DCMH.

CH4051_Process Safety
Source Models

Prepared by:

Dr. Mardhati Zainal Abidin

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS

AP Ir. Dr. Risza Rusli

University of Doha for Science & Technology

For:
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Course Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, students should be able to do the following

 Understand the requirements for consequence modeling procedure

 To describe the possible options of how materials could be released from
any process due to an accident
 To apply suitable source model in order to estimate the amount of
released materials
Introduction to Source Model
3

Spills of materials can lead to disaster

• toxic exposure
• fire
• explosion

Materials are released from holes, cracks in various

plant components

• tanks, pipes, pumps

• flanges, valves

Source models represent the material release process – provision of

useful information for determining the consequences of an accident:

• rate of material release, mass/time

• total quantity released
• state of material: liquid, solid, gas, or combination
• Other information specific to the situation
 Consequences Analysis Procedure
Loss of containment
•Rupture or break in pipeline
Selection of a Release Incident •Hole in a tank or pipeline
•Runaway reaction
To describe release accident •Fire external to vessel
•Total quantity released
Selection of a Source Model (C4)
•Release duration
•Release rate Neutrally buoyant models
Results from the models
Selection of a Dispersion Model (C5)
•Downwind concentration
•Area affected
•Duration
Flammable/Toxic
Models
•TNT Equivalency Flammable Toxic
•Multi-Energy Explosion •Response vs dose
•Fireball •Probit model
Selection of Fire Selection of •Toxic response
Results
& Explosion Model (C6) Effect Model (C2) •No. of individuals affected
•Blast overpressure
•Radiant heat flux •Property damage
•Escape Mitigation Factors
•Emergency Response
•Containment dikes
•PPE
Consequence Model
 Basic Source Models

Flow of liquid Flow of

Flow of liquid Flow of liquids
through a hole in gases/vapour
through a hole through pipes
a tank through holes

Flow of gases or Liquid pool

vapor through evaporating or Flashing liquids
pipes boiling

More complex models can be developed from these simple models.

Open
Release Mechanisms - Mode of Release

Wide aperture release Limited aperture release

Large hole developing in process Slow release of material that causing

unit. non immediate effect to upstream.
Releasing a substantial amount of Assumption: constant upstream
material in a short time pressure.

Example: Over pressuring and Example: leaks in flanges, valves and

explosion of a storage tank pumps; ruptured pipes, cracks and
relief system
 Limited Aperture Release

Figure 1 Various types of limited aperture releases.

Open
Release Mechanism Parameters

Ambient wind speed,

ground surface, release
height.
Ambient temperature and
pressure.

Geometry of release
(hole, rupture, Vapor – Liquid –
catastrophic failure)
Equilibrium of
Velocity of released
release material.

Temperature and
pressure of released
material.
Composition of released
material.

And many others!

Influence of Physical State
For gases or vapours stored in a tank, a leak results in a jet of gas or
vapour

Figure 2 Released of vapour

Influence of Physical State

 Stream of liquid flashing partially into vapour (stored under pressure

above boiling point
 Stream of escaping liquid
Figure 3 Released of vapour or two phase liquid
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole

Typical simplification on the mechanical energy balance

▪ Pressure is the driving force
▪ Pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy
▪ Losses due to friction due to liquid flow

P1 > P2

Liquid escaping through a hole

in a process unit.
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
A mechanical energy (ME) balance for incompressible flow:

𝑑𝑃 𝑢² 𝑔 𝑊𝑠
න +Δ + Δ𝑧 + 𝐹 = −
𝜌 2 𝛼 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑚

where
P is the pressure (force/area)
𝜌 is the fluid density (mass/volume)
ū is the avg. instantaneous velocity of the fluid (length/time)
gc is the gravitational constant (length mass/force time²)
a is the unitless velocity profile correction factor with the following values: (0.5
for laminar flow), (1.0 for plug flow), (>1.0 for turbulent flow)
𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity (length/time 2)
z is the height above datum (length)
F is the net frictional loss term (length force/mass)
Ws is the shaft work (force length)
m is the mass flow rate (mass/time)
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Assumptions made for hole:
𝑑𝑃 Δ𝑃
▪ Incompressible Fluid - Density is constant න =
𝜌 𝜌
▪ No elevation difference (∆z = 0)
▪ No shaft work, Ws = 0
▪ Negligible velocity change (small aperture), ∆u = 0

Liquid escaping through

a hole in a process unit.
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole

 Solve ME balance for velocity where equation for velocity of fluid

exiting the leak through a small hole:

2 g c Pg
u = Co

 Mass flow rate Qm resulting from a hole of area A:

Qm =  uA = ACo 2  g c Pg
 The total mass of liquid spilled depends on the total time that the
leak is active.

*discharge coefficient Co
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole

 The discharge coefficient Co is a function of the Reynolds number of the

fluid escaping the leak and the diameter of the hole
As a guideline;

 For sharp-edge orifices and Re > 30,000, Co ~ 0.61. The exit velocity is
independent of the hole size.

 For well rounded-nozzle, Co = 1

 For short pipe attached to vessel with length to diameter ratio < 3, Co
= 0.81.

 When Co is unknown, use Co = 1 to maximise the computed flows.

 Orifice Discharge Coefficient

0.700

0.650

0.600
Discharge Coefficient

0.550

0.500

0.450

0.400

0.350

0.300

0.250

0.200
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Reynolds Number

See older Perry’s for more details!

 Example 4.1
Flow of Liquid through a Hole

At 1 p.m. the plant operator notices a drop in pressure in a pipeline transporting

benzene. The pressure is immediately restored to 100 psig. At 2.30 p.m. a ¼-inch
diameter leak is found in the pipeline and immediately repaired. Estimate the
total amount of benzene spilled. The specific gravity of benzene is 0.8794.
 Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Example Solution

The drop in pressure observed at 1 p.m. is indicative of a leak in the

pipeline. The leak is assumed to be active between 1 p.m. and 2.30 p.m.,
a total of 90 minutes. The area of the hole is

𝜋𝑑² 3.14 0.25in ² 1ft²Τ144in²

𝐴= =
4 4
= 3.41 × 10 ft
−4

The density of the benzene is,

𝜌 = 0.8794 62.4lbm /ft3 = 54.9lbm /ft3

 Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Example Solution

Using the leak mass flow rate equation given (slide 12) and a discharge
coefficient of 0.61 is assumed for this orifice-type leak, the mass flow rate is

𝑄𝑚 = 𝐴𝐶𝑜 2𝜌𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
= 3.41 × 10−4 𝑓𝑡² 0.61 ×
lbm ft lbm lbf in²
(2) 54.9 32.17 100 144
ft3 lbf s² in² ft²
lbmൗ
= 1.48 s
The total quantity of benzene spilled is

lbmൗ
= 1.48 s (90 min) (60 𝑠Τmin) = 7990lbm

= 1090 gallons
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

An orifice-type leak in a process vessel. The energy due to the pressure of the
fluid height above the leak is converted to kinetic energy as the fluid exits
through the hole. Some energy is lost due to frictional fluid flow.
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

▪ Equation for instantaneous velocity of fluid exiting the leak :

𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑢lj = 𝐶𝑜 2 + 𝑔ℎ𝐿
𝜌

▪ The instantaneous mass flow rate Qm resulting from a hole of area A as a

function of time:

𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝑢𝐴
lj = 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑜 2 + 𝑔ℎ𝐿
𝜌
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
 The liquid level height in the tank at any time t;

2
𝑜 𝐶𝑜 𝐴 2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 𝑜
𝑔 𝐶𝑜 𝐴
ℎ𝐿 = ℎ 𝐿 − + 2𝑔ℎ𝐿 𝑡 + 𝑡
𝐴𝑡 𝜌 2 𝐴𝑡

 The mass discharge rate at any time t;

𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐶 2 𝐴2
𝑜
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝑢𝐴
lj = 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑜 2 + 𝑔ℎ𝐿𝑜 − 𝑡
𝜌 𝐴𝑡
 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

 The time te for the vessel to empty to the level of the leak is found;

1 𝐴𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑡𝑒 = 2 + 𝑔ℎ𝐿𝑜 −
𝐶𝑜 𝑔 𝐴 𝜌 𝜌

 If the vessel is at atmospheric pressure, Pg = 0;

1 𝐴𝑡
𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑔ℎ𝐿𝑜
𝐶𝑜 𝑔 𝐴
 Example 4.2:
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

A cylindrical tank 20-feet high and 8-feet in diameter is used to store benzene.
The tank is padded with nitrogen to a constant, regulated pressure of 1 atm
gauge to prevent explosion. The liquid level within the tank is presently at 17
feet. A 1-inch puncture occurs in the tank 5 feet off the ground due to the
careless driving of a forklift truck. Estimate
a. the gallons of benzene spilled,
b. the time required for the benzene to leak out, and
c. the maximum mass flow rate of benzene through the leak.
The specific gravity of benzene at there conditions is 0.8794.
 Example 4.2:
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

The density of the benzene is

𝜌 = (0.8794)(62.4l bm Τft3 )
= 54.9 lbm Τft3

The area of the tank is

𝜋𝑑² (3.14)(8f𝑡)²
𝐴𝑡 = = = 50.2ft²
4 4

The area of the leak is

(3.14)(1in)²(1f𝑡 Τ144in²)
𝐴= = 5.45 × 10−3 ft²
4
The gauge pressure is

𝑃𝑔 = (1atm)(14.7 lbf Τin²)(144 in²Τft²) = 2.12 × 103 lbf Τft²

 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Example Solution
a. The volume of benzene above the leak is
𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑡 ℎ𝐿𝑜 = (50.2ft²)(17f𝑡 − 5f𝑡)(7.48 galΤft3 ) = 4,506gallons

This is the total benzene that will leak out.

b. The length of time for the benzene to leak out is:

1 𝐴𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑡𝑒 = 2 + 𝑔ℎ𝐿𝑜 −
𝐶𝑜 𝑔 𝐴 𝜌 𝜌
1 50.2f𝑡²
= ×
(0.61)(32.17 ftΤs²) 5.45 × 10−3 ft²
1ൗ
ft.lbm lb 2
2 32.17 2.12 × 103 f
lbf . 𝑠² ft² ft
+ 2 32.17 12ft
lbm s²
54.9 3
ft
− 2484 ft²ൗs² = 469 s²Τft (7.22 ft²Τs²) = 3386s = 56.4minutes
 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Example Solution
This appears to be more than adequate time to stop the leak or to invoke an
emergency procedure to reduce the impact of the leak. However, the
maximum discharge occurs when the hole is first opened.

c. The maximum discharge occurs at t = 0 at a liquid level of 17.0 feet. The

mass flow rate is:

𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑜 2 + 𝑔ℎ𝐿𝑜
𝜌
= (54.9 lbmΤft 3 )(5.45 × 10−3 ft²)(0.61) 3.26 × 103 ft²Τs²

𝑄𝑚 = 10.4 lbmΤs
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole

A free expansion gas leak. The gas expands isentropically through the
hole. The gas properties (P,T) and velocity change during the
expansion
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole
 The mass flow rate at any point during the isentropic process is given by the
following expression:

2/𝛾 𝛾+1 ൗ
𝛾
2𝑔𝑐 𝑀 𝛾 𝑃 𝑃
𝑄𝑀 = 𝐶0𝐴𝑃0 −
𝑅𝑔 𝑇0 𝛾 − 1 𝑃0 𝑃0
where

𝑄𝑚 = Mass Flow
𝐶𝑜 = Discharge coef. → 1.0 for choked gas flow
𝐴 = Area
𝑃𝑜 = Upstream pressure (absolute)
𝑀 = Molecular weight
𝑇𝑜 = Temperature (absolute)
𝑔𝑐 = grav. constant
𝑅𝑔 = Ideal gas constant
𝛾 = Heat capacity ratio
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole
 For safety studies, the maximum flow rate of vapour through the hole is
required
 Pressure ratio resulting in the maximum flow through the hole or pipe is
given by the
𝛾 (𝛾−1)
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 2
=
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1

 Pchoked is the maximum downstream pressure (choked pressure) and only a

function of the heat capacity ratio, 𝛾 .
 For downstream pressure < Pchoked
 Fluid velocity at the throat of the leak is the velocity of sound at the
prevailing conditions
 Velocity and mass flow rate are independent of the downstream
conditions.
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole

Gas Pressurized within External Surroundings

Process Unit P < P choked

Po

To
At Throat:
U0=0
P = Pchoked
U = Sonic Velocity

Choked flow of gas through a hole. The gas velocity is sonic at the throat.
The mass flow rate is independent of the downstream pressure.
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole
 At the choked condition, the flow is maximum:

𝛾+1 ൘
𝛾 𝑔𝑐 𝑀 2 𝛾−1
𝑄𝑀 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶0 𝐴𝑃0
𝑅𝑔 𝑇0 𝛾 + 1

 For sharp-edged orifices, Re > 30,000 (and not choked), Co = 0.61.

 For choked flows, Co increases as the downstream pressure
decreases. For these flows and for situations where Co is
uncertain, a conservative value of 1.0 is recommended.
 Values for the heat capacity ratio for a variety of gases are
provided in Table 4-3.
 Gas Chemical Approximate Heat
Formula Molecular Capacity
or Symbol Weight (M) Ratio γ =
Cp/Cv
Acetylene C2H2 26.0 1.30
Table 4-3 Heat capacity Air — 29.0 1.40
ratio Ammonia NH3 17.0 1.32
Argon Ar 39.9 1.67
Butane C4H10 58.1 1.11
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.0 1.30
Carbon monoxide CO 28.0 1.40
Chlorine Cl2 70.9 1.33
Ethane C2H6 30.0 1.22
Ethylene C2H4 28.0 1.22
Helium He 4.0 1.66
Hydrogen H2 2.0 1.41
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.5 1.41
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.1 1.30
Methane CH4 16.0 1.32
Methyl chloride CH3Cl 50.5 1.20
Natural gas – 19.5 1.27
Nitric oxide NO 30.0 1.40
Nitrogen N2 28.0 1.41
Nitrous oxide N2O 44.0 1.31
Oxygen O2 32.0 1.40
Propane C3H8 44.1 1.15
Propene (propylene) C3H6 42.1 1.14
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.1 1.26
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole
Condition of Choked Flow

30 psia 14.7 psia

Gas Gamma P choked

Monotonic 1.67 0.487 P o
Diatomic and air 1.40 0.528 P o
Triatomic 1.32 0.542 P o

An absolute pressure ratio of greater than 2 will insure choked flow.

…. Choked flow is the usual case.
Example 4.3 Flow of Vapour through a Hole

A 0.2-cm hole forms in a tank containing nitrogen at 14 bar gauge and

25°C. Determine the mass flow rate through this leak. The external pressure is
1 atm.

Solution

From Table 4-3, for nitrogen = 1.41. Then, from Equation 4-49,

 / (  −1)
Pchoked  2 
1.41/0.41
 2 
=  =  = 0.527
Po   + 1   2.41 
The absolute pressure in the tank is 14 bar + 1.013 barg = 15.01 bara.

Thus,
Pchoked = 0.527 (15.01 bara ) = 7.91 bara
Example 4.3 Flow of Vapour through a Hole

Any external pressure less than 7.91 bara will result in choked flow through the leak.
Because the external pressure is atmospheric in this case (1.013 bara), choked flow
is expected and Equation 4-50 applies. The area of the hole is

A=
d 2
=
( 3.14 )( 0.2 cm )
2
(1 m 2
/104 cm 2 )
= 3.14 10−6 m 2
4 4

The discharge coefficient C0 is assumed to be 1.0. Also,

To = 25 + 273 = 298 K

( +1)/( −1)
 2 
2.41/0.41
 2 
  =  = 0.8305.87 = 0.335
  +1   2.41 
Example 4.3 Flow of Vapour through a Hole
Then, using Equation 4-50,

( +1)/( -1)
 gc M  2 
RgTo   +1 
(Qm )choked = Co APo

 105 N/m 2 
(
= (1.0 ) 3.14 10 −6
)
m (15.01 bara ) 
2

 1 bar 
 kg m/s 2 
(1.41) 1  ( 28 kg/kg-mole )
 N 
× ( 0.335)
( 8.314 10 N m/kg-mole K ( 298 K )
3
)
= 4.71 N 5.34 10−6 kg 2 / N 2s 2
(Qm )choked =1.09 10−2 kg/s
Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling

 Liquids with high Psat evaporate faster; the evaporation rate (Qm) is a
function of Psat.

 A generalized expression for the vaporization rate;

𝑀𝐾𝐴 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃
𝑄𝑚 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
 For many situations, Psat >> P such as for an open vessel or from a spill of
liquid;
𝑀𝐾𝐴𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑄𝑚 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling

 The initial stage of boiling usually controlled by heat transfer from the ground
 The heat transfer from the ground is given by;
ks = thermal conductivity of the soil
𝑘𝑠 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇 Tg = temperature of the soil
𝑞𝑔 = T = temperature of the liquid pool
𝜋𝛼𝑠 𝑡 1/2
t = time after spill
⍺s = thermal diffusivity of the soil

 The rate of boiling is determined by assuming that all the heat from the
surroundings is used to boil the liquid in the pool;
𝑞𝑔 𝐴 qg = heat transfer for the pool from the ground
𝑄𝑚 = A = area of the pool
Δ𝐻𝑣
△Hv = heat of vapourisation of liquid in the pool

 This approach seems to work adequately for LNG and perhaps for ethane and
ethylene. The higher HC (C3 and above) require a more detailed heat transfer
mechanism.
Source models do not need to be exact!

See Table 4.6

Table 4-6:
Guildelines for
selection of
process
incidents
Realistic Release Incidents
The realistic releases represent the incident outcomes with a high probability
of occurring
Worst Case Release Incidents –
from RMP (US)
43

See Table 4.6

Conclusion

• Source models represent the material release process - information for

determining the consequences of an accident

• The purpose of the source model is to determine:

• The form of material released, solid, liquid or vapour;
• The total quantity of material released; and
• The rate at which it is released.
• These information is required for any quantitative dispersion model
study.

• Two types of release mechanisms: wide aperture release & limited

aperture release – influence the nature of release of materials.
Reference

Crowl, D. A. and Louvar, J. F., Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with

Applications, Prentice Hall, 3rd Edition, 2011.