BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND DEF! TIONS ‘Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today, the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter. Some Application Areas of Thermodynamics Photosynthesis: 7 1. Tega aos up water (0) roo 2 Meenertde neta oF {un 1 etanestapeneyyfomsvupnt 8 4 Depart wart etonnee Sas Gitosmerocomea) 5 megane ne mabewe oy 6 Thepan ss the sgt oh etic S Sarton ann Sigs, (Phot) pp. osevoc Weype Shan Deletion Layer — Y aioli lag ote PvCel Sol NeeserFundamental Concepts and Assumptions Systems and Control Volumes ‘A system is defined as a quantity of matter ora region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space. Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. Closed System (also known as a control mass), consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system. Open System ‘An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume, PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM Property — any characteristic of a system, Example: 1. Pressure, P 11. Elevation 2. Temperature, T 3. Volume, V 4, Mass, m 5. Viscosity 6. Thermal Conductivity 7, Modulus of Elasticity 8, Thermal Expansion Coefficient 9. Electric Resistivity 10. Velocity Exon on) Eas ‘Surroundings System} BoundaryIntensive Properties - are those that are independent of the mass of a system. Examples: 1, Temperature 2. Pressure 3. Density Extensive Properties - are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system, Extensive properties per unit ‘mass are called specific properties. Example: (Bete (Oy Aber 1. Mass 2. Volume Actos stem aching erm 3. Momentum 4, Specific Volume (v = V/m) 5. Specific Total Energy e = E/m Criterion to differentiate intensive and extensive properties. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. =m (8)(2 0= Gs) (i) Specific Volume ~ The reciprocal of density, which is defined as volume per unit mass. voi Specific Gravity or Relative Density - the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C for which pyig9 = Puzo Specific Weight - The weight per unit volume of a substance equal to the density multiplied by the acceleration of gravity, y= ¥= 06 (5) ‘Temperature and The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes the condition, or the state, of the system. ‘Thermal Equilibrium - the temperature is the same throughout the a ysem sttwodieen ses. entire system. That is, the system involves no temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow. ‘Mechanical Equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.‘Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It may seem silly that such an obvious fact is called one of the basic laws of thermodynamics. However, it cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics, and it serves as a basis for the validity of temperature ‘measurement. By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as ‘two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact. ‘The zeroth law was first formulated and labeled by R. H. Fowler in 1931. As the name suggests, its value as a fundamental physical principle was recognized more than half a century after the formulation of the first and the second laws of thermodynamics. It was named the zeroth law since it should have preceded the first and the second laws of thermodynamics, Temperature Scales 1, Celsius scale, °C (SI) 2. Fahrenheit scale, °F (English) Thermodynamic (Absolute) Temperature Scales a. Kelvin scale, K (SI) b, Rankine scale, R (English) The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by T(K) = T°C + 273 The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit seale by T(R) = T°F + 460 ‘The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by TR) = 21(K) TOR) = e TCC) + 32 Change in Temperature (AT) AT(K) = ATC) AT(R) = ATCF) Pressure 6 Pressure is defined asa normal foree exerted by a id per unit area, "ras rans F | pat \k Where: P = Pressure, (Pa) (“) (® or psi) (“t) hag 08 Ubar = 10°Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa 760 mmHg = 101.325 kPa tttt 01325 bars = 29.2 inHg = 760 torrs Absolute Pressure - The actual pressure at a given position. Gage Pressure - The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. ‘Vacuum Pressure - The difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. Paps — Patm Patm ~ PabsAeohie Abwoie vacnm Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the free surface P= Pam + pgh = peh Powe Pressure Measurement Devices Barometer — a device used to measure atmospheric pressure, The atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure. Patm = pgh pee] The Manometer It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the ‘manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated, jj - | | Ld “The basic Dimensions and Units Dimension — any physical quantity. Example: mass, length, time and temperature. Units ~ magnitudes assigned to the dimensions. Example: meter, kilograms, second and Kelvin ‘Two Commonly Used Units English system, which is also known as the United States Customary System (USCS), metric SI (from Le Systéme International d’ Unités), which is also known as the International System,Dimension Unit (SI or metric) Unit (English) Length Meter (m) Foot (ft) Mass Kilogram (kg) Slug or pound (slug or Ibm) Time Second (s) Second (s) Temperature Degree (°C or K) Degree (°F or R) Force F = mass x acceleration ING tke Fein 1IbE = 32.2 Ibm - Ja = 1 fs? In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and itis defined Paine as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/sec?. In the English system, the force unit is the pound-force (Ibf) and is defined as the force required to a Ibm (1 slug) at a rate of 1 ft/sec -elerate a mass of 32.174 Weight ‘The term weight is often incorrectly used to express mass, particularly by the “weight watchers.” Unlike mass, weight W isa force. It is the gravitational force applied to.a body, and its ‘magnitude is determined from Newton's second law, W=mg s=oeorm? — e=sorsee Where: Wegttntgmie Wom Ate W = Weight in (N)(Ibf) rite m= mass of the body, (kg) (slug, Ibm) g = acceleration due to gravity, (9.81 25) (32.2%) ‘Work - Is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times distance. We Fd Where: W = Work in (J) (BTU)(Ib — ft) J=1N-em Power - Is the time rate of energy in (W)(hp) Electrical energy typically is expressed in the unit kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is equivalent to 3600 KJ. An electric appliance with a rated power of 1 KW consumes 1 kWh of electricity when running continuously for one hour.‘The Conservation of Mass The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible. The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula Q=av m= pAv Where: Q= volume flow rate cross ~ sectional area v = average speed 'm = mass flow rate | [-—Contot surtace Contr pom Lt “Mass entering and leaving a contol volume. Continuity Equation ‘mass entering control volume = mass leaving control volume m, =m; PrAivy = P2Azv2 ‘Where: density ofa substance at the entrance section. area at the entrance section V, = velocity at the entrance section density of a substance at the exitsection section V, = velocity at the exit section MIL JHON B. ARIQUISUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 1. The mass of air in a room 3 x 5 x 20m. m is known to be 350 kg. Determine the density, specific volume, and specific weight. Answer: 1.167 kg/m?, 0.857 m?/kg, 11.45 N/m? 2. The temperature of a system rises by 70°C during heating process. Express this rise in temperature in Kelvin, Answer: 70K 3. The flash point of an engine oil is 363°F. What is the absolute flash-point temperature in K and R? Answer: 823 R, 457 K 4. The temperature of ambient air in a certain location is measured to be —40°C. Express this temperature in Fahrenheit (°F), Kelvin, (K) and Rankine (R) units. Answer: = —40°F, 233K, 420 R 5. The temperature of a system drops by 45°F during a cooling process. Express this drop in temperature in K, R, and °C. Answer: 45 R, 25K, 25°C 6. The pressure in a water line is 1500 kPa...What is the “line pressure in (a) Fr units and (b) 7 (psiunits? Answer: 31,345.76 22, 217.768 psi 7. A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psi. Find the absolute pressure in psia and kPa, Answer: 54.5 psia, 375.66 kPa 8. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 inHg abs), make these conversions: (a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere, (b) 20 inflg vacuum to inllg abs and to psia (©) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa (d) 15 inlg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa Answer: 94.7 psia, 5.44 atm, 9.92 ing abs, 4.874 psia, 4.7 psiv, 68928 Paa, 22.07 psia, 381 torrs, 50798 Pa 9. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 750 mmHg. Take the density of mercury to be 13, 600 *£. Answer: 100,062 kPa 10, The meteorologist reports that the air pressure during storm is 70 em of mercury. Calculate the air pressure in kPa. Assume SGyy = 13.6. Answer: 93.40 kPa 11, A 3-kg plastic tank that has a volume of 0.2m! is filled with liquid water. Assuming the density of water is 1000, determine the weight of the combined system, Answer: 1991 N 12. A 3-kg rock is thrown upward with a force of 200 N at a location where the local gravitational acceleration is 9.79 <5. Determine the acceleration of the rock, in 5.Answer: 56.9 m/sec* 13. A manometer is used to measure the pressure of @ gas in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 em, as shown. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank, Answer: 4.6 kPa 14, The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6kPa. Determine the ai pressure in the tank if hy = 0.1 m, if hy = 0.2m and if hs = 0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury, to be 1000 *€ and 8508 and 13,600 respectively. Answer: P, = 130,000 Pa = 130 kPa 15. A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10- gal bucket. The inner diameter of the hose is 2.cm, and it reduces to 0.8 em at the nozzle exit. Ifit takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine (a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and (b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit. Answer: 0.7571 liter/sec, 0.7571 kg/sec, 15.06 m/sec 16, Water is flowing in a pipe that changes diameter from 20 to 40 mm. Ifthe water in the 20-mm section has a velocity of 40 m/s, determine the velocity in the 40-mm section, Also calculate the mass flux. Answer: 10 m/sec, 12.57 kg/sec MIL JHON B. ARIQUI