TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND

RELIABILITY

P.CHINNA RAO
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
RGUKT-AP
SRIKAKULAM CAMPUS
 Learning Objectives

• Control charts
• Control charts for variables
• Control charts for Attributes
 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

STATISTICS QUALITY CONTROL

It is the science which Quality control is the
deals with the collection, Conformance to procedure or set of
classification, analysis Specifications procedures intend to ensure
that the process/product
and making of inferences
adheres to the set of
from data or information specifications

 Statistical Quality Control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and maintain the quality of
products and services.

 The term used to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality professionals.

 All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of the product or services.
 Categories of SQC

 SQC encompasses three broad categories:

 Statistical Process Control (SPC)

 Descriptive Statistics

 Acceptance Sampling
 Statistical Process Control (SPC)

 The underlying concept of Statistical Process Control is based on a comparison of what happening today with
what happened previously.

 We take a snapshot of how the process typically performs or build a model of how we think the process will
perform and calculate the control limits for expected measurements of the output process.

 Then we collect data from the process and compare the data to control limits.

 The majority of measurements must fall within the control limits.

 Measurements that fall outside the control limits are examined to see if they belonging to the same population
as our initial snapshot or model.
 Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Techniques
 There are many ways to implement process control. The following are the key monitoring and investigating
tools:

 Control charts
 Histograms

 Run charts

 Pareto charts

 Cause and Effect Diagrams

 Flow Diagram
 Scatter Diagram
 Control Charts: Recognising the source of variation

 Why Control Charts?

 To monitor, control and improve process performance over the time by studying variation and
its source.

 How do we use Control Charts?

 There are many types of control charts. The control charts that you or your team decides to use
determined by the type of data that you have.

 Data are two types?

 Variables

 Attributes
 Control Charts: Recognising the source of variation

• Length
• Diameter
• Volume
Things we • Tensile strength
Variables
measure
Measure • Time
• Temperature

• Number or percentage defective

Things we items
Attributes
Count • Number of defects per item
• Types of defects
 What is SPC?

 A simple, yet powerful, collection of tools for graphically analysing the process data.

 Has one primary purpose: to tell when you have a problem.

 Invented by Walter Shewhart at AT&T to minimise process tampering.

 Important because unnecessary process changes increase instability and increase the error rate.

 SPC will identify when a problem (or special cause variation) occurs.
Basics of Statistical Process Control:

 Statistical Process Control (SPC):

 Monitoring the production process to detect and prevent

poor quality.

 Sample:

 Subset of items produced to use for inspection.

 Control Charts:

 Process within statistical control limits.

To control, you have to measure:
Production data always has some variability:
Chance and Assignable causes of Quality variation:
Accuracy and Precision:

 Examples of Quality characteristics:

Painted Surface, thickness, hardness, and resistance to fading or chipping, viscosity,
sweetness, electrical resistance, frequency, etc.

 We can control only those characteristics than can be counted, evaluated or measured.

 Engineering characteristics may show problems with Accuracy or with Precision.

Variability:

 Random:

 Common causes
 Inherent in process
 Can be eliminated only through improvements in the system

 Non-Random:

 Special causes
 Due to identifiable factors
 Can be modified through operator or management action.
Assignable causes are controlled by SPC :

 Take periodic samples from process

 Plot sample points on control chart

 Determine if process within limits

 Prevent quality problems

 Control Charts

 A key tool in SPC

 Graph establishing process control limits

 Charts for Variables:

 Mean (X-Bar), Range (R), EWMA, CUSUM

 Charts for Attributes:

 p, np and c
 Shewart Control Chart

 A time ordered plot of sample statistics

 When chart is within control limits:

 Only random or common causes present

 We leave the process alone

 Plot of each point is test of Hypothesis:

 H0=Process is “In-Control”
 H1=Process is “out of control” and
requires invistigation
A process is in control if :

 No sample points are outside limits

 Most points near process average

 About equal number of points above and below center line

 Points appears randomly distributed

 A process in control is supposed to be under the influence of random causes only.

Charts may signal incorrectly :

 Charts repeatedly test hypothesis testing

 Type I error with charts:

 Concluding that a process is not in control, when it is actually

 Type II error with charts:

 Concluding that a process is in control, when it is not.

 Types of Shewhart Control charts

 Control charts for Variables data:

 X and R charts: For sample means and Ranges

 X and s charts: For sample means and Standard deviations
 Md and R charts: For sample medians and ranges
 X charts: For individual measures, using moving ranges

 Control charts for Attributes data:

 p charts: Proportion of units non conforming

 np charts: Number of units non conforming
 c charts: Number of non conformities
 u charts: Number of non conformities per unit
 Control charts for Variables data:

 Mean chart ( X- bar chart) ---- For Accuracy

• Uses of average of sample:

X-Bar = X1+X2+X3+……./n

 Range chart ( R- chart) ---- For precision

• Uses of amount of dispersion in sample:

R = Max(Xi) – Min(Xi)
 Constructing an X Chart

Central Line:
 Constructing an X Chart
Control Limits:
Problem:

A quality control inspector at XYZ company has taken 3 samples with 4 observations each
of the volume of bottles filled. If the standard deviation of the bottling operation 0.2 ml, use the below
data to develop control charts with the limits of 3 standard deviations for the 16 ml bottling operation.
 Constructing an X Chart

Control Limits:
Problem:
 Constructing an R-Chart

Central Line:
Control Limits:
Problem:

A quality control inspector at XYZ company has taken 3 samples with 4 observations each
of the volume of bottles filled. If the standard deviation of the bottling operation 0.2 ml, use the below
data to develop control charts with the limits of 3 standard deviations for the 16 ml bottling operation.
 Control charts for Attributes data:

 p – chart:

• A control chart used to monitor the proportion of non

conforming/defective items

 c – chart:

• A c- chart is used to track the total number of non

conformities in samples of constant size. When the sample
size varies, a u-chart is used to track the number of non
conformities per unit.
Problem:

An inspector counted the number of defectives in monthly billing statements of a telephone

company in each of 20 samples. Using the following information construct a control chart that will
describe 3 standard deviations for process in control. Each sample contains 100 statements.
Interpretation of Control Charts
Performance variation patterns:
Other Control Charts
 CUSUM Control Chart
 CUSUM charts, while not as intuitive and simple to operate as Shewhart charts, have been shown to be more
efficient in detecting small shifts in the mean of a process.

 In particular, analyzing ARL's for CUSUM control charts shows that they are better than Shewhart control
charts when it is desired to detect shifts in the mean that are 2 sigma or less.

 A cumulative sum (CUSUM) chart is used to monitor small shifts in the process mean. It uses the
cumulative sum of deviations from a target. The CUSUM chart plots the cumulative sum of deviations from
the target for individual measurements or subgroup means.

 CUSUM works as follows: Let us collect m samples, each of size n, and compute the mean of each sample.
Then the cumulative sum (CUSUM) control chart is formed by plotting one of the following quantities:

 The purpose of cumulative sum chart (CUSUM) is to monitor the small shift in the process mean of the
samples collects at a time intervals. These measurements of samples at a given time interval represents the
subgroups.
 EWMA Control Chart

 The Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) is a statistic for monitoring the process that
averages the data in a way that gives less and less weight to data as they are further removed in time.

 For the Shewhart chart control technique, the decision regarding the state of control of the process at
any time, t, depends solely on the most recent measurement from the process and, of course, the
degree of "trueness" of the estimates of the control limits from historical data.

 For the EWMA control technique, the decision depends on the EWMA statistic, which is an
exponentially weighted average of all prior data, including the most recent measurement.

 By the choice of weighting factor, λ, the EWMA control procedure can be made sensitive to a small
or gradual drift in the process, whereas the Shewhart control procedure can only react when the last
data point is outside a control limit.

 In statistical quality control, the EWMA chart (or exponentially weighted moving average chart) is a
type of control chart used to monitor either variables or attributes-type data using the monitored
business or industrial process's entire history of output.