Chapter 2

L IMITS

The concept of a limit helps us to describe the behaviour of a function close to some point of interest.
This is useful in the case of functions that are either not continuous, or not defined somewhere. We
use the notation

lim f (x)
x a

to denote the value that the function f approaches as x gets closer and closer to the value a.

2.1 Quick review of limits

Learning Objectives
• Explain using both words and pictures what lim f (x) = L, lim f (x) = L, and
x a x a
lim f (x) = L mean (including the case where L is equal to or ).
x a+

• Explain using both words and pictures what lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L mean
x x
(including the case where L is equal to or ).

• Find the limit of a function at a point given the graph of the function.

• Understand when limits do and do not exist.

Before we come to definitions, let us start with a little notation for limits.

27
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Notation 2.1.1.

We will often write

lim f (x) = L
x a

which should be read as

The limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L.

The notation is just shorthand — we don’t want to have to write out long sentences as we do our
mathematics. Whenever you see these symbols you should think of that sentence.
This shorthand also has the benefit of being mathematically precise (albeit not in a way that we
will cover in this course), and (almost) independent of the language in which the author is writing.
A mathematician who does not speak English can read the above formula and understand exactly
what it means.
In mathematics, like most languages, there is usually more than one way of writing things and
we can also write the above limit as

f (x) L as x a

This can also be read as above, but also as

f (x) goes to L as x goes to a
They mean exactly the same thing in mathematics, even though they might be written and read a
little differently.
To arrive at the definition of limit, we want to start with a very simple example.
Example 2.1.2
Consider the following function.

2x x 3
f (x) = 9 x=3
2x x 3

This is an example of a piecewise function. That is, a function defined in several pieces, rather than
as a single formula. We evaluate the function at a particular value of x on a case-by-case basis. Here
is a sketch of it:

28
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Notice the two circles in the plot. One is open, , and the other is closed, .
• A filled circle has quite a precise meaning — a filled circle at (x, y) means that the function
takes the value f (x) = y.
• An open circle is a little harder — an open circle at (3, 6) means that the point (3, 6) is not on
the graph of y = f (x), i.e. f (3) 6. We should only use the open circle where it is absolutely
necessary in order to avoid confusion.
This function is quite contrived, but it is a very good example to start working with limits more
systematically. Consider what the function does close to x = 3. We already know what happens
exactly at 3 (that is, f (x) = 9 ) but we want to look at how the function behaves very close to x = 3.
That is, what does the function do as we look at a point x that gets closer and closer to x = 3?
If we plug in some numbers very close to 3 (but not exactly 3) into the function we see the
following:
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1
f (x) 5.8 5.98 5.998 6.002 6.02 6.2
So as x moves closer and closer to 3, without being exactly 3, we see that the function moves closer
and closer to 6. We can write this as
lim f (x) = 6
x 3

That is:
The limit as x approaches 3 of f (x) is 6.
So for x very close to 3, without being exactly 3, the function is very close to 6 — which is a long
way from the value of the function exactly at 3, f (3) = 9. Note well that the behaviour of the
function as x gets very close to 3 does not depend on the value of the function at 3.
Example 2.1.2

We now have enough to make an informal definition of a limit, which is actually sufficient for
most of what we will do in this text.
Definition 2.1.3 (Informal definition of limit).

We write

lim f (x) = L
x a

if the value of the function f (x) is sure to be arbitrarily close to L whenever the value of x
is close enough to a, without1 being exactly a.

1 You may find the condition “without being exactly a” a little strange, but there is a good reason for it. One very
important application of limits, indeed the main reason we teach the topic, is in the definition of derivatives (see
f (x) f (a)
Definition 3.3.3). In that definition we need to compute the limit lim . In this case the function whose
x a x a
f (x) f (a)
limit is being taken, namely x a , is not defined at all at x = a.

29
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Let us use the above definition to examine a more substantial example.

Example 2.1.4
x 2
Let f (x) = x2 + x 6
and consider its limit as x 2.

• We are really being asked

x 2
lim = what?
x 2 x2 + x 6

• Now if we try to compute f (2) we get 0/0 which is undefined. The function is not defined
at that point — this is a good example of why we need limits. We have to sneak up on these
places where a function is not defined (or is badly behaved).
• VERY IMPORTANT POINT: the fraction 00 is not and it is not 1; it is not defined. We
cannot ever divide by zero in normal arithmetic and obtain a consistent and mathematically
sensible answer. If you learned otherwise in high school, you should quickly unlearn it.
• Again, we can plug in some numbers close to 2 and see what we find

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 0.20408 0.20040 0.20004 0.19996 0.19960 0.19608

• So it is reasonable to suppose that

x 2
lim = 0.2
x 2 x2 + x 6

Example 2.1.4

The previous two examples are nicely behaved in that the limits we tried to compute actually
exist. We now turn to two nastier examples2 in which the limits we are interested in do not exist.
Example 2.1.5 (A bad example)
Consider the following function f (x) = sin(p/x). Find the limit as x 0 of f (x).
We should see something interesting happening close to x = 0 because f (x) is undefined there.
Using your favourite graph-plotting software you can see that the graph looks roughly like

2 Actually, they are good examples, but the functions in them are nastier.

30
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

How to explain this? As x gets closer and closer to zero, p/x becomes larger and larger (remember
what the plot of y = 1/x looks like). So when you take sine of that number, it oscillates faster and
faster the closer you get to zero. Since the function does not approach a single number as we bring x
closer and closer to zero, the limit does not exist.
We write this as
⇣p ⌘
lim sin does not exist
x 0 x
It’s not very inventive notation, however it is clear. We frequently abbreviate “does not exist” to
“DNE” and rewrite the above as
⇣p ⌘
lim sin = DNE
x 0 x

Example 2.1.5

In the following example, the limit we are interested in does not exist. However the way in
which things go wrong is quite different from what we just saw.
Example 2.1.6
Consider the function
x x 2
f (x) = 1 x=2
x+3 x 2

• The plot of this function looks like this

• So let us plug in numbers close to 2.

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 1.9 1.99 1.999 5.001 5.01 5.1

• This isn’t like before. Now when we approach from below, we seem to be getting closer to
2, but when we approach from above we seem to be getting closer to 5. Since we are not
approaching the same number the limit does not exist.

lim f (x) = DNE

x 2

31
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Example 2.1.6

While the limit in the previous example does not exist, the example serves to introduce the idea
of “one-sided limits”. For example, we can say that

As x moves closer and closer to two from below the function approaches 2.

and similarly

As x moves closer and closer to two from above the function approaches 5.

Definition 2.1.7 (Informal definition of one-sided limits).

We write

lim f (x) = K
x a

when the value of f (x) gets closer and closer to K when x a and x moves closer and
closer to a. Since the x-values are always less than a, we say that x approaches a from
below. This is also often called the left-hand limit since the x-values lie to the left of a on
a sketch of the graph.
We similarly write

lim f (x) = L
x a+

when the value of f (x) gets closer and closer to L when x a and x moves closer and
closer to a. For similar reasons we say that x approaches a from above, and sometimes
refer to this as the right-hand limit.

Note — be careful to include the superscript + and when writing these limits. You might also
see the following notations:

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L right-hand limit
x a+ x a+ x a x a
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L left-hand limit
x a x a x a x a

but please use with the notation in Definition 2.1.7 above.

Given these two similar notions of limits, when are they the same? The following theorem tell
us
Theorem 2.1.8 (Limits and one sided limits).

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L

x a x a x a+

32
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Notice that this is really two separate statements because of the “if and only if”
• If the limit of f (x) as x approaches a exists and is equal to L, then both the left-hand and
right-hand limits exist and are equal to L. AND,
• If the left-hand and right-hand limits as x approaches a exist and are equal, then the limit as x
approaches a exists and is equal to the one-sided limits.
That is — the limit of f (x) as x approaches a will only exist if it doesn’t matter which way we
approach a (either from left or right) AND if we get the same one-sided limits when we approach
from left and right, then the limit exists.
We can rephrase the above by writing the contrapositives3 of the above statements.
• If either of the left-hand and right-hand limits as x approaches a fail to exist, or if they both
exist but are different, then the limit as x approaches a does not exist. AND,
• If the limit as x approaches a does not exist, then the left-hand and right-hand limits are either
different or at least one of them does not exist.
Here is another limit example.
Example 2.1.9
Consider the following two functions and compute their limits and one-sided limits as x approaches
1:

These are a little different from our previous examples, in that we do not have formulas, only the
sketch. But we can still compute the limits.
• Function on the left — f (x):
lim f (x) = 2 lim f (x) = 2
x 1 x 1+

so by the previous theorem

lim f (x) = 2
x 1

3 Given a statement of the form “If A then B”, the contrapositive is “If not B then not A”. They are logically
equivalent — if one is true then so is the other. We must take care not to confuse the contrapositive with the
converse. Given “If A then B”, the converse is “If B then A”. These are definitely not the same.
To see this consider the statement “If he is Shakespeare then he is dead.” The converse is “If he is dead then he is
Shakespeare” — clearly garbage since there are plenty of dead people who are not Shakespeare. The contrapositive
is “If he is not dead then he is not Shakespeare” — which makes much more sense.

33
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

• Function on the right — g(t ):

lim g(t ) = 2 and lim g(t ) = 2

t 1 t 1+

so by the previous theorem

lim g(t ) = DNE

t 1

Example 2.1.9

We have seen two ways in which a limit does not exist — in one case the function oscillated
wildly, and in the other there was some sort of “jump” in the function, so that the left-hand and
right-hand limits were different.
There is a third way that we must also consider. To describe this, consider the following four
functions:

Figure 2.1.1.

None of these functions are defined at x = a, nor do the limits as x approaches a exist. However
we can say more than just “the limits do not exist”.
Notice that the value of function 1 can be made bigger and bigger as we bring x closer and
closer to a. Similarly the value of the second function can be made arbitrarily large and negative (i.e.
make it as big a negative number as we want) by bringing x closer and closer to a. Based on this
observation we have the following definition.

34
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Definition 2.1.10.

We write

lim f (x) = +
x a

when the value of the function f (x) becomes arbitrarily large and positive as x gets closer
and closer to a, without being exactly a.
Similarly, we write

lim f (x) =
x a

when the value of the function f (x) becomes arbitrarily large and negative as x gets closer
and closer to a, without being exactly a.

A good example of the above is

1 1
lim =+ lim =
x 0 x2 x 0 x2

IMPORTANT POINT: Please do not think of “+ ” and “ ” in these statements as numbers.

You should think of lim f (x) = + and lim f (x) = as special cases of lim f (x) = DNE. The
x a x a x a
statement

lim f (x) = +
x a

does not mean “ f (x) approaches infinity as x approaches a.” It means “the function f (x) becomes
arbitrarily large as x approaches a”. These are different statements; remember that is not a
number .4

Now consider functions 3 and 4 in Figure 2.1.1. Here we can make the value of the function as
big and positive as we want (for function 3) or as big and negative as we want (for function 4) but
only when x approaches a from one side. With this in mind we can construct similar notation and a
similar definition:

4 One needs to be very careful making statements about infinity. At some point in our lives we get around to asking
ourselves “what is the biggest number?” and we realise there isn’t one. That is, we can go on counting integer
after integer forever. Indeed the set of integers is the first infinite thing we really encounter. It is an example of a
countably infinite set. The set of real numbers is actually much bigger and is uncountably infinite. In fact there are
an infinite number of different sorts of infinity! Much of the theory of infinite sets was developed by Georg Cantor,
who is well worth Googling.

35
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Definition 2.1.11.

We write

lim f (x) = +
x a+

when the value of the function f (x) becomes arbitrarily large and positive as x gets closer
and closer to a from above (equivalently — from the right), without being exactly a.
Similarly, we write

lim f (x) =
x a+

when the value of the function f (x) becomes arbitrarily large and negative as x gets closer
and closer to a from above (equivalently — from the right), without being exactly a.
The notation

lim f (x) = + lim f (x) =

x a x a

has a similar meaning except that limits are approached from below / from the left.

So for function 3 we have

lim f (x) = + lim f (x) = some positive number
x a x a+

and for function 4

lim f (x) = some positive number lim f (x) =
x a x a+

Example 2.1.12
Consider the function
1
g(x) =
sin(x)
Find the one-sided limits of this function as x p.
Probably the easiest way to do this is to first plot the graph of sin(x) and 1/x and then think
carefully about the one-sided limits:

36
 L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

• As x p from the left, sin(x) is a small positive number that is getting closer and closer to
zero. That is, as x p , we have that sin(x) 0 through positive numbers (i.e. from above).
Now look at the graph of 1/x, and think what happens as we move x 0+ , the function is
positive and becomes larger and larger.
So as x p from the left, sin(x) 0 from above, and so 1/ sin(x) + .
• By very similar reasoning, as x p from the right, sin(x) is a small negative number that gets
closer and closer to zero. So as x p from the right, sin(x) 0 through negative numbers
(i.e. from below) and so 1/ sin(x) to .

Thus
1 1
lim =+ lim =
x p sin(x) x p + sin(x)

Example 2.1.12

Up to this point we explored limits by sketching graphs or plugging values into a calculator. This
was done to help build intuition, but it is not really the basis of a systematic method for computing
limits. We have also avoided more formal approaches5 since we do not have time in the course to go
into that level of detail and (arguably) we don’t need that detail to achieve the aims of the course.
Thankfully we can develop a more systematic approach based on the idea of building up complicated
limits from simpler ones by examining how limits interact with the basic operations of arithmetic.

2.1.1 Calculating limits with limit laws

Think back to the functions you know and the sorts of things you have been asked to draw, factor
and so on. Then they are all constructed from simple pieces, such as

• constants — c

• monomials or power functions — xn

• trigonometric functions — sin(x), cos(x) and tan(x)

These are the building blocks from which we construct functions. Soon we will add a few more
functions to this list, especially the exponential function and various inverse functions.
We then take these building blocks and piece them together using arithmetic

• addition and subtraction — f (x) = g(x) + h(x) and f (x) = g(x) h(x)

• multiplication — f (x) = g(x) h(x)

g(x)
• division — f (x) = h(x)

• substitution — f (x) = g(h(x)) — this is also called the composition of g with h.

5 The formal approaches are typically referred to as “epsilon-delta limits” or “epsilon-delta proofs” since the symbols
e and d are traditionally used throughout. Your favourite search engine will tell you more, if you’re curious.

37
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

What we will learn in this section is how to compute the limits of the basic building blocks and
then how we can compute limits of sums, products and so forth using “limit laws”. This process
allows us to compute limits of complicated functions, using very simple tools and without having to
resort to “plugging in numbers” or “closer and closer” or “e d arguments”.
In the examples we saw above, almost all the interesting limits happened at points where the
underlying function was badly behaved — where it jumped, was not defined, or blew up to infinity.
In those cases we had to be careful and think about what was happening. Thankfully most functions
we will see do not have too many points at which these sorts of things happen.
For example, polynomials do not have any nasty jumps and are defined everywhere and do not
“blow up”. If you plot them, they look smooth6 . Polynomials and limits behave very nicely together,
and for any polynomial P(x) and any real number a we have that

lim P(x) = P(a)

x a

That is — to evaluate the limit, we just plug in the number. We will build up to this result over the
next few pages.
Let us start with the two easiest limits.

Theorem 2.1.13 (Easiest limits).

Let a, c R. The following two limits hold

lim c = c and lim x = a.

x a x a

Since we have not seen too many theorems yet, let us examine it carefully piece by piece.

• Let a, c R — just as was the case for definitions, we start a theorem by defining terms and
setting the scene. There is not too much scene to set: the symbols a and c are real numbers.

• The following two limits hold — this doesn’t really contribute much to the statement of the
theorem, it just makes it easier to read.

• lim c = c — when we take the limit of a constant function (for example think of c = 3), the
x a
limit is (unsurprisingly) just that same constant.

• lim x = a — as we noted above for general polynomials, the limit of the function f (x) = x as
x a
x approaches a given point a, is just a. This says something quite obvious — as x approaches
a, x approaches a (if you are not convinced then sketch the graph).

Armed with only these two limits, we cannot do very much. But combining these limits with
some arithmetic we can do quite a lot.

6 We have used this term in an imprecise way, but it does have a precise mathematical meaning.

38
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Theorem 2.1.14 (Arithmetic of limits).

Let a, c R, let f (x) and g(x) be defined for all x’s that lie in some interval about a (but
f , g need not be defined exactly at a).

lim f (x) = F lim g(x) = G

x a x a

exist with F, G R. Then the following limits hold

• lim ( f (x) + g(x)) = F + G — limit of the sum is the sum of the limits.
x a

• lim ( f (x) g(x)) = F G — limit of the difference is the difference of the limits.
x a

• lim c f (x) = cF.

x a

• lim ( f (x) g(x)) = F G — limit of the product is the product of limits.

x a

f (x) F 1 1
• If G 0 then lim = and, in particular, lim = .
x a g(x) G x a g(x) G
Note — be careful with this last one — the denominator cannot be zero.

The above theorem shows that limits interact very simply with arithmetic. If you are asked to
find the limit of a sum then the answer is just the sum of the limits. Similarly the limit of a product
is just the product of the limits.
How do we apply the above theorem to the rational function? Here is a warm-up example:
Example 2.1.15
You are given two functions f , g (not explicitly) which have the following limits as x approaches 1:

lim f (x) = 3 and lim g(x) = 2

x 1 x 1

Using the above theorem we can compute:

lim 3 f (x) = 3 3=9

x 1
lim 3 f (x) g(x) = 3 3 2=7
x 1
lim f (x)g(x) = 3 2=6
x 1
f (x) 3
lim = =3
x 1 f (x) g(x) 3 2

Example 2.1.15

Example 2.1.16
Find lim 4x2 1
x 3

39
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

We use the arithmetic of limits:

✓ ◆
2 2
lim 4x 1 = lim 4x lim 1 difference of limits
x 3 x 3 x 3
✓ ◆
2
= lim 4 lim x lim 1 product of limits
x 3 x 3 x 3
✓ ◆
2
= 4 lim x 1 limit of constant
x 3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
= 4 lim x lim x 1 product of limits
x 3 x 3
=4 3 3 1 limit of x
= 36 1
= 35

Example 2.1.16
This is an excruciating level of detail, but when you first use a theorem, it is a good idea to do things
step by step. You can go faster when you are comfortable.
Example 2.1.17
x
Yet another limit — compute lim .
1
x 2x
To apply the arithmetic of limits, we need to examine numerator and denominator separately and
make sure the limit of the denominator is non-zero. Numerator first:

lim x = 2 limit of x
x 2

and now the denominator:

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
lim x 1 = lim x lim 1 difference of limits
x 2 x 2 x 2
=2 1 limit of x and limit of constant = 1

Since the limit of the denominator is non-zero we can put it back together to get

x lim x
x 2
lim =
x 2x 1 lim (x 1)
x 2
2
=
1
=2

Example 2.1.17

In the next example we show that many different things can happen if the limit of the denominator
is zero.

40
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Example 2.1.18 (Be careful with limits of ratios)

We must be careful when computing the limit of a ratio — it is the ratio of the limits except when
the limit of the denominator is zero. When the limit of the denominator is zero Theorem 2.1.14 does
not apply and a few interesting things can happen.

• If the limit of the numerator is non-zero then the limit of the ratio does not exist

f (x)
lim = DNE when lim f (x) 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x a g(x) x a x a

1
For example, lim = DNE.
x 0 x2

• If the limit of the numerator is zero then the above theorem does not give us enough information
to decide whether or not the limit exists. It is possible that

x 1
– the limit does not exist, eg. lim 2
= lim = DNE
x 0x x 0x

x2 1 x2 1
– the limit is , eg. lim 4
= lim 2 = + or lim 4
= lim 2 = .
x 0x x 0x x 0 x x 0 x

x2
– the limit is zero, eg. lim =0
x 0 x
x
– the limit exists and is non-zero, eg. lim =1
x 0x

Now while the above examples are very simple and a little contrived they serve to illustrate the point
we are trying to make — be careful if the limit of the denominator is zero.
Example 2.1.18

Example 2.1.19
2x 3
Let h(x) = 2 and find its limit as x approaches 2.
x + 5x 6
Since this is the limit of a ratio, we compute the limit of the numerator and denominator
separately. Numerator first:
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
lim 2x 3= lim 2x lim 3 difference of limits
x 2 2 x x 2
✓ ◆
= 2 lim x 3 product of limits and limit of constant
x 2
=2 2 3 limits of x
=1

41
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Denominator next:
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ◆ ✓
2 2
lim x + 5x 6 = lim x + lim 5x lim 6 sum of limits
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
= lim x lim x + 5 lim x 6 product of limits and limit of constant
x 2 x 2 x 2
= 2 2+5 2 6 limits of x
=8

Since the limit of the denominator is non-zero, we can obtain our result by taking the ratio of the
separate limits.

2x 3 lim 2x 3 1
x 2
lim 2 = 2
=
x 2 x + 5x 6 lim x + 5x 6 8
x 2

The above works out quite simply. However, if we were to take the limit as x 1 then things
are a bit harder. The limit of the numerator is:

lim 2x 3=2 1 3= 1
x 1

(we have not listed all the steps). And the limit of the denominator is

lim x2 + 5x 6 = 1 1+5 6=0

x 1

Since the limit of the numerator is non-zero, while the limit of the denominator is zero, the limit of
the ratio does not exist.

2x 3
lim = DNE
x 1 x2 + 5x 6

Example 2.1.19
It is IMPORTANT TO NOTE that it is not correct to write

2x 3 1
lim = = DNE
x 1 x2 + 5x 6 0

Because we can only write

f (x) xlima f (x)

lim = = something
x a g(x) lim g(x)
x a

when the limit of the denominator is non-zero (see Example 2.1.18 above).
With a little care you can use the arithmetic of limits to obtain the following rules for limits of
powers of functions and limits of roots of functions:

42
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Theorem 2.1.20 (More arithmetic of limits — powers and roots).

Let n be a positive integer, let a R and let f be a function so that

lim f (x) = F
x a

for some real number F. Then the following holds

⇣ ⌘n
n
lim ( f (x)) = lim f (x) = F n
x a x a

so that the limit of a power is the power of the limit. Similarly, if

• n is an even number and F 0, or

• n is an odd number and F is any real number

then
⇣ ⌘1/n
1/n
lim ( f (x)) = lim f (x) = F 1/n
x a x a

More generally7 , if F 0 and p is any real number,

⇣ ⌘p
lim ( f (x)) p = lim f (x) = F p
x a x a

Notice that we have to be careful when taking roots of limits that might be negative numbers. To
see why, consider the case n = 2, the limit

lim x1/2 = 41/2 = 2

x 4
lim ( x)1/2 = ( 4)1/2 = not a real number
x 4

In order to evaluate such limits properly we need to use complex numbers which are beyond the
scope of this text.
Also note that the notation x1/2 refers to the positive square root of x. While 2 and ( 2) are both
numbers whose squares are 4, the notation 41/2 means 2. This is something we must be careful of8 .
So again — let us do a few examples and carefully note what we are doing.
Example 2.1.21

7 You may not know the definition of the power b p when p is not a rational number, so here it is. If b 0 and p is
any real number, then b p is the limit of br as r approaches p through rational numbers. We won’t do so here, but it
is possible to prove that the limit exists.
8 Like ending sentences in prepositions — “This is something up with which we will not put.” This quote is attributed
to Churchill though there is some dispute as to whether or not he really said it.

43
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

✓ ◆1/3
2 1/3 2
lim (4x 3) = ( lim 4x ) ( lim 3)
x 2 x 2 x 2
1/3
= 4 22 3
= (16 3)1/3
= 131/3

Example 2.1.21

By combining the last few theorems we can make the evaluation of limits of polynomials and
rational functions much easier:
Theorem 2.1.22 (Limits of polynomials and rational functions).

Let a R, let P(x) be a polynomial and let R(x) be a rational function. Then

lim P(x) = P(a)

x a

and provided R(x) is defined at x = a then

lim R(x) = R(a)

x a

If R(x) is not defined at x = a then we are not able to apply this result.

So the previous examples are now much easier to compute:

2x 3 4 3 1
lim = =
x 2 x2 + 5x 6 4 + 10 6 8
lim (4x2 1) = 16 1 = 15
x 2
x 2
lim = = 2
x 2x 1 2 1
It is clear that limits of polynomials are very easy, while those of rational functions are easy
except when the denominator might go to zero. We have seen examples where the resulting limit
does not exist, and some where it does. We now work to explain this more systematically. The
following example demonstrates that it is sometimes possible to take the limit of a rational function
to a point at which the denominator is zero. Indeed we must be able to do exactly this in order to be
able to define derivatives in the next chapter.
Example 2.1.23
Consider the limit
x3 x2
lim .
x 1 x 1

44
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

If we try to apply the arithmetic of limits then we compute the limits of the numerator and denomi-
nator separately

lim x3 x2 = 1 1=0 (2.1.1)

x 1
lim x 1=1 1=0 (2.1.2)
x 1

Since the denominator is zero, we cannot apply our theorem and we are, for the moment, stuck.
However, there is more that we can do here — the hint is that the numerator and denominator both
approach zero as x approaches 1. This means that there might be something we can cancel.
So let us play with the expression a little more before we take the limit:

x3 x2 x2 ( x 1 )
= = x2 provided x 1.
x 1 x 1
So what we really have here is the following function

x3 x2 x2 x 1
=
x 1 undefined x=1

If we plot the above function the graph looks exactly the same as y = x2 except that the function is
not defined at x = 1 (since at x = 1 both numerator and denominator are zero).

When we compute a limit as x a, the value of the function exactly at x = a is irrelevant. We only
care what happens to the function as we bring x very close to a. So for the above problem we can
write
x3 x2
= x2 when x is close to 1 but not at x = 1
x 1

So the limit as x 1 of the function is the same as the limit lim x2 since the functions are the same
x 1
except exactly at x = 1. By this reasoning we get

x3 x2
lim = lim x2 = 1
x 1 x 1 x 1

Example 2.1.23
The reasoning in the above example can be made more general:

45
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Theorem 2.1.24.

If f (x) = g(x) except when x = a then lim f (x) = lim g(x) provided the limit of g exists.
x a x a

How do we know when to use this theorem? The big clue is that when we try to compute the
limit in a naive way, we end up with 00 . We know that 00 does not make sense, but it is an indication
that there might be a common factor between numerator and denominator that can be cancelled. In
the previous example, this common factor was (x 1).
Example 2.1.25
Using this idea, compute

(1 + h)2 1
lim
h 0 h

• First we should check that we cannot just substitute h = 0 into this — clearly we cannot
because the denominator would be 0.

• But we should also check the numerator to see if we have 00 , and we see that the numerator
gives us 1 1 = 0.

• Thus we have a hint that there is a common factor that we might be able to cancel. So now we
look for the common factor and try to cancel it.

(1 + h)2 1 1 + 2h + h2 1
= expand
h h
2h + h 2 h(2 + h)
= = factor and then cancel
h h
= 2+h

• Thus we really have that

(1 + h)2 1 2+h h 0
=
h undefined h = 0

and because of this

(1 + h)2 1
lim = lim 2 + h
h 0 h h 0
=2

Example 2.1.25
We have written everything out in great detail here — way more than is required for a solution to
such a problem. Let us do it again a little more succinctly.

46
 L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Example 2.1.26
Compute the following limit:

(1 + h)2 1
lim
h 0 h

If we try to use the arithmetic of limits, then we see that the limit of the numerator and the limit of
the denominator are both zero. Hence we should try to factor them and cancel any common factor.
This gives

(1 + h)2 1 1 + 2h + h2 1
lim = lim
h 0 h h 0 h
= lim 2 + h
h 0
=2

Example 2.1.26
Notice that even though we did this example carefully above, we have still written some text in our
working explaining what we have done. You should always think about the reader and, if in doubt,
put in more explanation rather than less.

2.1.2 Limits at infinity

Up until this point we have discussed what happens to a function as we move its input x closer and
closer to a particular point a. For a great many applications of limits we need to understand what
happens to a function when its input becomes extremely large — for example what happens to a
population at a time far in the future.
The definition of a limit at infinity has a similar flavour to the definition of limits at finite points
that we saw above, but the details are a little different. We also need to distinguish between positive
and negative infinity. As x becomes very large and positive it moves off towards + but when it
becomes very large and negative it moves off towards .
Again we give an informal definition; the full formal definition is beyond the scope of this course.

47
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Definition 2.1.27 (Limits at infinity — informal).

We write

lim f (x) = L
x

when the value of the function f (x) gets closer and closer to L as we make x larger and
larger and positive.
Similarly we write

lim f (x) = L
x

when the value of the function f (x) gets closer and closer to L as we make x larger and
larger and negative.

Example 2.1.28
Consider the two functions depicted below

The dotted horizontal lines indicate the behaviour as x becomes very large. The function on the left
has limits as x and as x since the function “settles down” to a particular value. On the
other hand, the function on the right does not have a limit as x since the function just keeps
getting bigger and bigger.
Example 2.1.28

Just as was the case for limits as x a we will start with two very simple building blocks and
build other limits from those.
Theorem 2.1.29.

Let c R then the following limits hold

lim c = c lim c = c
x x
1 1
lim =0 lim =0
x x x x

48
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Again, these limits interact nicely with standard arithmetic:

Theorem 2.1.30 (Arithmetic of limits at infinity).

Let f (x), g(x) be two functions for which the limits

lim f (x) = F lim g(x) = G

x x

exist. Then the following limits hold

lim f (x) g(x) = F G

x
lim f (x)g(x) = FG
x
f (x) F
lim = provided G 0
x g(x) G

and for real numbers p

lim f (x) p = F p provided F p and f (x) p are defined for all x

x

The analogous results hold for limits to .

Note that, as was the case in Theorem 2.1.20, we need a little extra care with powers of functions.
We must avoid taking square roots of negative numbers, or indeed any even root of a negative
number9 .
Hence we have for all rational r 0
1
lim =0
x xr
but we have to be careful with
1
lim =0
x xr

This is only true if the denominator of r is not an even number10 .

For example
1 1
• lim = 0, but lim does not exist, because x1/2 is not defined for x 0.
x x1/2 x x1/2
1
• On the other hand, x4/3 is defined for negative values of x and lim = 0.
x x4/3

9 To be more precise, there is no real number x so that xeven power is a negative number. Hence we cannot take the
even-root of a negative number and express it as a real number. This is precisely what complex numbers allow us
to do, but alas, there is not space in the course for us to explore them.
10 where we write r = qp with p, q integers with no common factors. For example, r = 14 6
should be written as r = 37
when considering this rule.

49
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Our first application of limits at infinity will be to examine the behaviour of a rational function
for very large x. To do this we use a “trick”.
Example 2.1.31
Compute the following limit:

x2 3x + 4
lim
x 3x2 + 8x + 1

As x becomes very large, it is the x2 term that will dominate in both the numerator and denominator
and the other bits become irrelevant. (This is the asymptotic reasoning you’ve seen earlier.) That is,
for very large x, x2 is much much larger than x or any constant. So we pull out these dominant parts
⇣ ⌘
2 1 3 4
2
x 3x + 4 x x + x2
= ⇣ ⌘
3x2 + 8x + 1 x2 3 + 8 + 1
x x2
3 4
1 x + x2
= remove the common factors
3 + 8x + x12

x2 3x + 4 1 3x + x42
lim = lim
x 3x2 + 8x + 1 x 3 + 8x + x12
✓ ◆
3 4
lim 1 +
x x x2
= ✓ ◆ arithmetic of limits
8 1
lim 3 + + 2
x x x
3 4
lim 1 lim + lim
=x x x x x2 more arithmetic of limits
8 1
lim 3 + lim + lim
x x x x x2
1+0+0 1
= = .
3+0+0 3

Example 2.1.31

The following one gets a little harder.

Example 2.1.32
4x +1 2
Find the limit as x of 5x 1 .
We use the same trick — try to work out what is the biggest term in the numerator and
denominator and pull it to one side.

• The denominator is dominated by 5x.

• The biggest contribution to the numerator comes from the 4x2 inside the square-root. When
we pull x2 outside the square-root it becomes x, so the numerator is dominated by x 4 = 2x

50
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

• To see this more explicitly rewrite the numerator

4x2 + 1 = x2 (4 + 1/x2 ) = x2 4 + 1/x2 = x 4 + 1/x2 .

• Thus the limit as x is

4x2 + 1 x 4 + 1/x2
lim = lim
x 5x 1 x x(5 1/x)
4 + 1/x2
= lim
x 5 1/x
2
= .
5

Example 2.1.32

4x +1 2
Now let us also think about the limit of the same function, 5x 1 , as x . There is
something subtle going on because of the square-root. First consider the function11
h(t ) = t 2.
Evaluating this at t = 7 gives
h(7) = 72 = 49 = 7.

We’ll get much the same thing for any t 0. For any t 0, h(t ) = t 2 returns exactly t. However
now consider the function at t = 3

h( 3) = ( 3)2 = 9=3= ( 3);

that is, the function is returning 1 times the input.
This is because when we defined , we defined it to be the positive square-root. i.e. the function
t can never return a negative number. So being more careful
h(t ) = t2 = t ,
where the t is the absolute value of t. You are perhaps used to thinking of absolute value as “remove
the minus sign”, but this is not quite correct. Let’s sketch the function:

Figure 2.1.2.

11 Just to change things up let’s use t and h(t ) instead of the ubiquitous x and f (x).

51
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

It is a piecewise function defined by

x x 0
x =
x x 0.

Hence our function h(t ) is really

t t 0
h(t ) = t2 =
t t 0

so that when we evaluate h( 7) it is

h( 7) = ( 7)2 = 49 = 7 = ( 7).
We are now ready to examine the limit as x in our previous example. Mostly it is copy and
paste from above.
Example 2.1.33
2
4x +1
Find the limit as x of 5x 1
We use the same trick — try to work out what is the biggest term in the numerator and
denominator and pull it to one side. Since we are taking the limit as x we should think of x
as a large negative number.
• The denominator is dominated by 5x.
• The biggest contribution to the numerator comes from the 4x2 inside the square-root. When
we pull the x2 outside a square-root it becomes x = x (since we are taking the limit as
x ), so the numerator is dominated by x 4 = 2x
• To see this more explicitly rewrite the numerator

4x2 + 1 = x2 (4 + 1/x2 ) = x2 4 + 1/x2

= x 4 + 1/x2 and since x 0 we have
= x 4 + 1/x2

• Thus the limit as x is

4x2 + 1 x 4 + 1/x2
lim = lim
x 5x 1 x x(5 1/x)
4 + 1/x2
= lim
x 5 1/x
2
= .
5

Example 2.1.33
So the limit as x is almost the same but we gain a minus sign. This is definitely not the case
in general — you have to think about each example separately.
Here is a sketch of the function in question.

52
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Figure 2.1.3.

Example 2.1.34
Compute the following limit:
⇣ ⌘
lim x7/5 x
x

From our asymptotic reasoning, we know the higher-power power function will dominate for
large values of x. So, although both x7/5 and x grow without bound as x , the first term will be
much bigger. So, we expect lim x 7/5 x = .
x
That’s a fine way of computing the limit, but for interest, let’s see how it would go using
arithmetic of limits. In this case we cannot use the arithmetic of limits to write this as
⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
7/5 7/5
lim x x = lim x lim x
x x x
=

because the limits do not exist. We can only use the limit laws when the limits exist. So we should
go back and think some more.
When x is very large, x7/5 = x x2/5 will be much larger than x, so the x7/5 term will dominate
the x term. So factor out x7/5 and rewrite it as
✓ ◆
7/5 7/5 1
x x=x 1
x2/5

Consider what happens to each of the factors as x

• For large x, x7/5 x (this is actually true for any x 1). In the limit as x + , x becomes
arbitrarily large and positive, and x7/5 must be bigger still, so it follows that

lim x7/5 = + .
x

• On the other hand, (1 x 2/5 ) becomes closer and closer to 1 — we can use the arithmetic
of limits to write this as
2/5 2/5
lim (1 x ) = lim 1 lim x = 1 0 = 1.
x x x

53
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

So the product of these two factors will be come larger and larger (and positive) as x moves off to
infinity. Hence we have
⇣ ⌘
7/5 2/5
lim x 1 1/x =+ .
x

Example 2.1.34
But remember + and are not numbers; the last equation in the example is shorthand for “the
function becomes arbitrarily large”.

In the previous section we saw that finite limits and arithmetic interact very nicely (see The-
orems 2.1.14 and 2.1.20). This enabled us to compute the limits of more complicated function
in terms of simpler ones. When limits of functions go to plus or minus infinity we are quite a
bit more restricted in what we can deduce. The next theorem states some results concerning the
sum, difference, ratio and product of infinite limits — unfortunately in many cases we cannot make
general statements and the results will depend on the details of the problem at hand.

54
L IMITS 2.1 Q UICK REVIEW OF LIMITS

Theorem 2.1.35 (Arithmetic of infinite limits).

Let a, c, H R and let f , g, h be functions defined in an interval around a (but they need
not be defined at x = a), so that

lim f (x) = + lim g(x) = + lim h(x) = H

x a x a x a

• lim ( f (x) + g(x)) = +

x a

• lim ( f (x) + h(x)) = +

x a

• lim ( f (x) g(x)) undetermined

x a

• lim ( f (x) h(x)) = +

x a

+ c 0
• lim c f (x) = 0 c=0
x a
c 0

• lim ( f (x) g(x)) = + .

x a

+ H 0
• lim f (x)h(x) = H 0
x a
undetermined H = 0

f (x)
• lim undetermined
x a g(x)

+ H 0
f (x)
• lim = H 0
x a h(x)
undetermined H = 0

h(x)
• lim =0
x a f (x)

+ p 0
p
• lim f (x) = 0 p 0
x a
1 p=0

Note that by “undetermined” we mean that the limit may or may not exist, but cannot be
determined from the information given in the theorem. See Example 2.1.18 for an example of what
we mean by “undetermined”. Additionally consider the following example.
Example 2.1.36

55
 L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

Consider the following 3 functions:

2 2 2
f (x) = x g(x) = 2x h(x) = x 1.

Their limits as x 0 are:

lim f (x) = + lim g(x) = + lim h(x) = + .

x 0 x 0 x 0

Say we want to compute the limit of the difference of two of the above functions as x 0. Then
the previous theorem cannot help us. This is not because it is too weak, rather it is because the
difference of two infinite limits can be, either plus infinity, minus infinity or some finite number
depending on the details of the problem. For example,
2
lim ( f (x) g(x)) = lim x =
x 0 x 0
lim ( f (x) h(x)) = lim 1 = 1
x 0 x 0
2
lim (g(x) h(x)) = lim x +1 = +
x 0 x 0

Example 2.1.36

2.2 Asymptotes

Learning Objectives
• Evaluate limits of polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic
functions.

• Explain using both informal language and the language of limits what it means for a
function to have a horizontal or vertical asymptote.

• Given a simple function, find its vertical and horizontal asymptotes by asymptotic
reasoning or by taking limits.

• Explain why it is not true that a function cannot cross its horizontal asymptote.

Definition 2.2.1.

Let f (x) be a function. If lim f (x) = L OR lim f (x) = L, for some real number L,
x x
then we say the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f (x).

Example 2.2.2
3x4
Consider the function f (x) = 1 + x4
, pictured below.

56
L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

y
y = f (x)

For large positive and large negative values of x, the function looks nearly flat. To investigate
this ‘flatness,’ we can take limits at infinity. This can be done using algebra, or asymptotics.
Option 1, algebra:

3x4 3x4 1/x4

lim = lim
x 1 + x4 x 1 + x4 1/x4
3
= lim 1
x
x4
+1
3
= =3
0+1
That is: as x gets larger and larger, f (x) gets closer and closer to 3.
The computation is similar for lim f (x).
x

Option 2, asymptotics: Let’s consider very large positive values of x. The denominator 1 + x4
4
behaves much like x4 when x is large, so the entire function behaves much like 3x x4
, which is
just the constant 3. That is: for very large positive values of x, the function looks quite a lot
like the horizontal line y = 3.
The computation is similar for lim f (x).
x

So, this function has a horizontal asymptote, y = 3. This is often emphasized in a sketch with
dashed lines.

3 y = f (x)

Example 2.2.2

57
L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

Example 2.2.3 (Horizontal asymptotes of ex )

Question: Does ex have any horizontal asymptotes?
Solution: We should know the following two limits by heart:

lim ex = 0 and lim ex =

x x

Since 0 is a real number, we see that ex has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. Since is not a
real number, y = 0 is the only horizontal asymptote of ex .

y
y = ex

Example 2.2.3

Example 2.2.4 (Functions that cross their horizontal asymptote)

In examples 2.2.2 and 2.2.3, the function never actually takes on the value of its horizontal asymptote.
4
There is no real number x for which 13x + x4
= 3, and there is no real number x for which ex = 0.
However, there is no reason why a function in general can’t take on the value of its horizontal
asymptote. We’ll show three examples below, of increasing complexity.

First example: A constant function is equal to its horizontal asymptote everywhere.

For example, consider f (x) = 2, shown below. Since lim f (x) = 2, y = 2 is a horizontal
x
asymptote. There are lots of real numbers x (in fact: all of them) where f (x) = 2.

y
y = f (x)

Second example: A function might take on the value of its horizontal asymptote while the function
is busy not pretending to be constant.

58
L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

x
A function such as g(x) = 1 + x2
has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0 both to the left, and to
the right:
x x
lim =0 and lim =0
x 1 + x2 x 1 + x2

That is, when x is very large (positive or negative) g(x) is nearly constant. However, g(x) is
not ‘nearly constant’ everywhere. When x is close to 0, g(x) moves around quite a bit. And, at
the origin, we just so happen to have g(0) = 0.

y = g(x)
x

Third example: A function might cross its horizontal asymptote infinitely many times.
sin x
Consider h(x) = x . As x grows larger and larger, the magnitude, or absolute value, of h(x)
shrinks to 0:
sin x sin x
lim = 0 and lim =0
x x x x
However, the sign of the function changes endlessly: it’s positive for 0 x p, negative for
p x 2p, positive again for 2p x 3p, etc. That leads to an oscillating behaviour. In
particular, h(x) = 0 when x is a nonzero integer multiple of p.
Remark: the oscillating behaviour in the sketch below has been exaggerated. In a more
accurate sketch, h(x) quickly appears indistinguishable from 0.

x
y = h(x)

Example 2.2.4

The counterpart to the horizontal asymptote is, not surprisingly, the vertical asymptote.

59
L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

Definition 2.2.5.

Let a be a real number and let f (x) be a function. We say f (x) has a vertical asymptote at
a if at least one of the following is true:

• lim f (x) = , or lim f (x) = ;

x a x a

• lim f (x) = , or lim f (x) = ; or

x a x a

• lim f (x) = , or lim f (x) = .

x a+ x a+

That is, a function has a vertical asymptote where it has an infinite discontinuity (see section 2.3
for more about continuity).

Example 2.2.6 (Symmetrical vertical asymptote)

1
The function y = x2
has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, because lim 1x = .
x 0
(This function also has a horizontal asymptote: y = 0.)

1
y= x2
x

Example 2.2.6

Example 2.2.7 (Asymmetrical vertical asymptote)

1 1 1
The function y = x has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, because lim x = and lim x = .
x 0+ x 0
(This function also has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.)

60
L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

1
y= x
x

Example 2.2.7

Example 2.2.8 (One-sided vertical asymptote)

The function y = log x has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, because lim log x = . This function
x 0+
has no horizontal asymptotes.

y
y = log x

Example 2.2.8

Example 2.2.9 (Using limits to sketch)

1
Consider the function f (x) = e x . Use the limits as x approaches 0, and as x goes to positive or
negative infinity, to give a very rough sketch of y = e1/x . Include all asymptotes.
To evaluate the one-sided limits as x approaches 0, we use our limit laws. In particular, we’ll
break down the function into two pieces: the exponential piece, and the 1x piece. To make this very
explicit, we’ll set t = 1x .

61
L IMITS 2.2 A SYMPTOTES

1
lim t = lim =
x 0+ x 0+ x
1
lim e = lim et =
x
x 0+ t

1
This tells us e x has a vertical asymptote at x = 0. Now let’s find the limit from the other side.

1
lim t = lim =
x 0 x 0 x
1
lim e = lim et = 0
x
x 0 t

So, interestingly, the limit from the right is infinite, while the limit from the left is finite. Finally,
let’s consider large-magnitude values of x:

1
lim t = lim=0
x x x
lim e1/x = e0 = 1
x

So there is a horizontal asymptote of y = 1 on both the left and the right.

Let’s combine these observations with some pre-calculus knowledge.

• When x is large and positive, e1/x 1. Since x 0, then 1x 0, so e1/x 1. So, on the far
right of our graph, our function will be close to 1, but a little larger.

• When x is large and negative, e1/x 1. Since x 0, then 1x 0, so e1/x 1. So, on the far
left of our graph, our function will be close to 1, but a little smaller.

• When x approaches 0 from the left, e1/x approaches 0. So, from the left, our function will
approach the origin. Note, however, that e1/x is not defined at x = 0.

• When x approaches 0 from the right, e1/x will blow up, increasing without bound.

These behaviours together can help us make a rough sketch of y = f (x).

62
 L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

For interest, a more accurate graph of y = f (x) is shown below. We repeat that you do not need
to know how to achieve this level of accuracy right now, but you will learn it later.

1
y = ex

Example 2.2.9

2.3 Limits and continuity

Learning Objectives
• Explain informally and formally what it means for a function to be continuous on its
domain.

• Identify and classify points of discontinuity (jump, infinite, removable).

• Determine where a given function is continuous. Use formal notation as well as

informal explanation.

• Given a function defined with parameters, select parameter values that make the
function continuous.

We have seen that computing the limits some functions — polynomials and rational functions —
is very easy because

lim f (x) = f (a).

x a

That is, the the limit as x approaches a is just f (a). Roughly speaking, the reason we can compute
the limit this way is that these functions do not have any abrupt jumps near a.
Many other functions have this property, sin(x) for example. A function with this property is
called “continuous” and there is a precise mathematical definition for it.

63
L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

Definition 2.3.1.

A function f (x) is continuous at a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x a

If a function is not continuous at a then it is said to be discontinuous at a.

When we write that f is continuous without specifying a point, then typically this means
that f is continuous at a for all a R.
When we write that f (x) is continuous on the open interval (a, b) then the function is
continuous at every point c satisfying a c b.

So if a function is continuous at x = a we immediately know that

• f (a) exists

• lim f (x) exists and is equal to f (a), and

x a

• lim f (x) exists and is equal to f (a).

x a+

We already know from our work above that polynomials are continuous, and that rational
functions are continuous at all points in their domains — i.e. where their denominators are non-zero.
As we did for limits, we will see that continuity interacts “nicely” with arithmetic. This will allow
us to construct complicated continuous functions from simpler continuous building blocks (like
polynomials).
But first, a few examples. . .
Example 2.3.2
Consider the functions drawn below

These are

x x 1 1/x2 x 0 x3 x2
x 1 x 1
f (x) = g(x) = h(x) =
x+2 x 1 0 x=0 0 x=1

Determine where they are continuous and discontinuous:

64
L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

• When x 1 then f (x) is a straight line (and so a polynomial) and so it is continuous at every
point x 1. Similarly when x 1 the function is a straight line and so it is continuous at
every point x 1. The only point which might be a discontinuity is at x = 1. We see that the
one sided limits are different. Hence the limit at x = 1 does not exist and so the function is
discontinuous at x = 1.

But note that that f (x) is continuous from one side — which?

• The middle case is much like the previous one. When x 0 the g(x) is a rational function
and so is continuous everywhere on its domain (which is all reals except x = 0). Thus the
only point where g(x) might be discontinuous is at x = 0. We see that neither of the one-sided
limits exist at x = 0, so the limit does not exist at x = 0. Hence the function is discontinuous
at x = 0.

• We have seen the function h(x) before. By the same reasoning as above, we know it is
continuous except at x = 1 which we must check separately.

By definition of h(x), h(1) = 0. We must compare this to the limit as x 1. We did this
before.

x3 x2 x2 ( x 1 )
= = x2
x 1 x 1

x3 x2 2
So limx 1 x 1 = limx 1x =1 h(1). Hence h is discontinuous at x = 1.

Example 2.3.2

This example illustrates different sorts of discontinuities:

• The function f (x) has a “jump discontinuity” because the function “jumps” from one finite
value on the left to another value on the right.

• The second function, g(x), has an “infinite discontinuity” since lim f (x) = + .

• The third function, h(x), has a “removable discontinuity” because we could make the function
continuous at that point by redefining the function at that point. i.e. setting h(1) = 1. That is

x3 x2
x 1 x 1
new function h(x) =
1 x=1

Showing a function is continuous can be a pain, but just as the limit laws help us compute
complicated limits in terms of simpler limits, we can use them to show that complicated functions
are continuous by breaking them into simpler pieces.

65
L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 2.3.3 (Arithmetic of continuity).

Let a, c R and let f (x) and g(x) be functions that are continuous at a. Then the following
functions are also continuous at x = a:

• f (x) + g(x) and f (x) g(x),

• c f (x) and f (x)g(x), and

f (x)
• g(x)
provided g(a) 0.

Above we stated that polynomials and rational functions are continuous (being careful about
domains of rational functions — we must avoid the denominators being zero) without making it a
formal statement. This is easily fixed. . .

Lemma 2.3.4.

Let c R. The functions

f (x) = x g(x) = c

are continuous everywhere on the real line

This isn’t quite the result we wanted (that’s a couple of lines below) but it is a small result that
we can combine with the arithmetic of limits to get the result we want. Such small helpful results
are called “lemmas” and they will arise more as we go along.
Now since we can obtain any polynomial and any rational function by carefully adding, subtract-
ing, multiplying and dividing the functions f (x) = x and g(x) = c, the above lemma combines with
the “arithmetic of continuity” theorem to give us the result we want:

Theorem 2.3.5 (Continuity of polynomials and rational functions).

Every polynomial is continuous everywhere. Similarly every rational function is continu-

ous except where its denominator is zero (i.e. on all its domain).

With some more work this result can be extended to wider families of functions:

66
L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 2.3.6.

The following functions are continuous everywhere in their domains

• polynomials, rational functions

• roots and powers

• trig functions and their inverses

• exponential and the logarithm

We haven’t encountered inverse trigonometric functions, nor exponential functions or logarithms,

but we will see them in the next chapter. For the moment, just file the information away.
Using a combination of the above results you can show that many complicated functions are
continuous except at a few points (usually where a denominator is equal to zero).
Example 2.3.7
sin(x)
Where is the function f (x) = 2+cos(x) continuous?
We just break things down into pieces and then put them back together keeping track of where
things might go wrong.
• The function is a ratio of two pieces — so check if the numerator is continuous, the denomina-
tor is continuous, and if the denominator might be zero.
• The numerator is sin(x) which is “continuous on its domain” according to one of the above
theorems. Its domain is all real numbers12 , so it is continuous everywhere. No problems here.
• The denominator is the sum of 2 and cos(x). Since 2 is a constant it is continuous everywhere.
Similarly (we just checked things for the previous point) we know that cos(x) is continuous
everywhere. Hence the denominator is continuous.
• So we just need to check if the denominator is zero. One of the facts that we should know13 is
that

1 cos(x) 1

and so by adding 2 we get

1 2 + cos(x) 3

Thus no matter what value of x, 2 + cos(x) 1 and so cannot be zero.

• So the numerator is continuous, the denominator is continuous and nowhere zero, so the
function is continuous everywhere.

12 Remember that sin and cos are defined on all real numbers, so tan(x) = sin(x)/ cos(x) is continuous everywhere
except where cos(x) = 0. This happens when x = p2 + np for any integer n. If you cannot remember where tan(x)
“blows up” or sin(x) = 0 or cos(x) = 0 then you should definitely revise trigonometric functions. Come to think of
it — just revise them anyway.
13 If you do not know this fact then you should revise trigonometric functions. See the previous footnote.

67
L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

sin(x)
If the function were changed to much of the same reasoning can be used. Being a
x2 5x + 6
little terse we could answer with:

• Numerator and denominator are continuous.

• Since x2 5x + 6 = (x 2)(x 3) the denominator is zero when x = 2, 3.

• So the function is continuous everywhere except possibly at x = 2, 3. In order to verify that

the function really is discontinuous at those points, it suffices to verify that the numerator is
non-zero at x = 2, 3. Indeed we know that sin(x) is zero only when x = np (for any integer n).
Hence sin(2), sin(3) 0. Thus the numerator is non-zero, while the denominator is zero and
hence x = 2, 3 really are points of discontinuity.

Note that this example raises a subtle point about checking continuity when numerator and denomi-
nator are simultaneously zero. There are quite a few possible outcomes in this case and we need
more sophisticated tools to adequately analyse the behaviour of functions near such points. We will
return to this question later in the text after we have developed Taylor expansions.
Example 2.3.7

So we know what happens when we add subtract multiply and divide, but what about when we
compose functions? Well — limits and compositions work nicely when things are continuous.

Theorem 2.3.8 (Compositions and continuity).

If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). I.e.

x a x a
⇣ ⌘
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
x a x a

Hence if g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a) then the composite function

( f g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.

So when we compose two continuous functions we get a new continuous function.

We can put this to use
Example 2.3.9
Where are the following functions continuous?

f (x) = sin x2 + cos(x)

g(x) = sin(x)

Our first step should be to break the functions down into pieces and study them. When we put them
back together we should be careful of dividing by zero, or falling outside the domain.

• The function f (x) is the composition of sin(x) with x2 + cos(x).

• These pieces, sin(x), x2 , cos(x) are continuous everywhere.

68
L IMITS 2.3 L IMITS AND CONTINUITY

• So the sum x2 + cos(x) is continuous everywhere

• And hence the composition of sin(x) and x2 + cos(x) is continuous everywhere.

The second function is a little trickier.

• The function g(x) is the composition of x with sin(x).

• x is continuous on its domain x 0.

• sin(x) is continuous everywhere, but it is negative in many places.

• In order for g(x) to be defined and continuous we must restrict x so that sin(x) 0.

• Recall the graph of sin(x):

Hence sin(x) 0 when x [0, p ] or x [2p, 3p ] or x [ 2p, p ] or. . . . To be more precise

sin(x) is positive when x [2np, (2n + 1)p ] for any integer n.

• Hence g(x) is continuous when x [2np, (2n + 1)p ] for any integer n.

Example 2.3.9

Continuous functions are very nice (mathematically speaking). Functions from the “real world”
tend to be continuous (though not always). The key aspect that makes them nice is the fact that they
don’t jump about.

69