What Is Modular Arithmetic, and How Can It Be Applied To Solve Problems in The Field of Number Theor
What Is Modular Arithmetic, and How Can It Be Applied To Solve Problems in The Field of Number Theor
Extended Essay
Mathematics
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What is modular arithmetic, and how can l.c
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of number theory?
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Contents
1 Introduction
2 Modular Arithmetic
2.1 Introduction
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3 Significant Theorems ai
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4 Divisibility Tests
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6 Conclusion
7 Appendices
8 Bibliography
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1 Introduction
In this essay, I will answer the research question, ‘What is modular arithmetic,
and how can it be applied to solve problems in the field of number theory?’
significant theorems that are central to the topic and to the 5 original solutions
to number theory problems that I will present in the last section of my essay, the
majority of which are posed by the United Kingdom Mathematics Trust (UKMT).
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A variety of sources were used in my research, including the online resources
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Encyclopaedia Britannica [1] and Brilliant.org [2] and the books Concepts of
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elegant solutions to the types of questions I have enjoyed doing for several years.
The aim of this essay is two-fold: to outline what modular arithmetic is and to
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2 Modular Arithmetic
2.1 Introduction
arithmetic solely concerned with the remainders of integers when they are
divided by a chosen value, called the modulus. Gauss introduced the following
notation:
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Let a, b, r ∈ ℤ and n ∈ ℤ+.
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𝑎 ≡ 𝑟 (mod 𝑛).
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If a and b have the same remainder when divided by n, they are congruent
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𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛)
or
𝑎 mod 𝑛 = 𝑏 mod 𝑛 .
For example,
16 ≡ 9 (mod 7)
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working out the time on a 12-hour clock is the same as calculating a certain
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For instance, our typical system of arithmetic would tell us that 4 hours after 9
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after 12, the clock would read 1 o’clock. This can be understood with the
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congruence:
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9 + 4 ≡ 13 ≡ 1 (mod 12).
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Similarly, if it was 10 o’clock in the morning, the time in 100 hours could be
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calculated by doing:
By applying mod 24, the time is in the 24-hour form, as all of the complete days
14 ≡ 2 (mod 12),
2 o’clock in the afternoon. By applying mod 12, the time is in the 12-hour form
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15 ≡ 8 (mod 7)
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Figure 2 – a visual representation of
ai the modular arithmetic of modulo 7 [3]
and that
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15 ≡ 1 (mod 7).
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and 𝑛 − 1, where n is the modulus, as these are all the possible remainders (or
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The concept of modular arithmetic also includes negative integers. For instance,
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Congruences, for the most part, can be manipulated in the same way as ordinary
equations; addition, subtraction and multiplication can all be carried out as if the
linear congruences.
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𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛) ⟺ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑧
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Theorem 2.1. If a and b are congruent modulo n, there exists some z, z ∈ ℤ,
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such.that:
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𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑧.
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𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑧
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Proof:
𝑎 = 𝑎 mod 𝑛 + 𝑘𝑛
𝑏 = 𝑏 mod 𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛
where mod n is the function that reduces a and b to their least residue.
Therefore
Since
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𝑎 mod 𝑛 = 𝑏 mod 𝑛,
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛
and
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛(𝑘 − 𝑙 ).
Therefore, it has been shown that if a and b are congruent mod n, then the
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑧
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it follows that
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𝑎 = 𝑛𝑧 + 𝑏.
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𝑎 ≡ 𝑛𝑧 + 𝑏 (mod 𝑛)
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and
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𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛).
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Therefore, it has been shown that, if the difference between a and b is a multiple
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Addition of congruences:
Proof:
𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑘 and c − d = nl (𝑘, 𝑙 ∈ ℤ)
𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 = 𝑛𝑘 + 𝑛𝑙
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(𝑎 + 𝑐 ) − (𝑏 + 𝑑 ) = 𝑛(𝑘 + 𝑙 ).
Subtraction of congruences:
The subtraction of congruences works in much the same way as with addition,
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simply because subtracting a value b is the same as adding the value −𝑏.
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Proof:
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𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑘 and 𝑐 − 𝑑 = 𝑛𝑙 (𝑛, 𝑙 ∈ ℤ)
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(𝑎 − 𝑏) − (𝑐 − 𝑑 ) = 𝑛𝑘 − 𝑛𝑙
(𝑎 − 𝑐 ) − (𝑏 − 𝑑 ) = 𝑛(𝑘 − 𝑙)
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Multiplication of congruences:
Proof:
𝑎 = 𝑛𝑘 + 𝑏 and 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑙 + 𝑑 (𝑛, 𝑙 ∈ ℤ)
Therefore
𝑎𝑐 = (𝑛𝑘 + 𝑏)(𝑛𝑙 + 𝑑 ) = 𝑛2 𝑘𝑙 + 𝑛𝑑𝑘 + 𝑛𝑏𝑙 + 𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 = 𝑛(𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝑑𝑘 + 𝑏𝑙)
Since n, k, l, b and d are all integers, their products and sums are integers.
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Therefore, using Theorem 2.1:
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𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑑 (mod 𝑛)
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Division of congruences:
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dividing both sides of a congruence by a value is not always valid. For instance:
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20 ≡ 5 (mod 15).
4 ≡ 1 (mod 15).
multiple of 15.
divisible by the divisor, d, simply because modular arithmetic only deals with
integers.
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𝑎 𝑏 𝑛
≡ (mod ).
𝑑 𝑑 gcd (𝑑, 𝑛)
The rule for division indicates that both sides of a congruence can be divided
without affecting the value of the modulus if, and only if, the divisor and the
modulus are relatively coprime i.e. their greatest common divisor (GCD) is 1.
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If their GCD is greater than 1, then the division can be carried out, but the
For example, the following congruence can be divided by 2 without altering the
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modulus because the divisor, 2, and the modulus, 17, are relatively coprime:
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14 ≡ 2𝑥 (mod 17)
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7 ≡ 𝑥 (mod 17)
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20 ≡ 5 (mod 15)
4 ≡ 1 (mod 3)
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3 Significant Theorems
In ‘The Mathematical Classic of Sun Zi’ – a Chinese book produced in the third
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This is thought to be the earliest known example of the Chinese Remainder
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Theorem, presented in the form of a problem.
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𝑥 ≡ 𝑎1 (mod 𝑛1 )
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𝑥 ≡ 𝑎2 (mod 𝑛2 )
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𝑥 ≡ 𝑎3 (mod 𝑛3 )
𝑥 ≡ 𝑎𝑖 (mod 𝑛𝑖 )
N = 𝑛1 × 𝑛2 × 𝑛3 × … × 𝑛𝑖 .
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In Sun Zi’s original problem, the Chinese Remainder Theorem proves that the
𝑥 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
𝑥 ≡ 3 (mod 5)
𝑥 ≡ 2 (mod 7).
Indeed, the system has a particular solution, 𝑥0 = 23, and a general solution,
𝑥 = 23 + 105𝑘 . The general solution exists due to the fact that N (105) is a
multiple of all of the moduli, and so becomes congruent to 0 under each of them.
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3.2 Fermat’s Little Theorem
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𝑎𝑝 ≡ 𝑎 (mod 𝑝).
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Proof [10]:
1𝑝 ≡ 1 (mod 𝑝).
𝑎𝑝 ≡ 𝑎 (mod 𝑝).
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
(𝑎 + 1)𝑝 = 𝑎𝑝 + ( ) 𝑎𝑝−1 + ( ) 𝑎𝑝−2 + ⋯ + ( )𝑎 + 1
1 2 𝑝−1
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The definition of the binomial co-efficient is:
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𝑝 𝑝! ai
( )=
𝑘 𝑘! (𝑝 − 𝑘)!
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Therefore, all terms in the expansion are multiples of p, apart from 𝑎𝑝 and 1, and
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𝑎𝑝 ≡ 𝑎 (mod 𝑝),
(𝑎 + 1)𝑝 ≡ 𝑎 + 1
Since it has been shown that the case holds for (𝑎 + 1)𝑝 when it is assumed that
the case holds for 𝑎𝑝 , and the case when 𝑎 = 1 has been shown to hold, it follows
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Example:
Let 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑝 = 7.
Fermat’s Little Theorem is also a primality test. The process involves raising a
random value, a, (where a is between 1 and the possible prime) to the power of n
Fermat’s Little Theorem and n is a probable prime. When tested over many
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values of a, this test strongly indicates n is prime, though there are several so-
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called ‘Fermat Liars’ which pass the test but are not prime [11].
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4 Divisibility Tests
10 ≡ 1 (mod 9)
Theorem 4.1: Any number is congruent to the sum of its digits, modulo 9.
Proof:
10 ≡ 1 (mod 9).
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100 ≡ 10 × 10 ≡ 1 × 1 ≡ 1 (mod 9).
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Because exponentiation is simply repeated multiplication (when a ∈ ℤ∗ ) and 1
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In our conventional base-10 system, a number is equal to the sum of its digits,
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where each digit is multiplied by a different power of ten. For example, take the
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integer abcd:
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congruent to the sum of its digits, modulo 9 (sometimes called its digital root).
Example:
Because:
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≡ 7×1+3×1+5×1+4×1
≡ 7 + 3 + 5 + 4 ≡ 19 (mod 9).
Taking the example above, you don’t have to stop at 19 after summing the digits
once; Theorem 4.1 shows that any number is congruent to the sum of its digits,
modulo 9, so the digits can be summed continuously until you get a single digit
number.
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The technique’s utility is that it easily gives the remainder of any number upon
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division by 9. Also, since
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9 ≡ 0 (mod 9),
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The name ‘Casting Out Nines’ comes from the process of summing a number’s
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digits; when summing digits that amount to 9, they can be discarded, or ‘cast
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93,218,479 × 1,645,823 = ?
In the days before calculators, the calculation above may have taken hours or
even days to complete, with the likelihood of at least a single error being made
Aryabhata II in the 10th century, the process of casting out nines has a long
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a calculated answer with the product of the digital roots of the initial numbers, a
A way to check the answer calculated below by using the ‘Casting Out Nines’
method is as follows:
93,218,479
× 1,645,823
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153,421,116,763,217
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≡3+2+4+7
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≡ 3 + 4 ≡ 7 (mod 9)
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1,645,823 ≡ 1 + 6 + [4 + 5] + 8 + 2 + 3
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≡1+6+8+2+3
≡ 6 + 2 + 3 ≡ 2 (mod 9)
153,421,116,763,217
≡ [ 1 + 5 + 3] + 4 + 2 + [ 1 + 1 + 1 + 6] + 7 + [ 6 + 3] + 2 + 1 + 7
≡ 4 + [ 2 + 7] + 2 + 1 + 7
≡ 4 + 1 ≡ 5 (mod 9)
7 × 2 ≡ 14 ≡ 5 (mod 9)
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Since the multiplication of the two initial numbers yields 5, modulo 9, and the
Because
10 ≡ 1 (mod 3),
using the same reasoning displayed in Theorem 4.1, any number is also
arithmetic is much less useful. This is because, with modulo 9, there are 9 least
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residues, so the chances of a miscalculated answer matching the least residue of
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the correct answer is 1/9 (approximately 11%), whereas in modulo 3, there are 3
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around the world. Along with a country code, bank code and account number,
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IBANs have a two-digit ‘validation code’. Calculated from the rest of the number,
the code ensures that the IBAN is congruent to 1, modulo 97. If a bank receives
an IBAN that is not congruent to 1, modulo 97, the transfer is invalidated. This
simple error detection method has eradicated the vast majority of input errors
and decreased international transfer errors to less than 0.1% of all payments
[13].
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The Chinese remainder theorem proves that a system of linear congruences will
have a unique solution modulo N, where N is the product of the moduli, if the
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moduli of the congruences are pairwise coprime positive integers. Since 3 and 4
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are relatively coprime, the theorem applies, and N is 12.
ai
gm
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A value that satisfies the conditions of the question can be represented as:
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𝑥 ≡ 1 (mod 3)
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𝑥 ≡ 2 (mod 4)
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where 10 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 99.
a st
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follows:
𝑥 ≡ 1 (mod 3)
𝑥 = 3𝑘 + 1, where 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.
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This equation encapsulates the values of x which satisfy the first congruence.
3𝑘 + 1 ≡ 2 (mod 4)
3𝑘 ≡ 1 (mod 4).
3𝑘 ≡ 1 ≡ 5 ≡ 9 (mod 4).
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Since the greatest common divisor of 3 and 4 is 1, both sides can be divided by 3
gm
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𝑘 ≡ 3 (mod 4).
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𝑘 − 3 = 4𝑙
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𝑘 = 4𝑙 + 3, 𝑙 ∈ ℤ.
This equation shows the values of k that satisfy the second congruence (given
that x = 3k + 1).
Substituting k back into the equation obtained from the first congruence:
𝑥 = 3(4𝑙 + 3) + 1
𝑥 = 12𝑙 + 10
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This equation gives the values of x that satisfy the constraints of both of the
initial congruences:
𝑥 ≡ 1 (mod 3)
𝑥 ≡ 2 (mod 4)
It gives the general solution and indicates that the particular solution (the
10 , 22 , 34 , 46 , 58 , 70 , 82 and 94
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and thus, the number of two-digit numbers which have a remainder of 1 when
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divided by 3 and a remainder of 2 when divided by 4 is 8.
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divided by 9?’
Using Theorem 4.1, any number is congruent to the sum of its digits, modulo 9:
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4016 ≡ 4 + 0 + 1 + 6 ≡ 11 ≡ 1 + 1 ≡ 2 (mod 9).
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Therefore: ai
gm
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Question 3.2.a)
Of the terms produced by this, only those with a power of 10 equal to 1 or 0 will
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impact the tens and units digits, since they represent the multiples of
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101 and 100 . The a, b, e and f digits are already multiples of powers of 10 greater
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than 1 and so cannot end up being counted in the tens or units columns. Thus,
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only the multiplication of the tens and units digits of the integers impact the
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This means the last two digits of 20112011 are the same as the last two digits of
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112011 .
The last two digits of a number are equal to its least residue, modulo 100,
because 100 and all multiples of it, are congruent to 0, modulo 100. Therefore,
0 ≤ 𝑥 < 100, 𝑥 ∈ ℤ.
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110 ≡ 1
111 ≡ 11 × 1 ≡ 11
112 ≡ 11 × 11 ≡ 121 ≡ 21
113 ≡ 11 × 21 ≡ 231 ≡ 31
114 ≡ 11 × 31 ≡ 341 ≡ 41
115 ≡ 11 × 41 ≡ 451 ≡ 51
116 ≡ 11 × 51 ≡ 561 ≡ 61
117 ≡ 11 × 61 ≡ 671 ≡ 71
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118 ≡ 11 × 71 ≡ 781 ≡ 81
l.c
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119 ≡ 11 × 81 ≡ 891 ≡ 91
gm
The last two digits of the sequence follow a pattern of starting at 1, and then
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Therefore
Indeed, Figure 3 shows that the last two digits are 11, as proved.
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l.c
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⋮
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‘Does the sequence 11, 111, 1111, 11111, ... contain any squares?’
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Consequently, since every number in the sequence is odd, if any of them are
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squares, they must be the square of an odd number.
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This means that any potential square in the sequence will be congruent to 1,
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modulo 4.
or
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Because
Since
11 ≡ 3 (mod 4),
and so it can be concluded that the sequence 11, 111, 1111, 11111, ... contains no
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squares.
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gm
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Extension
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Albert Beiler for a number containing just 1 different digit) can be square
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numbers [16].
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Since
Theorem 2.4 proves that any multiple of 100 is congruent to 0, modulo 4. All
powers of 10 greater than 100 are multiples of 100, so all powers of 10 greater
than 100 are also congruent to 0, modulo 4. This means that 100 and 101 are the
only positive integer powers of 10 that aren’t congruent to 0, modulo 4. Only the
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last two digits of a number represent the multiples of 100 and 101 . Therefore, all
numbers are congruent to their last two digits, modulo 4. Thus, only the two-
22 ≡ 2
33 ≡ 1
44 ≡ 0
55 ≡ 3
66 ≡ 2
77 ≡ 1
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88 ≡ 0
l.c
ai (mod 4).
99 ≡ 3
gm
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aa
(2𝑛)2 = 4𝑛2 .
However, this doesn’t prove that monodigits containing 3’s, 4’s, 7’s and 8’s cannot
be squares.
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The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that every positive integer greater
2 𝑎 × 3𝑏 × 5𝑐 × 7𝑑 × … × 𝑝 𝑖 (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, … , 𝑖 ∈ ℤ∗ ).
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broken up into primes with all even exponents. Any monodigit containing 4’s is
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equal to a monodigit containing 1’s multiplied by 4. Since 4 is equal to 22 , when a
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(from 0 to 2, as monodigits containing 1’s are odd and have no factor of 2). This
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multiplication keeps the exponent of 2 even and doesn’t change any other
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monodigit containing 1’s has all even exponents in its prime factors and
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multiplying by 4 won’t change any exponents from odd to even, it has been
proved that no monodigit containing 4’s has all even exponents on its prime
The remaining monodigits containing 3’s, 7’s and 8’s can be proved not to be
squares too. As mentioned in the previous question the integer abcd represents:
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When abcd is squared, only terms with a power of 10 equal to 0 will impact units
digit, since it represents the multiples of 100 . The tens, hundreds, thousands
(and so on) digits are already multiples of powers of 10 greater than 0 and so
cannot end up being counted in the units column. Thus, only the units digits of
For any monodigit containing 3’s, 7’s or 8’s to be a square, there must be a digit
12 = 𝟏
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22 = 𝟒
l.c
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32 = 𝟗
gm
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42 = 1𝟔
aa
52 = 2𝟓
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62 = 3𝟔
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72 = 4𝟗
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82 = 6𝟒
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92 = 8𝟏
In conclusion, this means that no monodigit (with two or more digits) can be a
perfect square.
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[see Appendix A]
0 ≤ 𝑥 < 11, 𝑥 ∈ ℤ .
om
l.c
Since the modulus is prime, Fermat’s Little Theorem applies:
ai
gm
𝑎𝑝 ≡ 𝑎 (mod 𝑝)
c@
Consequently,
st
a
and
Thus
and
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92 ≡ 81 ≡ 4 (mod 11)
93 ≡ 92 × 9 ≡ 4 × 9 ≡ 36 ≡ 3 (mod 11)
Therefore
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84 ≡ (82 )2 ≡ (−2)2 ≡ 4 (mod 11).
l.c
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Therefore
gm
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6 Conclusion
In this essay, the basic concept of modular arithmetic was introduced, followed
divisibility tests were also explored, and an example of the latter was exhibited.
ideas were used to produce 5 original solutions to number theory problems. The
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steps in the solutions were fleshed out at each stage to make ensure the
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reasoning was coherent and accessible for the reader.
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situations, and as such, the constraints on the length of this essay make it
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difficult to explore every facet of its use. For instance, modular arithmetic can be
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used to produce number theory proofs by exhausting all least residues under a
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modulus. I find this aspect compelling and, although it was touched on in one
problem, I would have liked to elaborate on it, if I had more words. Similarly,
writing the essay, I found the problem concerning monodigits intriguing, and
would also like to have expanded on this to investigate perfect cubes and
feel that modular arithmetic was introduced effectively and its applicability in
both parts of the research question, ‘What is modular arithmetic, and how can it
be applied to solve problems in the field of number theory?’ have been answered.
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7 Appendices
Appendix A
All digits in the question were randomly generated from random.org [19] so that
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8 Bibliography
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Foundation for Computer Science, Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-
Wesley, 1994.
l.c
ai
gm
https://crypto.stanford.edu/pbc/notes/numbertheory/arith.html. [Accessed 17
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7 2020].
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Available:
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https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Modular_arithmetic/Introdu
ction. [Accessed 21 7 2020].
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[Online]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnAW3IQNhTw.
l.c
[Accessed 5 8 2020]. ai
gm
Available:
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https://mathworld.wolfram.com/FundamentalTheoremofArithmetic.html#:~:
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text=The%20fundamental%20theorem%20of%20arithmetic,called%20the%2
st
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