2  0 (3)
For big loop badcb: 1  i1R1  i2 R2   2  0 ( 4)

Note: Equation (4) can be derived from the sum of (2) and (3), so we can
use only two of the three equations above for such a multiloop circuit
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3.7.3. Resistors in Series:
Problem: Calculate the resistance of resistors connected in series

We apply the Kirchhoff’s rules in the

clockwise direction:
• Junction Rule: When a potential difference
V is applied across resistances connected
in series, the resistances have identical
currents i:
i  i1  i2  i3
• Loop Rule: The sum of the potential
differences across resistances is equal to
the applied potential difference V:

  iR1  iR2  iR3  0


i
R1  R2  R3
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• If we replace three resistors by an
equivalent resistor, so its resistance is:

  iReq  0
Req  R1  R2  R3
• For n resistors connected in series:

n
Req  Rj
j 1

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3.7.4. Resistors in Parallel:
Problem: Calculate the resistance of resistors connected in parallel
For resistors in parallel:
When a potential difference V is applied
across resistances connected in parallel,
the resistances all have that same potential
difference V.
• Junction Rule: i  i1  i2  i3
 1 1 1 
i  V    
 R1 R 2 R3 
• Loop Rule: If we replace three resistors by
an equivalent resistor:
  iReq  0
if n resistors in parallel:

1 1 1 1 n
   
1 1

Req R1 R 2 R3 Req j 1 R j
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Series and Parallel Resistors and Capacitors

Series Parallel Series Parallel

Resistors Capacitors

n n n n
Rj   C j
1 1 1 1
Req    Ceq 
j 1
Req j 1 R j Ceq j 1 C j j 1
Same current Same potential Same charge on Same potential
through all difference all capacitors difference
resistors across all across all
resistors capacitors

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Problem 24. In the figure below, R1 = R2 = 4.0  and R3 = 1.5 . Find
the equivalent resistance between points D and E.
(Hint: Imagine that a battery is connected across those points.)

R1 is in parallel with R2, so:

R1 R2 4.0
R12    2()
R1  R2 2
R12 in series with R3:

R123  R12  R3  3.5()

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Sample: Electric fish are able to generate current with biological cells
called electroplaques, which are physiological emf devices. The
electroplaques in the type of electric fish known as a South American
eel are arranged in 140 rows, each row stretching horizontally along
the body and each containing 5000 electroplaques. The arrangement is
suggested in Figure a; each electroplaque has an emf ε of 0.15 V and
an internal resistance r of 0.25 Ω. The water surrounding the eel
completes a circuit between the two ends of the electroplaque array,
one end at the animal's head and the other near its tail.

(a) If the water surrounding the eel has resistance Rw = 800 Ω, how
much current can the eel produce in the water?

To solve this problem, we can simply the circuit of Figure a by replacing

combinations of emfs and internal resistances with equivalent emfs and
resistances as shown in the following figures b, c, and d:

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0.15 V 0.15 V

140

1 1 1
  140
Req Rj Rrow
j 1

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The equivalent resistance:
Rrow
Req   8.93()
140
Using the loop rule:

 row  iRw  iReq  0

 row 750
i   0.93( A)
Rw  Req 800  8.93
Therefore, if the head or tail of the eel is near a fish, some of this
current could pass along a narrow path through the fish, stunning or
killing the fish

(b) How much current irow travels through each row of Figure a?

 6.6 103 ( A)
i 0.927
irow  
140 140
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3.7.5. Calculating Potential Difference Between Two Points
Usually we need to calculate potential difference between two points in
a circuit. This section will show you how to do this in some common
cases and other issues related to potential difference
• Calculate Vb-Va in the figure: We start at point a with potential Va,
when we pass through the battery’s emf, the potential increases by ε,
when we pass through the battery’s internal resistance r the potential
decreases by ir. We are then at point b with potential Vb:

Va    ir  Vb

Vb  Va    ir;

i
rR
 12
Vb  Va  R 4  8(V )
rR 24
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Vb-Va is the terminal-to-terminal potential difference V:
Vb  Va    ir
So, for a real battery V is less ε
For an ideal battery: V = ε

Grounding a circuit: The figures show

point a or b directly connected to ground
(symbol: ).

In this case, the potential is defined to be zero

at the grounding point in the circuit

So, we have:
• In Figure a, Vb-Va= 8 V, Va = 0 
Vb = 8 V
• In Figure b, Vb = 0  Va = -8 V

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The relationship between Power and Potential:
We will calculate work done by an emf device (e.g., a battery) on the
charges to establish a current i; the dissipation rate of energy due to
the internal resistance r of the emf device and the power of the emf
device
• The net rate P of energy transfer from the emf device to the charge
carriers:
P  iV
• We also have: V    ir
P  i(  ir )  i  i r
2
• The term i2r is the rate of energy transfer to thermal energy within
the emf device:
2
Pr  i r
• The rate of energy transfer from the emf device both to the charges
and to the thermal energy:
Pemf  i
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3.7.6. The Ammeter and the Voltmeter:

• An instrument that is used to

measure currents is called an
ammeter
• A meter to measure potential
difference is called a voltmeter

• The figure shows how to set up

an ammeter and a voltmeter in a
circuit

• A meter can measure currents

(ammeter), potential difference
(voltmeter) and resistance (ohmmeter),
by means of a switch, is called a multimeter

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3.8. RC Circuits
In this section we begin to study time-varying currents
3.8.1. Charging a Capacitor:
• An RC series circuit: a circuit consists a capacitor C, an ideal battery
and a resistor R.
• When S is closed on a, C is charged: the charge begins to flow
between the capacitor plates and the battery terminals, establishing
a current i.
• When VC = Vbattery = ε, the current is zero.
• We examine the charging process: charge q(t), potential difference
VC(t), and current i(t). Using the loop rule:

  iR  VC  0
q
   iR   0
C
dq dq q
i  R  
dt dt C
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The solution for the differential equation above is:

q  C (1  e t / RC )
(see text for solving the equation)
So, the current i(t):

dq    t / RC
i   e
dt  R 
And the potential difference V(t) across the
capacitor:

  (1  e t / RC )
q
VC 
C

Note: When the capacitor becomes fully

charged as t->infinity: q = Cε, i = 0,
and VC = ε
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The time constant:   RC (Unit: s)

At t = τ = RC:
q  C (1  e 1 )  0.63C
During the first time τ, the charge increases from zero to 63% of its
final value Cε
The greater τ is the greater the charging time

3.8.2. Discharging a Capacitor:

After being fully charged, the capacitor has a potential V0 = ε, we
switch S from a to b, so the capacitor discharges through resistor R.
Using the loop rule:

dq q
R  0
dt C

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 t / RC
q  q0e
q0  CV0

dq  q0  t / RC
i   e
dt  RC 

VC  V0e t / RC
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Problem 57. Switch S in the figure below is closed at time t = 0, to begin
charging an initially uncharged capacitor of capacitance C = 15.0 F
through a resistor of resistance R = 20.0 . At what time is the potential
across the capacitor equal to that across the resistor?

For a charging process, the potential

difference across the capacitor:
q
VC    (1  e t / RC ) (1)
C
dq    t / RC
The current: i   e
dt  R 
So, the potential difference across resistor R:
VR  iR  e t / RC (2)
From (1) & (2): 1  e t / RC  e t / RC
1 6 1
t   RC ln   ( 201510 ) ln
2 2
t  0.21103 ( s ) or 0 .21( m s)
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Summary dW

• Emf of an electromotive force device (V):
• Power of an emf device (W): P  i dq
• Kirchhoff’s Rules
• Loop Rule (Voltage Law)
  iR  0
• Junction Rule (Current Law)
i1  i2  i3
• Resistors
• In a single-loop circuit
• In a multi-loop circuit
n
• In series: Req  Rj
j 1
n

• In parallel: 1 1

Req j 1 R j
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• Calculating potential difference between two points: VBA = VB - VA
• The net rate P of energy transfer from the emf device to the charge
carriers:
P  iV  i (  ir )  i  i r  Pem f  Pthermal
2

• RC circuits
• Charging a capacitor:
dq q
R   q  C (1  e t / RC )
dt C
dq    t / RC   (1  e t / RC )
q
i   e VC 
dt  R  C

• Discharging a capacitor:
dq q
R  0 q  q0et / RC
dt C
i
dq  q0  t / RC
  e VC  V0e t / RC
dt  RC 
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Homework:
Problems 2, 7, 10, 17, 22, 34, 44, 45, 54, 60, 65 in Chapter 27
Textbook

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