5th unit notes of remaining topics

Q1. What is analog to digital convertor. What is the need of it?

Ans In the real world, analogue signals have continuously changing values which come from
various sources. Sensors which can measure sound, light, temperature or movement, etc.
Electronic circuits can interact with their environment by measuring the analogue signals from
such transducers.

While analogue signals can be continuous and provide an infinite number of different voltage
values, digital electronic circuits on the other hand work with binary signal which have only two
discrete states, a logic “1” (HIGH) or a logic “0” (LOW).

Application:

Audio and Video: Microphones and cameras convert analog sound and light into digital formats
for playback and editing.
Sensors: In IoT devices, sensors convert analog signals (temperature, pressure) into digital for
processing and action.

Communication: Telecommunication systems convert analog voice into digital signals for
transmission over networks.

Q2. What is the process of conversion of analog to digital signals.?

Ans The Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) process transforms a continuous analog signal
into a discrete digital signal. This is done in three main steps:

1. Sampling

• The analog signal is measured at regular time intervals, called the sampling rate.

• The sampling rate determines how often the analog signal is recorded per second,
typically measured in samples per second (Hz).

• Nyquist Theorem: The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency in the
analog signal to accurately represent it without aliasing.

Example: If the highest frequency of a signal is 10 kHz, the sampling rate must be at least 20
kHz.

2. Quantization
• The sampled values are mapped to the nearest value from a finite set of levels.
• This process introduces quantization error (or noise) because the continuous
range of the analog signal is approximated to discrete steps.
 • The number of levels is determined by the bit-depth of the ADC. A higher bit-
depth provides more precision.
Example: A 3-bit ADC divides the range into 2^3 levels,= 8 levels while a 16-bit ADC
divides it into 2 ^16=65,536 levels.

3. Encoding

• The quantized values are converted into a binary format that digital systems can
understand.

• These binary values represent the amplitude of the analog signal at each sampling point.

For example,

Consider an audio signal:

1. A microphone captures the analog sound wave.

 2. The signal is sampled, quantized, and encoded by the ADC in the sound card of a
computer.

3. The resulting digital data can be stored, processed, or transmitted.

Q3. How many types of conversion of ADC techniques. explain them

Ans. A/D Converter Types:

1. Flash ADC

2. Successive Approximation ADC

3. Dual Slope (integrating) ADC

Flash ADC  Consists of a series of comparators, each one comparing the input signal to a
unique reference voltage.  The comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder
circuit, which produces a binary output 

Working => As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a high state. The priority encoder generates a
binary number based on the highest-order active input, ignoring all other active inputs.

If Vin > Vref :Output is High

If Vin < Vref :Output is Low

Working:

The analog input voltage is compared with all the comparator’s reference voltages of the Flash
analog to digital converter. After comparison, we notice that the reference voltages of the first
three comparators, i.e., 1 V, 2 V, and 3 V, are less than the 3.3 V input. That is why the output of
the first three comparators is high while the remaining comparators are in a low state.

The outputs of these comparators become the inputs of the priority encoder. We can see that there
are seven reference voltages. Hence, the 8th input line is connected to logic 1 and is given the
least priority. It means that it is a descending-order priority encoder. This helps in the case where
all the comparator’s output voltages are zero. Hence, importance will be given to the higher-
priority outputs, so the encoder generates an all-zero output.

As three input lines of the encoder are high at the same time, priority will be given to the third
input, and a corresponding output binary code is generated.
2. Successive Approximation method:

An Approximation ADC, commonly referred to as a Successive Approximation Register ADC

(SAR ADC), is a type of analog-to-digital converter that operates by iteratively narrowing down
the range of possible digital values to approximate the input analog signal. It is widely used due
to its balance of speed, accuracy, and power efficiency.

Sampling

• The input analog signal is sampled and held constant using a sample-and-hold circuit
during the conversion process.

• This ensures that the input remains steady while the ADC determines the digital value.

Initialization

• A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) sets its most significant bit (MSB) to 1
and all lower bits to 0.
 • The SAR provides this trial digital value to the Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC).

Conversion Process

The ADC performs the following for each bit:

1. Comparison:

o The trial digital output from the SAR is converted back into an analog signal by
the DAC.

o This analog value is compared with the input signal using a comparator.

o If the trial value is lower than the input, the comparator output is high (1);
otherwise, it is low (0).

2. Adjustment:

o Based on the comparator's output:

▪ If the comparator indicates the trial value is too low, the current bit
remains 1.

▪ If the trial value is too high, the current bit is reset to 0.

o The SAR adjusts the next lower bit and repeats the process.

3. Iteration:

o This binary search continues for all the bits, starting from the MSB to the least
significant bit (LSB).

Final Output

• After all bits are tested, the SAR produces the final digital word corresponding to the
analog input.

• This digital word is output as the ADC's result.

Dual Slope (integrating) ADC: The Dual Slope ADC, also known as an integrating ADC, is a
type of analog-to-digital converter that integrates the input signal over a fixed period, then
measures the time it takes for a reference signal to discharge the integrator. It is highly accurate
and immune to noise, making it ideal for applications like digital multimeters.

Working:

• The control logic resets the counter and enables the clock signal generator in order to
send the clock pulses to the counter, when it receives the start commanding signal.

• Control logic pushes the switch SW to connect to the external analog input voltage Vi
when it receives the start commanding signal. This input voltage is applied to an
integrator.

• The output of the integrator is connected to one of the two inputs of the comparator and
the other input of comparator is connected to ground.

• Comparator compares the output of the integrator with zero volts (ground) and produces
an output, which is applied to the control logic.
 • The counter gets incremented by one for every clock pulse and its value will be in binary
(digital) format. It produces an overflow signal to the control logic, when it is
incremented after reaching the maximum count value. At this instant, all the bits of
counter will have zeros only.

• Now, the control logic pushes the switch SW to connect to the negative
reference voltage −Vref. This negative reference voltage is applied to an integrator. It
removes the charge stored in the capacitor until it becomes zero.

• At this instant, both the inputs of a comparator are having zero volts. So, comparator
sends a signal to the control logic. Now, the control logic disables the clock signal
generator and retains (holds) the counter value. The counter value is proportional to the
external analog input voltage.

• At this instant, the output of the counter will be displayed as the digital output. It is
almost equivalent to the corresponding external analog input value Vi

Q4. Explain resolution and accuracy in Analog to Digital convertor.

Ans. The accuracy of an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) refers to how closely the digital
output of the ADC matches the actual analog input signal. In other words, the accuracy of the
converter determines how many bits in the digital output code represent useful information about
the input signal.

Resolution:

The resolution of an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is the smallest voltage change that an
ADC can detect and produce a different digital output. It's usually expressed in bits and is a key
specification for ADCs, especially when it comes to precise measurements. The resolution of an
ADC chip is determined during design and can't be changed, but the step size can be controlled
with Vref.

• For an N-bit ADC, the resolution is: Resolution= Vref/2^N where Vref is the reference
voltage.
 • Higher resolution (more bits) means finer granularity, improving accuracy.

Example: A 10-bit ADC with a 5 V reference voltage has a resolution of:

5 V/2^10=4.88 mV per step.

Q5. What is hysteric comparator. Explain its working.

Ans

A comparator with hysteresis has a nonlinear response with different switching threshold
voltages depending upon whether the input is transitioning from low to high, or high to low. The
circuit employs positive feedback to generate the nonlinear response. The low-to-high transition
input voltage is called the high threshold voltage (VTH). Similarly, the high-to-low transition
input voltage is called the low threshold voltage (VTL). This calculator assumes that the output
can swing from the positive supply rail (VP) to the negative supply rail (VN).

Working Principle:

1. Initial Condition:

o Assume the output starts in the low state.

o The lower threshold VL is active due to the feedback network.

2. Input Rising:
 o As the input voltage (Vin) rises and crosses the upper threshold VH, the output
switches from low to high.

o This change in output modifies the feedback, shifting the active threshold to the
lower level VL

3. Input Falling:

o If Vin_{in}in decreases and falls below VL the output switches from high to low.

o The active threshold shifts back to VH

4. Hysteresis Action:

o The feedback ensures that the comparator does not toggle when the input voltage
is between VH and VL, effectively rejecting noise and minor fluctuations.

Applications:

• Schmitt Trigger Circuits: For noise immunity in digital signal processing.

• Pulse Generators: For creating sharp transitions in analog signals.

• Zero-Crossing Detectors: With hysteresis to prevent false detections due to noise.

Q6. What is zero crossing detector. Explain the working.

Ans It is a circuit that compares the applied input voltage at one input terminal of an op-amp
with a reference voltage = 0 at another input terminal of an op-amp. Because it uses reference
voltage =0 that's why it is called Zero Crossing Detector. The output of the Zero Crossing
Detector is a square wave. So it is also known as the Square wave Generator.
It detects the point where the input signal crosses zero of the reference voltage level. For every
crossing, the saturation level of the output signal changes from one to another.

The reference level is set at 0 and applied at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp. The sine
wave applied at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is compared with the reference level each
time the phase of the wave changes either from positive to negative or negative to positive.

Firstly, when positive half of the sinusoidal signal appears at the input. Then the op-amp
comparator compares the reference voltage level with the peak level of the applied signal

V0 = Vref -Vi

V0 = 0 – (+Vsat)

V0 = –Vsat
Secondly, in case of the negative half of the sinusoidal signal, the op-amp comparator again
compares the reference voltage level with the peak of the applied signal.

As this time the circuit is dealing with negative half of the signal, thus the peak will have a
negative polarity

V0 = Vref -Vi

V0 = 0 –(-Vsat)

V0 = Vsat

Applications of Zero Crossing Detector

• Zero crossing detectors widely find applications in electronics circuits mainly for
switching purposes and in phase locked loop.
• Also, these are used in frequency counters and in phase meters. as it can be used to
measure the phase angle between two voltage applied at its terminals.
Q7. Explain square wave generator. Explain its working with diagram.?

Ans. The square wave generator is defined as an oscillator that gives the output without any
input, without any input in the sense we should give input within zero seconds that means it must
be an impulse input. This generator is used in digital signal processing and electronic
applications.

To design the square wave generator, we need a capacitor, resistor, operational amplifier, and
power supply. The capacitor and resistor are connected to the inverting terminal of the
operational amplifier and the resistors R1 and R2 are connected to the non-inverting terminal of
the operational amplifier.

Construction:

The resistor R1 is connected between the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and its output of
op-amp. So, the resistor R1 is used in the negative feedback. Similarly, the resistor R2 is
connected between the noninverting input terminal of the op-amp and its output. So, the
resistor R2 is used in the positive feedback path.

A capacitor C is connected between the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and ground. So,
the voltage across capacitor C will be the input voltage at this inverting terminal of op-amp.
Similarly, a resistor R3 is connected between the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp and
ground. So, the voltage across resistor R3 will be the input voltage at this non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp.

Working:

• Assume, there is no charge stored in the capacitor initially. Then, the voltage present at
the inverting terminal of the op-amp is zero volts. But there is some offset voltage at the
non-inverting terminal of op-amp. Due to this, the value present at the output of above
circuit will be +Vsat

• Now, capacitor C starts charging through resistor R1. The value present at the output of
the above circuit will change to −Vsat, when the voltage across the capacitor C reaches
just greater than the voltage (positive value) across resistor R3

• The capacitor C starts discharging through a resistor R1, when the output of above
circuit is −Vsat. The value present at the output of above circuit will change to +Vsat
,when the voltage across capacitor C reaches just less than (more negative) the voltage
(negative value) across resistor R3.

• Provides timing signals for synchronous digital circuits.

• Motor speed control (e.g., DC motors, stepper motors).

 • Brightness control in LED drivers.

• Power regulation in switch-mode power supplies (SMPS).

• Synthesizers and sound effects in music production.

• Test tones for audio equipment testing.

Q8. Explain triangular wave generator? Explain its working?

Ans. A triangular wave generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a triangular wave.

The block diagram of a triangular wave generator contains mainly two blocks: a square wave
generator and an integrator. These two blocks are cascaded. That means, the output of square
wave generator is applied as an input of integrator. Note that the integration of a square wave is
nothing but a triangular wave.

Working: Basically, triangular wave is generated by alternatively charging and discharging a

capacitor with a constant current. This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output
of square wave generator. Assume that V’ is high at +Vsat. This forces a constant current
(+Vsat/R3) through C (left to right) to drive Vo negative linearly. When V’ is low at -Vsat, it forces
a constant current (-Vsat/R3) through C (right to left) to drive Vo positive, linearly. The frequency
of the triangular wave is same as that of square wave. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.86. Although
the amplitude of the square wave is constant (± Vsat), the amplitude of the triangular wave
decreases with an increase in its frequency, and vice versa. This is because the reactance of
capacitor decreases at high frequencies and increases at low frequencies.

Q9. Explain precision rectifier. Explain working and applications of precision rectifier.

Ans. A precision rectifier, also called a super diode, is an electronic circuit designed to rectify
signals with very small amplitudes that cannot be rectified using ordinary diodes. Unlike
standard diode rectifiers, which have a voltage drop of approximately 0.6-0.7 V for silicon
diodes, precision rectifiers use operational amplifiers (op-amps) to effectively eliminate this
voltage drop, allowing rectification of signals down to the millivolt range.
 Precision rectifier

A typical precision rectifier consists of an operational amplifier combined with diodes and
resistors. There are two main types of precision rectifiers:

1. Half-wave precision rectifier

2. Full-wave precision rectifier

Half-Wave Precision Rectifier: Theory

A half-wave precision rectifier allows only one polarity (either positive or negative) of the input
signal to pass through.

Circuit Description:

• The input signal is applied to the inverting input of the op-amp through a resistor.

• A diode is placed in the feedback path of the op-amp, with its orientation determining the
polarity of the output signal.

Theory of Operation:

• When the input signal is positive:

o The op-amp output drives the diode into forward bias.

o The diode conducts, and the output follows the input signal.
 • When the input signal is negative:

o The diode becomes reverse-biased.

o The op-amp output saturates at a low level (near 0 V), effectively blocking the
signal.

The output is thus a rectified version of the input signal, limited to the positive or negative half
of the waveform.

Advantages of Using Op-Amps

1. Elimination of Voltage Drop: The op-amp nullifies the forward voltage drop of the diode,
enabling rectification of very small signals.

2. Increased Accuracy: The precision of the rectification is limited only by the op-amp's
performance and not by the diode characteristics.

3. High Input Impedance: The op-amp provides a high input impedance, ensuring minimal
loading on the signal source.

Applications of precise rectifier:

1. These devices measure electrical signals from the heart or brain, which are typically in
the millivolt range.
2. Precision rectifiers are used to process these weak signals accurately for monitoring and
diagnosis.
3. Used in audio equipment for rectifying low-amplitude audio signals for dynamic range
compression or sound-level measurement.

4. Precision rectifiers enable these devices to measure small AC voltages with high
accuracy
5. In smart meters, precision rectifiers process small voltage signals for accurate energy
consumption calculations.

Q10. What is peak detector. Explain its working and its applications.
Ans. A peak detector is an electronic circuit that captures and holds the highest voltage
(positive peak) or lowest voltage (negative peak) of an input signal over a certain period. The
stored value is maintained even if the input signal decreases, allowing the circuit to
"remember" the peak value.

Peak detectors are commonly used in signal processing and instrumentation to measure the
maximum amplitude of a signal.

It consists of a diode and capacitor along with an op-amp as shown above. The circuit does
not require any complex component in order to determine the peak of the input waveform.

Working Principle

The working principle of the circuit is such that, the peak of the input waveform is followed
and stored in terms of voltage in the capacitor.

By the time on moving further, if the circuit detects a higher peak, the new peak value is
stored in the capacitor until it is discharged.
The capacitor employed in the circuit is charged through the diode by the applied input
signal. The small voltage drop across the diode is ignored and the capacitor is charged up to
the highest peak of the applied input signal.

Let us consider initially the capacitor is charged to voltage Vc. The diode employed in the
circuit gets forward biased when the applied input voltage Vin exceeds the capacitor
voltage Vc. Thereby allowing the circuit to behave as a voltage follower. The output voltage
follows the applied input voltage until Vin is more than Vc.

As the input voltage Vin reduces below the value of capacitive voltage Vc, it causes the diode
to get reverse biased. In such condition, the capacitor retains the value until the input again
exceeds the value stored in the capacitor.

As we can see in the waveform shown above, at time t1, the circuit misses the peak of the
input signal as it is less than the previous peak of the input signal. Thereby allowing the
capacitor to hold the value of the previously occurred peak.