OceanofPDF.com Doing Academic Research - Ekpe Inyang

Doing Academic
Research
Doing Academic
Research
By
Ekpe Inyang
Doing Academic Research
By Ekpe Inyang
This book first published 2017
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2017 by Ekpe Inyang
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-5275-0322-4

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0322-9
A researcher is
a researcher is
a trader in reliable products
that inform changes in policy and practice
and fuel our inventive imagination
for guaranteed, sustainable development
a researcher is
an honest collector of data
extracting, observing, measuring, questioning
without the least bias or intention to harm
a researcher is
a critical examiner of data
triangulating, cross-validating, cleaning
to ensure their accuracy
a researcher is
a laboratory of sophistication
equipped with tools of all sorts to sort
reduce, analyse and manufacture
products that enhance our understanding

of issues, situations, events, phenomena
too complex to comprehend
by any other means
a researcher is
an incorruptible judge, characteristically
patient and prudent, taking the time and pain
to gather enough, substantial evidence
on which to draw conclusions
a researcher is
a symbol of transparency
impartiality, positive creativity
and determination as insurance that
our environment remains un-degraded and unpolluted
in the face of struggles for growth and development
Ekpe Inyang, 9 August 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword .................................................................................................... xi
Preface ...................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Introduction
Questions to consider .................................................................................. 2
Part I: General Research Methodology
Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 5

Definition and Purpose of Research
2.0 Introduction...................................................................................... 5
2.1 Definition of research ...................................................................... 5
2.2 Purpose and importance of research ................................................ 5
2.3 Characteristics of research ............................................................... 6
2.4 The concepts of reliability and validity in research ......................... 7
Questions to consider .................................................................................. 9
Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 11

The Research Process
3.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 11
3.1 Formulating a research problem .................................................... 11
3.2 Conceptualising a research design ................................................. 12
3.3 Selecting a sample.......................................................................... 12
3.4 Writing a research proposal ........................................................... 15
3.5 Developing instruments for data collection ................................... 15
3.6 Collecting the data ......................................................................... 15
3.7 Processing the data......................................................................... 16
3.8 Writing a research report................................................................ 16
3.9 Communicating the research results .............................................. 17
Questions to consider ................................................................................ 17
viii Table of Contents
Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 19

Research Types, Designs, Methods and Instruments
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 19
4.1 Types of research ........................................................................... 19
4.2 Study designs ................................................................................. 22
4.3 Research methods and instruments ................................................ 24
4.4 Types of questions ......................................................................... 29
4.5 Sources of influence on data .......................................................... 30
4.6 The issue of representative data ..................................................... 33
4.7 Triangulation in research ............................................................... 34
Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 37

Data Analysis and Interpretation
5.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 37
5.1 Definition and types of data and analysis ...................................... 37
5.2 Definition and types of variable ..................................................... 38
5.3 Relationships between variables .................................................... 39
5.4 Levels of measurement of variables ............................................... 40
5.5 Methods of data analysis ................................................................ 41
5.6 Displaying and interpreting research results .................................. 45
Part II: Academic Assignments
Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 59

Preparing for Academic Work
6.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 59
6.1 Independent study .......................................................................... 59
6.2 Developing an assignment or academic essay structure ................ 60
6.3 Analysis in writing ......................................................................... 61
6.4 Academic writing and language ..................................................... 61
6.5 Accuracy and clarity ...................................................................... 62
6.6 Writing an introduction .................................................................. 63
6.7 Writing a conclusion ...................................................................... 63
6.8 Proofreading and editing ................................................................ 65
6.9 A quick note of advice ................................................................... 65
Doing Academic Research ix
Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 69
Features of Academic Writing
7.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 69
7.1 Citing authors within the text ......................................................... 69
7.2 Bibliography and references .......................................................... 70
7.3 References for various literature sources ....................................... 72
Part III: The Thesis Project and Internship
Chapter Eight ............................................................................................. 79

Key Steps in a Thesis Research Project
8.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 79
8.1 Allocating adequate time for thesis research tasks......................... 79
8.2 Before selecting a thesis research topic.......................................... 80
8.3 Considerations in selecting a thesis research topic ........................ 80
8.4 Selecting a research topic ............................................................... 80
8.5 Getting and working with a supervisor .......................................... 82
8.6 Developing a rationale or research problem .................................. 82
8.7 Formulating research questions ..................................................... 83
8.8 Formulating aim and objectives ..................................................... 84
8.9 Formulating hypotheses ................................................................. 85
8.10 The literature review .................................................................... 85
8.11 Importance of the literature review .............................................. 89
8.12 Theoretical, empirical and conceptual frameworks ..................... 89
8.13 Developing a methodology .......................................................... 90
Chapter Nine.............................................................................................. 93
A Research Proposal, a Thesis and an Internship Report
9.0 Introduction .................................................................................... 93
9.1 Anatomy of a research proposal..................................................... 93
9.2 Anatomy of a thesis ..................................................................... 101
9.3 Anatomy of a research paper ....................................................... 108
9.4 Internship and internship report ................................................... 109
9.5 Hints on oral presentation of a thesis ........................................... 110
Questions to consider .............................................................................. 112
x Table of Contents
Appendices .............................................................................................. 115

Appendix A: From problem statement to research instruments ......... 115
Appendix B: Observation form .......................................................... 121
Appendix C: Interrogating the text in text analysis............................ 122
Appendix D: Matching research methods with data collection
and analysis .................................................................................. 124
Appendix E: Steps in data analysis .................................................... 125
Appendix F: Academic reports sample pages .................................... 126
Appendix G: SWOT Analysis grid .................................................... 128
Bibliography ............................................................................................ 129
Index ........................................................................................................ 131

FOREWORD
University teachers have been having a difficult time trying to drill their
students in the difficult, but rewarding, art of scientific writing. They have
often complained about the low standards of long essays and theses their
students produce. These pieces of research work constitute the culmination
point of the years spent in the University and are supposed to reflect how
high the standards of the institution are and how adequately its products
are being prepared for the job market. On the other hand, poor projects are
a sign that their authors still have a long way to go, and do not give a
positive impression of the training institution they graduate from.
Ekpe Inyang’s Doing Academic Research is a welcome introduction to
scientific writing that takes care of all aspects of academic research. The
author explains how to design a research project, describes the research
process, defines research types, designs, methods and instruments, shows
how to analyse and interpret data, and how to present the research results
in a project or thesis.
Whether in the humanities and social sciences or in applied research,
whether in qualitative or in quantitative research, this book provides
answers to the apprentice researcher who is struggling to submit a piece of
academic work. Ekpe Inyang’s book provides guidelines on how to
conduct research and write essays, research proposals and theses. It is the
ideal student’s companion and a precious working tool that teachers can
effectively use in their classrooms.
Being a seasoned scholar himself, Ekpe Inyang has published
extensively and is now providing his reader with a summary of his rich
experience. We should appreciate this noble endeavour and make use of
this wonderful guide.
Suh Joseph Che (PhD), Associate Professor

Director of Advanced School of
Translators and Interpreters (ASTI)
University of Buea, Cameroon
PREFACE
University and college students are usually required to carry out

independent study and to write short or long academic essays on a regular
basis. Such exercises, commonly called assignments, often pose a lot of
problems, especially for first-year students. Similarly, the requirement for
final-year students to conduct research and produce “projects,” such as
dissertations or theses, can be a stressful experience for many.
Written in simple and straightforward language, Doing Academic
Research will prove useful in reducing the stress that undergraduate
students feel when conducting research and embarking on scientific
writing. It contains several essential aspects of General Research
Methodology, and attempts to simplify important concepts and procedures
that students need to fully grasp in order to tackle their academic
assignments with confidence. While undergraduate students are generally
not given adequate grounding in research methodology, they are often
required to carry out assignments that demand sound research knowledge
and skills. This is unfortunate.
Completely restructured, thoroughly revised and expanded from the
previous Doing Academic Assignments, Doing Academic Research is
richly supported with examples and is intended to serve as a friendly
companion to any student who aims for academic excellence. Practitioners
in the field, and even teachers of Research Methodology, will also find the
book useful as a revision guide.
The book is structured into three parts. Part One, “Introduction to
General Research Methodology,” contains four chapters that cover the
definitions and purpose of research, the research process, types of research,
study designs, research methods, methods and instruments for data
collection, and data analysis. Part Two, “Academic Assignments,” is made
up of two chapters that prepare students for academic work, particularly by
giving them tips on academic essay writing, by exposing them to various
features of academic writing, and by helping them learn how to prepare
bibliographies in the Harvard, American Psychological Association
(APA), and Modern Languages Association (MLA) systems. Part Three,
“The Thesis Project,” consists of two chapters that present students with
details on how to conduct thesis research—selecting a topic, doing the
literature review, developing the methodology, understanding the structure
xiv Preface
and anatomy of a research proposal, writing the thesis or research article

and, finally, organising the internship and thesis defence.
I extend my sincere gratitude, first of all, to the Almighty God for
giving me the opportunity to interact, though informally, with a number of
first-, second- and third-year students of the University of Buea in the
South West Region of Cameroon. In the course of the interactions, I
discovered some difficulties that students face in carrying out independent
study and writing academic essays and reports. This inspired me to embark
on the writing of this book. My experience as a lecturer of Research
Methodology at the University College of Technology and Pan African
Institute for Development – West Africa, both in Buea, helped me in no
small way to develop what started as a thirty-page pamphlet into a book
that is now over a hundred pages long.
My immense gratitude to Elijah Etim for the wonderful contribution on
text analysis and for the enormous help in the preparation of the index. I
sincerely lack the words to express my heartfelt appreciation to Mark
MacAllister of the North Carolina Zoo Society, for his diligent, generous,
insightful and inspiring peer-reviewing support. I will not forget to
mention my children, Joy, Offy, Beya, Arah and Okum, for their
unspeakable perseverance in many ways. Special thanks to my late wife,
Eni Inyang, for enduring my deliberate dedication of so much time to the
development of this book during a period when I should have reserved
more time and energy for my family. Thanks are also due to my former
course director at the University of Strathclyde, Ann Glen, who not only
gave me sound coaching in Research Methodology but put at my disposal
personal textual resources that helped me in no small way to develop
myself in this domain.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Assignments are an important part of university education and

professional training. They encourage hard work, increase the scope, level
and quality of students’ independent study or research, inculcate in
students good reading habits, and improve their writing skills. Students are
required to write academic essays, theses or projects as proof of their
independent study. To write a good academic essay or thesis requires a
good structure, the appropriate and correct use of language, strong
analytical and presentation skills, and adequate clarity in the writing.
In the case of an academic essay, students may be required to meet a
target of 3000 to 6000 words for a normal assignment—a short essay,
seminar paper or an exposé (usually done in a group and presented in a
lecture room). The length may be specified in terms of the number of
pages, with detailed requirements for line-spacing and paper size. Students
may be asked to submit an essay of four to twelve pages for these
assignments. It should be noted that there are no general specifications in
length, as these vary from college to college, university to university, and
even within departments. Other general specifications are 1.5 or double
line-spacing on A-4 size paper for both short essays and theses. Given the
obvious lack of standardisation, it is advisable to consult the research
manual produced or recommended by your department and to follow the
instructions of your lecturer or supervisor.
Some students take this to be an easy task, since they are free to gather
materials from books or other sources. Because of this, some even think
they can simply copy from existing sources, without considering the
obvious fact that the collected materials will not arrange and organise
themselves in a way that makes sense within the context of the
requirements of an essay or a thesis. Some students usually wait until a
few days before the deadline before rushing to finish the assignment, and
then perform poorly.
The reason students are given assignments is so that they can
demonstrate their academic development. Teachers often mark these far
more stringently than they do tests or examination papers. Students must
2 Chapter One
take their assignments seriously, start them early and strive to show
academic and professional improvement.
Questions to consider
1. Assignments are an important part of university education and
professional training. Discuss.
2. List the types of assignments that higher education students are
normally given.
3. What skills are higher education students expected to demonstrate when
given assignments?
4. What mistakes do higher education students frequently make when
asked to carry out academic assignments?
PART I:
GENERAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER TWO
DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
2.0 Introduction
As human beings, we are by nature very inquisitive, always searching for
new information and seeking explanations for unfamiliar phenomena that
confront us daily. Specifically, we engage in gathering and analysing
information, sometimes formally but mostly informally, sometimes
systematically but most often casually and unsystematically.
What we often do, as described above, can be considered research, the
main purpose of which is to increase our knowledge and understanding of
our environment. However, some of the activities qualify more as research
than others. In this chapter, we will define research, determine what is
considered research, and discuss how useful it is to us as individuals, to
our professions and to our nations as a whole.
2.1 Definition of research

Research is a process of inquiry that involves the systematic gathering,
analysis and interpretation of data or information. Grinnell (1993)
considers it as a careful, systematic, and patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. He
further defines it as a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and create new, generally useful
knowledge. Scientific research methods involve systematic observation,
classification and interpretation of data.
2.2 Purpose and importance of research

The main purpose of research is to find ways of providing lasting solutions
to the ever-increasing problems confronting mankind.
The many disciplines and fields of study we have today started off with
6 Chapter Two
limited, crude, and inadequate bodies of knowledge. But, through

systematic study, new bodies of knowledge are created and added to the
knowledge base while old ones are replaced, modified or validated and
maintained.
Knowledge acquired through research helps in analysing and better
understanding prevailing and emerging situations, leading, in turn, to new
definitions, interpretations, applications and, ultimately, discoveries. For
example, the early man observed that some of the plant materials he left
behind after eating the desired parts grew into new plants. This
observation was translated into knowledge that ultimately led to the
development of agriculture.
Increases in quality knowledge yield advancements in science and
technology and provide the basis for improvements in agriculture, health,
medicine, and industry. These foster economic growth and development.
This explains why many countries invest a lot of resources in research.
2.3 Characteristics of research

Kumar (1999) presents a detailed discussion on the characteristics of
research. He notes that in order for any process of inquiry to qualify as
research, it must have most, if not all, of the following characteristics: it
must be:
o Controlled
o Rigorous
o Systematic
o valid and verifiable
o empirical
o critical
2.3.1 Controlled
Research often attempts to establish cause-and-effect relationships in the
face of a multiplicity of interacting factors. In this case, it must be
controlled. “Controlled” means making sure that the study is set up in a
way that minimises the effects of other intervening factors in the
relationships so that the cause-and-effect links can be established without
any doubt.
However, whereas control can be achieved in the physical sciences
since most of the research is carried out in laboratories where external
factors can be avoided, it is difficult to achieve this in the social sciences,
Definition and Purpose of Research 7
which focus on issues relating to society, an open system with a

continuous interplay of complex and unpredictable factors that cannot be
avoided or checked.
2.3.2 Rigorous
This simply means that the researcher must be scrupulous in ensuring that
the procedures for obtaining answers to questions are relevant, appropriate
and justified.
The degree of rigour that is possible, however, again varies between
the physical and social sciences, with the latter often subject to less
rigorous principles.
2.3.3 Systematic
This means that the procedures adopted for the study must follow a
logical, step-by-step sequence. This logical procedure represents a natural
way of thinking and doing things in the scientific tradition.
2.3.4 Valid and verifiable

Conclusions drawn on the basis of the findings—the evidence—are correct
and can be verified by the researcher and by other people interested in the
research.
2.3.5 Empirical
This concept implies that conclusions are drawn on the basis of hard
evidence obtained from information gathered from actual experiences and
observations, and not from the imagination or manipulation of facts.
2.3.6 Critical
The process of inquiry adopted must be free of any drawbacks, and the
procedures used must withstand critical scrutiny.
2.4 The concepts of reliability and validity in research

Research is often evaluated on the basis of the reliability and validity of its
instruments and procedures. Reliability is related primarily to measurement
results, and validity to what is measured. Cozby (2001) provides clear
8 Chapter Two
definitions of these concepts.

Reliability is defined as the ability of an instrument to produce the
same or similar results each time it is used to take measurements under the
same or similar conditions. For example, if you use a scale balance to
weigh a certain quantity of dried cocoa in the morning and find that it
weighs 50 kilograms, a second weighing in the afternoon should produce a
measurement of 50 kilograms—unless the cocoa has been modified or if
the scale balance is faulty. Similarly, a questionnaire administered a week
ago and finding that a certain village had 100 females and 200 males
should show similar results if administered today. Otherwise the
questionnaire would be considered unreliable, unless other factors affected
the results.
The reliability of a research instrument, such as a questionnaire or
interview schedule, may be affected by the wording of the questions
(whether questions are clear or ambiguous, simple or difficult), a change
in the physical setting (where, for instance an interview was conducted and
is now conducted), the mood of the respondent (whether, for example, the
interviewee was in the same mood as when he or she was approached in
the previous interaction), the nature of the interaction between the
interviewer and interviewee (whether, for instance, the interviewer was
expressing undue superiority or inferiority towards the interviewee), and
the regression effect of the instrument (whether the respondents can
remember the questions, or if they have been reconsidering their responses
in the previous interview and have now decided to respond differently).
Validity can be defined as the ability of a research instrument to
measure what it was designed to measure. This has to do with whether, for
instance, the questions formulated in a questionnaire or interview schedule
are adequately linked to the objectives of the study. Such links can be
validated easily when working with objective concepts like age, height,
and weight, but can become difficult to validate when considering
concepts like effectiveness, attitude, aptitude, wealth, and so on, as the
terms can mean different things to different people.
There are three types of validity: construct validity, internal validity,
and external validity. Construct validity refers to the adequacy of
operational definitions of variables. Since variables may be abstract
constructs, it is possible to measure what was not intended. To avoid this
situation, concepts such as “wealth” should be dissected into measurable
variables like “income per month” and so on, which everyone can
understand and interpret in exactly the same way.
Internal validity is the capacity to draw conclusions about causal
relationships from the data. A study is said to have high internal validity
Definition and Purpose of Research 9
when strong inferences can be made that one variable caused another.
External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be
extrapolated or generalised to other populations, areas, or settings. This is
linked to sample size and sampling technique. The larger the sample size,
the more possible it is to make generalisations.
1. What would you consider as your own working definition of research?
2. With that definition in mind, discuss:
a) The purpose and importance of research, and
b) The characteristics of research.
3. With concrete examples, show how research can contribute, and/or has
contributed, to the development of your profession and your nation.
4. Write short notes on:
a) construct validity,
b) internal validity, and
c) external validity.
CHAPTER THREE
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
3.0 Introduction
Research can be described as a journey with the purpose of inquiry. The
journey, referred to as the research process, can be divided into nine main
steps or stages:
o research problem
o research design
o sample
o research proposal
o instruments for data collection
o data collection
o data processing
o research report
o communication of research results
All but the last stage are absolutely compulsory in any research endeavour.
Kumar (1999) provides a succinct discussion of the first eight stages.
3.1 Formulating a research problem

Formulating a research problem is like deciding on the destination of a
journey before setting off. Without a destination in mind, one will not
know which direction to take. Formulating the problem consists of
identifying a broad area of research interest and brainstorming within that
broad area in order to focus on specific areas from which to select the
research topic. Once a tentative topic has been selected, the researcher
then develops a rationale which highlights the nature of the problem and
why it is relevant for research. The rationale can, in turn, help in the fine-
tuning of the topic itself.
With the rationale or research problem (often stated separately as
statement of the problem and significance of study) in mind, the next step
12 Chapter Three
is to formulate the research questions (which help to further clarify the

problem), the hypothesis, and the aim and objectives of the study.
3.2 Conceptualising a research design

A research design is the logical idea about the research plan, the type of
which is dependent upon the type of research conducted. Conceptualising
a research design consists of describing the study design, sampling
strategy, research methods and data collection and analysis tools.
A research design helps organise the research project in a way that
guarantees that required data are collected at the right time and without
bias.
3.3 Selecting a sample

A sample is a small collection or unit that represents an entire population
or area by virtue of the fact that it includes the important characteristics or
features of the larger collection. It is important to select a proper
representative sample because of the difficulty of conducting research on
every unit of the population or area, given huge constraints both in time
and logistics. But in order for a sample to be representative, it must be
selected using an appropriate sampling strategy.
There are many sampling strategies, procedures and techniques. Six
will be considered here:
o random sampling strategy

o stratified random sampling strategy
o systematic sampling strategy
o quota sampling strategy
o snowball sampling strategy
o purposive sampling strategy.
Random sampling strategy gives each unit an equal chance of being

selected. This is used in order to avoid bias towards the selection of certain
units—individuals, say, or groups or plots of land. This strategy is
employed when it does not matter which unit is selected, provided the
required number is obtained.
In selecting a sample using the random sampling strategy, the names
of units could be simply written on pieces of paper, folded and put into a
box and shuffled before picking them one by one from the lot until the
required number (sample size) is obtained. This technique is known as
The Research Process 13
fishbowl draw, and is often used in lottery.

Another technique of random sampling, which is more demanding,
time-consuming and rigorous, is to use a table of random numbers,
included in some research methodology textbooks, to select sample units.
The procedure is as follows:
x Establish a sampling frame by numbering all the identified units of

a population or area of study.
x Select (using the fishbowl technique) the page from which to start,
if the table contains more than one page.
x From the page, select the column or row from which to select the
starting number, again using the fishbowl technique.
x From the starting number, select the other numbers, in a
predetermined direction, to correspond to the sample size already
decided.
x On the selected numbers, underline one, two or three digits
(beginning or ending digits, as predetermined), depending on the
number of digits represented by the total number of units in the
population or area. For example, if the population comprises 300
units or individuals, three digits are underlined, since 300 has three
digits.
x From the underlined digits, select those that fall within the range of
the sampling frame by circling them. Those that do not fall within
the range (that is, those either larger or smaller) are discarded by
skipping them.
x Select the specific units to form the sample by matching the
selected numbers to the corresponding numbers on the sampling
frame. If an already-selected unit is again selected, ignore it and
move on to the next.
x If by now the sample size has not yet been achieved, move on to
the subsequent columns or rows, or start the procedure over again
until the required number of units has been selected.
Stratified random sampling strategy ensures that each important

stratum (for example, a focus group in a population or habitat type within
an ecological area) is given an equal chance of being equally represented
in the sample. This process, therefore, involves developing several
sampling frames (depending on the number of strata) and random
sampling within each stratum as described above. The stratified random
sampling strategy is appropriate, for example, in a situation where a
researcher wishes to identify and establish a species list of the animals in
14 Chapter Three
an ecological area. The researcher must consider all the habitat types,
including those that fall within the highland and lowland regions, dry
lands and wetlands, and so on—otherwise the research will not truly
represent the entire area. Another example is in working to understand the
economic situation of communities in a geographical area. The most
important considerations may be the economic activities of the communities,
the proximity of communities to roads and markets, and so on.
Systematic sampling strategy starts with the numbering of all the units
in a population or area. These units are divided into segments or intervals
determined by the percentage of the population or area to use as a sample.
The unit in the first segment is selected by random sampling; this gives its
position in that segment (first, second, third, etc.). Then that position is
used to select the units of the subsequent segments. For example, if a
community has 20 households and the researcher wants to select 20% as
sample for a study, each segment will contain four units (because 20% of
20 is 4), and there will be a total of five segments. If the unit selected from
the first segment occupied the third position, the third unit of each of the
remaining segments is selected, which will yield a total of five units
representing the five segments.
Quota sampling strategy consists of standing or sitting at a convenient

point and asking people of specified visible characteristics (such as gender
or race, well-dressed or poorly-dressed) to become members of the
sample. This exercise is continued until the required number, or quota, is
obtained.
Snowball sampling strategy is the selection of a sample using

networks. One starts with a few individuals, groups or organisations and
asks them for help in contacting other individuals, groups or organisations
to obtain the required information. The exercise is continued until the
required number is obtained or the required information has been
collected.
Purposive sampling strategy consists of identifying the likelihood that

any one unit within a population or an area can provide useful information,
and then targeting those units that are most likely to provide the most, or
the best, information. For example, to study the history of a community, it
is logical to select the most elderly people in the community as subjects,
rather than to involve all of the groups represented in the community. As
well, to identify and establish a species list of the arboreal species in a
country, one will obviously choose to study only the forest areas, leaving
out the grasslands and deserts.
3.4 Writing a research proposal

A research proposal is a document, a work plan, an outline or a statement
of intent that describes the whole research project. It describes how,
where, when and why the research will be conducted. More specifically, it
outlines the study area, elaborates on the research problem, establishes the
theoretical basis of the research, describes the research design (the sample
and sampling strategy, and the methods that will be employed for data
collection and analysis), and highlights the precautionary measures that
will be taken to ensure that the research does not affect anyone negatively.
In summary, a research proposal must necessarily include: (a) an
introduction (describing the study area and stating the problem and its
significance for study, as well as its main and specific objectives), (b)
literature review (stating what other researchers have found or said about
the field of study), and (c) methodology (describing how the research will
be conducted).
A research proposal can be likened to house and site plans developed,
for instance, by a town planner, or lesson notes prepared by a teacher. In
the same way as the former guides a builder in the construction of a
planned house and, the latter, a teacher in the teaching of a planned lesson,
a research proposal serves as a guide throughout the research process. It
should be written in such a way that any other researcher could use it to
conduct the study in almost, if not exactly, the same way as the writer
intended.
3.5 Developing instruments for data collection

The researcher must design a variety of questionnaires, interview guides,
interview schedules, and observation forms for collecting raw data from
the field (primary data), or a special form for extracting information from
documents that already exist for other purposes (secondary data). The
instruments are very useful because, without them, one will not be able to
collect data.
3.6 Collecting the data

After developing the research proposal and constructing the data collection
instruments, the next step is to actually go into the field—or the laboratory,
16 Chapter Three
library or archive—and collect the necessary data. Data collection involves

administering questionnaires, conducting interviews, carrying out
observations, taking measurements, conducting censuses or inventories
and/or extracting information from existing documents.
This research stage is important because data must be gathered in order
to answer research questions or test hypotheses.
3.7 Processing the data

Data processing or analysis is described simply as reducing the data to
forms that make the most sense. The extent to which this can be done
depends on whether the data are quantitative or qualitative. For example,
quantitative data could be reduced to graphs, tables and charts. Qualitative
data can be reduced to substantive statements (in text form) arranged in
themes, as well as descriptive or narrative accounts. Quantitative data can
be more easily reduced to simpler forms than qualitative data. For
qualitative data to be subjected to the same degree of analysis, it, in some
cases, may be converted to quantitative data through content analysis.
Data processing is important because, until this is done, one cannot
make sense of the mass of data collected. In other words, it is only after
having processed the data that one can attempt to interpret them.
3.8 Writing a research report

Writing a research report is generally the last and, for many, one of the
most difficult steps in the research process, the other being data analysis.
Once the data have been analysed or reduced into outputs—descriptive or
narrative accounts, thematic statements, tables, graphs and charts—it
should be easy to use these to write up a report.
A research report is a document that presents, in a logical, academic
style, where and when the research was conducted, theories and what other
researchers have found or said about the field of study, the methods and
procedures employed in collecting and analysing the data, the findings and
their interpretations, and the conclusions drawn on the basis of the
evidence, as well as recommendations for future research, where
necessary. The report is the only concrete evidence to prove that the
research has been conducted. It is very useful in that it documents the
research results. It should be noted that, until the research report is
completed, the research project cannot be considered completed.
3.9 Communicating the research results

Communicating research results is an important, albeit sometimes
neglected, aspect of research. By making the research results accessible or
known to those who have an interest in obtaining them, such as other
researchers, policy makers, practitioners, and communities where the
research was conducted, and so on, the research project becomes even
more valuable.
Communication can take the form of presentations during professional
group meetings or community meetings. It could simply mean making the
research available to other stakeholders by binding and keeping the reports
in libraries, or developing research articles from the reports and publishing
these in journals.
Often, research reports end up in desk drawers or on shelves, which
means locking up the results as well. Communicating the results, via the
methods described above, ensures that other people have the opportunity
of increasing their knowledge from what has been learnt, or for using the
knowledge for more practical purposes, such as updating the theoretical
base of a discipline, informing change in policy and practice, or
developing a new set of methods and techniques.
1. Research is regarded as the backbone of any profession since it is the
only means of acquiring new knowledge; hence its description as a
journey with the purpose of inquiry. Briefly describe that journey,
highlighting the significance of each step.
2. Distinguish between a research proposal and a research report while
highlighting the importance of each.
3. What is the importance of selecting a sample? Discuss two techniques
for selecting a sample for a particular research project and justify why
the techniques are appropriate in each case.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH TYPES, DESIGNS,

METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter introduces various types of research, designs for setting up
research projects, and methods and instruments for data collection.
4.1 Types of research

There are many types of research. Nine are discussed below:
4.1.1 Quantitative research

This is the type of research which involves the quantification of variables
in a situation, phenomenon, problem or issue. Put simply, this involves
assigning numbers or quantities to variables.
Example 4-1:
o The number of people that have a particular problem;
o The amount of income farmers make per year;
o The number of cases of a particular health problem recorded in a
year.
4.1.2 Qualitative research

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with describing a situation,
problem, issue, phenomenon or event without quantifying it.
20 Chapter Four
Example 4-2:
o A description of an observed situation;
o An account of different opinions people have about an issue;
o A historical enumeration of events.
4.1.3 Basic research

Basic research is aimed at answering fundamental questions about the
characteristics of, say, plants, animals or humans, as well as the nature or
behaviour of animals and humans. In other words, it provides the basic
facts about a human, a plant, an animal or a cultural group.
Example 4-3:
o The environmental requirements of the Arabica coffee plant;
o The differences between two closely related languages;
o Factors that encourage women’s participation in elections.
4.1.4 Applied research

Applied research is concerned with addressing problems with potential
solutions. Knowledge gained from basic research is put into use, or
applied, during the course of the research.
Example 4-4:
o Improving the growth of Arabica coffee in an inhospitable
environment;
o Stress and coping behaviour of adolescent smokers;
o How to encourage women’s participation in elections.
4.1.5 Descriptive research

Descriptive research attempts to systematically describe a situation,
problem, phenomenon, service, programme, or attitude towards an issue.
Example 4-5:
o The types of services provided by an organisation;
o The administrative structure of an organisation;
o The needs of a community;
o The attitudes of employees towards management;
o How a child feels living in a house with domestic violence.
Research Types, Designs, Methods and Instruments 21
4.1.6 Explanatory research

As the name implies, explanatory research works to clarify or explain the
relationship(s) between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Example 4-6:
o Why stressful living often results in heart attack;
o How the home environment affects a child’s level of academic
achievement;
o Why airplanes are able to fly.
4.1.7 Correlational research

Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship, an association or interdependence between two or more
aspects (variables) of a situation.
Example 4-7:
o The impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product;
o The relationship between stressful living and the incidence of a
heart attack;
o The correlation between the home environment and the educational
achievement of a student.
4.1.8 Action research

Action research is aimed at bringing about a change in policy and practice
within an organisation, institution or community. It could be carried out by
a member of an organisation or an external consultant. It is often
participatory in nature, involving members of an organisation or a
community.
The results or findings of action research are presented in a way that
can immediately inform policy and practice, often with action plans
developed for implementation to bring about the desired change.
4.1.9 Exploratory research

Exploratory research is a small-scale research carried out to establish the
possibility of undertaking a larger, more involved study. It includes (a) a
feasibility study and (b) a pilot study.
22 Chapter Four
A feasibility study is carried out in an area about which there is little or

no knowledge, and establishes the possibility or impossibility of carrying
out an activity or conducting a large-scale research there. A pilot study
tests, refines and further develops, say, research instruments to ensure their
appropriateness both in content and procedure.
4.2 Study designs

A study design is a plan that describes how the research is conducted, with
a focus on how data are collected. For example, are the data collected
once, twice, thrice or more times? If data are collected more than once,
after which event must one collect the data? During which period and at
what intervals must the data be collected? There are many types of study
design, but we will consider only seven that are immediately useful to
students.
4.2.1 Cross sectional study design

The cross sectional study design brings the researcher in contact with the
study population or area only once. It is a snapshot, as it were, of a cross
section of the study population or area in order to get a fair picture of the
prevailing situation, phenomenon, problem, issue or attitude. It provides
information about a particular situation, within a particular timeframe, in a
particular area, and under particular sets of circumstances.
This study design is appropriate for surveys and case studies.
4.2.2 Before-and-after study design

As the name implies, the before-and-after study design brings the
researcher into contact with the study population or area twice—before (to
obtain data for the establishment of a baseline or starting point) and after
an intervention (to assess its impact on the study population or area).
Put simply, there are two snapshots of a cross-section of the study
population or area—one before an intervention and the other after the
intervention—in order to establish the differences between the two
pictures or scenarios. This helps to assess or estimate the impact of the
intervention on the first picture or situation.
This study design is appropriate for experiments.
4.2.3 Longitudinal study design

The longitudinal study design brings the researcher into contact with the
population or area several times at regular intervals—say after every three
months.
It is an appropriate design for conducting experiments and studying
trends or changes in a situation or condition over time. It is also useful in
implementing a project’s monitoring and evaluation programme.
4.2.4 Retrospective study design

The retrospective study design enables the researcher to study what
happened or prevailed in the past. The design depends on available data or
on people who witnessed and can recall and (honestly/accurately) relate
what happened.
This is an appropriate design for studying a phenomenon that had
occurred in an area, or for studying the history of a people.
4.2.5 Prospective study design

The prospective study design is used to investigate what, after the
introduction of an intervention, is likely to be the prevailing situation,
phenomenon, or attitude in the future. In this design, the researcher waits
to record the impact of an intervention.
Knowledge accumulated from this type of study assists predictions in
certain circumstances and, therefore, provides the basis for making
informed recommendations on project implementation strategies.
This is an appropriate design for conducting experiments in the social
sciences.
4.2.6 Experimental study design

The experimental study design is similar to the prospective study design in
terms of the procedure. The researcher introduces a “cause” (or what is
likely to bring about a change) and then waits, for a reasonable amount of
time, to observe the “effects” (or the changes that have occurred as a result
of the introduced cause).
This is an appropriate design for conducting experiments in both the
physical and social sciences.
24 Chapter Four
4.2.7 Non-experimental study design

The non-experimental study design is similar to the retrospective study
design and is the direct opposite of experimental study design. The
researcher observes the effects and traces their cause or causes.
This is an appropriate design for investigating the cause of an
unexpected phenomenon, such as a disaster or health problem.
4.3 Research methods and instruments

This section is dedicated to research or study methods, as well as to the
specific methods and instruments used for collecting data. There is also a
discussion of possible sources of influence on data, as well as other
important issues in research.
4.3.1 Research methods

As with study designs, there are many research or study methods. Four are
commonly used.
4.3.1.1 Survey method
The word survey is defined as taking a general view of something, an area,

a community, an event or a situation in order to get a fair picture of what is
happening therein. This implies that a survey does not place emphasis on
fine details but, rather, on the general outlook. A survey method, then, can
be defined as a method that is used to rapidly collect data over a large area
or from a large population within a short time, in order to obtain general
information.
The survey method is common to both social and natural sciences. In
the social sciences, it may involve sampling opinions about an issue or
obtaining general information about communities through questionnaires,
direct observations, structured interviews, or censuses. In the natural
sciences, it may mean collecting and identifying specimens (or sample
units), locating and mapping habitat areas, enumerating sample units, and
measuring lengths, widths, heights, weights, distances between, and
circumferences/girths of sample units.
4.3.1.2 Case study method
A case study is defined as an intensive study of a particular case or a

number of cases (an individual, a community, an ethnic group, a school, a
company or a country), with a view to gaining a deeper understanding of
the prevailing characteristics, behaviours, situations, problems, issues or
phenomena.
Although the method is also applicable to the natural sciences, it is
mainly used in the social sciences. Here, it involves spending a
considerable amount of time with or in a case, in order to have ample
opportunity to dig deeply into underlying facts and issues. The stays could
be as short as a few days and as long as several months, depending on the
aspects being studied.
The study is conducted using in-depth or semi-structured interviews,
participant observation (in which the researcher fully participates in
relevant activities and asks questions for clarification in order to gain
adequate knowledge on the activity and underlying issues, usually done
with or without the observed knowing that they are being observed),
community meetings (general meetings that involve nearly everybody in a
community), focus group discussions (discussions with six to ten members
of specific target groups, such as hunters, farmers, women, young people,
and so on), informal discussions (discussions that take place naturally,
without any plan), and documentary review (examination and review of
diaries, records, minutes of meetings and other written documents).
In the natural sciences, it involves short stays (from a few hours to
several hours) with the case being studied, using direct observations. This
is particularly necessary when it involves studying the behaviour
expressed during feeding, social interactions, and so on. With advances in
technology, case studies in the physical sciences are often facilitated by
camera traps planted at strategic locations and positions to take pictures of
moving objects or animals in full activity.
4.3.1.3 Experimental method
As has been noted under experimental study design, experiments are

conducted to discover the effects (or outcomes) after a cause (or
intervention) has been introduced, under certain conditions. Experiments
can be conducted in laboratories (with the use of test tubes, thermometers,
x-rays, and so on) or in the field. Laboratory experiments are generally far
more controlled than field experiments because the latter have intervening
variables that may not even be identified, let alone measured. However,
26 Chapter Four
the results of some laboratory experiments may not be truly reflective of,
or applicable to, real-life situations, although they often provide a fair
understanding of what would otherwise have been extremely difficult to
appreciate in real life.
The experimental method frequently makes use of observations with
the naked eye or with the help of microscopes (for changes or
presence/absence of certain variables) and measurements (of temperature,
humidity, velocity, weights, lengths, distances, heights, diameters,
circumferences, and so on). Data analysis here involves hypothesis and
statistical testing.
4.3.1.4 Archival research method
Researchers do not always collect “original” data. Often, they work in

archives and study only previously compiled information to answer
research questions. Archival research makes use of already-existing data
stored in computers, or some other means, and made available to
researchers interested in analysing them. It also makes use of written and
mass communication records, as well as minutes of meetings, diaries,
letters, and ethnographies of other cultures written by anthropologists.
Public documents, such as speeches by politicians or bulletin messages left
behind by Internet users, and old books, magazines, articles, movies,
television or radio programmes and newspapers are common archival
resources.
4.3.2 Methods of data collection and their instruments
Chapter 3 focused on methods and tools used in collecting data. A more

detailed review of those methods and tools is below.
4.3.2.1 Extraction from documents and databases
Research data can be collected by gleaning or extracting relevant

information (in much the same way as we obtain information for literature
review) from written documents such as speeches, minutes of meetings,
diaries, reports, journals, newspapers, magazines, and books, as well as
from databases or databanks compiled from surveys, censuses, and so
forth. These could be obtained from public or private libraries and
archives.
4.3.2.2 Questionnaire administration
A questionnaire is a written list of queries to which respondents supply

their own answers (an unstructured questionnaire) or select from options
provided (a structured questionnaire). Data collected from structured
questionnaires are much easier to analyse than those obtained from
unstructured questionnaires, and it is important to keep this in mind when
designing questionnaires.
Respondents must read and understand the questions before supplying
the answers, or before selecting from the answer options, as the researcher
is not necessarily present to provide explanations. Therefore, the questions
should be clearly worded, and the questionnaire itself should be appealing
to the eye. Also, the questionnaire should start with an explanation of its
purpose, and certain questions, especially those that are sensitive, should
be prefaced by interactive statements in order to encourage respondents to
honestly supply or select answers.
Questionnaire administration is simply a method of making the
questionnaires available to the respondents. This can be done in a variety
ways: individual distribution (in which the questionnaires are physically
distributed to individual respondents), collective administration (in which
the questionnaires are physically distributed to individual respondents
together in a group, e.g. a class or participants of a workshop), mailed
survey (in which questionnaires are sent to respondents by post), and
Internet survey (in which the questionnaires are sent to individual
respondents by email, to be filled out and returned using the same means).
Although questionnaire administration is usually cheap and can target
many individuals in a very short time, response rates can be low and many
respondents may still leave certain questions unanswered, despite
encouraging interactive statements. Furthermore, questionnaires cannot be
used with illiterate groups that may otherwise provide very useful
information, unless a trustworthy and competent interpreter is available.
4.3.2.3 Interviewing
An interview is an interaction between two sets of people in which one set

(the interviewer) asks questions and the other (the interviewee) responds.
Either set could be made up of one person or more people.
There are two broad types of interviews—structured and unstructured.
Structured interviews make use of interview schedules in which pre-
determined questions are followed strictly (see Appendix 1.7). An
interview schedule is similar to a questionnaire in that it contains a set of
28 Chapter Four
written questions, but different because it is the researcher who records the
answers rather than the respondent. Unstructured interviews make use of
interview guides that consist of outlines from which questions are framed
spontaneously (see Appendix 1.6).
Interviews take various forms, such as face-to-face interviews,
telephone interviews, and focus group interviews. In a face-to-face
interview, both the interviewer and the interviewee meet to conduct the
interview. A telephone interview, as the name implies, is done via a
telephone.
In a focus group interview, the researcher brings together a group of
six to ten people with knowledge of a particular topic or who share a
common interest relevant to the research. The researcher acts as a
facilitator and stimulates participatory discussion among the individuals
through the use of open-ended questions.
Interviews can be tape-recorded and transcribed (written down) later,
or transcribed immediately.
4.3.2.4 Observation
Observation is defined as making a personal assessment of a behaviour, an

activity or a situation. In the social sciences, it is often carried without the
help of any instruments or equipment, whereas in the physical sciences, it
can be carried out with the aid of binoculars, telescopes or microscopes.
Generally, it involves watching, listening, tasting, smelling and drawing
conclusions based upon what is seen and/or heard, etc. This process can be
as short as a few minutes, or as long as many hours or even several years.
There are two types of observation: participant and non-participant.
In participant observation, the researcher is involved in the relevant
activities and asks questions for clarification in order to gain adequate
knowledge on the activity and underlying issues. This is usually done with
or without the observed knowing that they are being observed. In non-
participant observation (also known as direct or detached observation), the
researcher moves around, stands or sits at specific locations collecting data
without asking questions and often without letting anyone notice what he
or she is doing. The data so collected can be recorded directly in an
observation form (see Appendix 2) or tape-recorded (preferably video-
taped) for later transcription.
4.3.2.5 Measurement
As has been discussed above, measurements take a number of different

forms. It may mean measuring the lengths, heights, widths,
circumferences/girths, diameters and weights of sample units using
measuring tapes and scale balances respectively, or measuring ground
distances between sample areas or units using measuring tapes (for short
distances) or hip-chains (for long distances). It should be noted that a GPS
(Global Positioning System) device is also useful in measuring long
distances—although it is not always accurate in this context—and can
also provide the exact latitude/longitude locations of points in space.
Measurement also includes taking the readings of thermometers (to
note the temperature), barometers (to note the air pressure), and rain gauge
(to note the amount of rainfall). The data collected are recorded in
specially designed forms.
4.3.2.6 Census and inventory
Censuses and inventories involve the enumeration or counting of all the

units of a population in an area. This could be the population of humans or
animals, or the number of various tree species.
The word “census” is often used for human and animal population
counts, while “inventory” is applied mainly to plants and objects. Human
censuses involve head counts of household occupants, while animal
censuses entail the rather indirect method of counting nests, dung or
faeces, or other signs. A plant or botanical inventory involves the counting
of tree species in plots of specified areas (e.g. one square mile, one
hectare, and so on, depending on what is being studied and the terrain
where the study is conducted).
Census and inventory data often contain more than mere numbers of
units. They may also include ethnic composition, age and sex structure,
educational level, income level, and principal economic activities (for
humans), diversity and distribution (for animals), and diversity,
distribution and diameter at breast height (for trees). The data are recorded
in census forms or inventory sheets.
4.4 Types of questions

So far, we have seen that gathering data is mostly, if not all, about asking
questions. It is, therefore, important to be familiar with the types of
questions frequently asked, whether or not they are appropriate for
30 Chapter Four
research, and in what situations they are useful. There are three types of
questions: leading, open-ended, and closed-ended questions.
a) Leading questions (to be avoided at all times)

x The forest is important to you for bush meat and fuel wood, isn’t it?
x Should you not avoid clearing close to a river?
x You don’t make a lot of money from selling bush meat, do you?
x Wouldn’t you prefer farming to hunting?
b) Open-ended questions (best for informal surveys and interviews)

x Why is the market important to you?
x How has your income situation changed since you started hunting?
x What would you change about farming practices in this village, if
you could?
x What difference have you noticed in the availability of non-timber
forest products since the arrival of the logging company?
c) Closed-ended questions (appropriate for formal interviews and

questionnaires)
x How many years do you leave your field fallow before re-
cultivation?
x Between trapping and hunting, which do you think causes the most
damage?
x Do you prefer the taste of the meat of wild or domesticated
animals?
x Which is the most important non-timber forest product in this
village that is mostly sold for cash?
x Which is the most important non-timber forest product in this
village that is mostly for domestic consumption?
4.5 Sources of influence on data

Data can be influenced or corrupted in a variety of ways. This affects data
quality and, consequently, research results. The most obvious potential
sources of corruption of data are the data collection instruments— when
they are faulty or inappropriate—and the skill level of the collector.
But there are more potent, though subtle, sources to watch out for over
the course of research. These include bias, the placebo effect, the
Hawthorne effect and the halo effect.
4.5.1 Bias
Bias is a deliberate attempt to conceal or highlight something. It occurs
when a researcher goes into the field with preconceived ideas or opinions
about certain issues, target individuals and populations or areas.
When there is bias, there is a tendency for the researcher to see only
what he or she expects to see and believes is there, and to hear only what
he or she expects to hear or believes has been said. This means that
additional information that should have been relevant to the research is
missed.
Bias can be introduced as early as during sample selection, and, in fact,
may be discernible even from the research topic. In order to reduce this
tendency, one must keep an open mind and be objective throughout the
research process.
4.5.2 Placebo effect

Placebo is a term usually applied to medical research. In this context, it
describes a situation where a patient recovers not due to the effect of a
drug but from the psychological effect of knowing that the appropriate
treatment, in the patient’s point of view, is being administered. For
example, a male patient insists that he can be well only after the doctor
gives him an injection. The doctor who does not see the need to do this
explains that it is not necessary, and the condition of the patient only gets
worse.
The doctor soon realises that the patient is deteriorating because of fear
and decides to agree to his demand by injecting him with distilled water,
which is shown to him in a syringe and described as a very potent drug.
Thirty minutes after having received the “fake” injection, the patient is up
and is ready to be discharged the following day. Is it the distilled water
that has cured the patient? Definitely not. In testing the efficacy of new
drugs, therefore, it is expedient to carry out placebo studies in order to
establish the degree of the placebo effect on patients.
Another example of the placebo effect—and, perhaps, a more
controversial one—is a situation where there is a particular measure to be
adopted for effecting behavioural change in local communities near a
protected area.
Let us take reduction in poaching as that expected behavioural change
and law enforcement as the means for effecting that change. One school of
thought (comprising a few theoretical conservationists) is strongly in favour
of law enforcement, while another (composed of relatively more pragmatic
32 Chapter Four
conservationists) believes that a combination of education/sensitisation and

livelihood improvements will bring about a more sustainable change in the
poaching behaviour of the communities. .
Eventually, law enforcement is implemented, and it is observed that

there is a reduction in poaching, leading to the conclusion that it is an
effective measure. But—have the people really changed their poaching
behaviour, or is that the behaviour was merely suspended or suppressed at
that moment for fear of punishment? Can that status quo be maintained if
the law enforcement is terminated at some point?
Other important questions are:
1) Why are the communities poaching? Could it be due to ignorance?

Could it be a strategy to satisfy needs for protein and income? The
answer to the last two questions is “yes.”
2) Does law enforcement address the causes of poaching? Definitely
not. But if, on the other hand, sensitisation and livelihood
improvement were implemented as measures to effect the change,
would these have addressed the causes of poaching? Certainly—
and this can be illustrated by the simple fact that while sensitisation
addresses the ignorance of local communities and livelihood
improvement addresses their protein and income needs, the
combined effect of the two approaches can lead to a permanent
change in poaching behaviour.
It is important to note that law enforcement leaves the communities

with no substitute activities or alternative forms of behaviour but, instead,
simply pushes them into a condition of fear and deprivation. Sensitisation
and livelihood improvement, on the other hand, expose them to increased
knowledge about poaching as an issue and to alternative forms of
behaviour (a set of alternative income- and protein-generating activities)
that move them away from poaching and serve as an incentive for the
communities to continue expressing them (that is, carry on with the set of
alternative activities) even after the conservationists eventually stop
implementing or promoting the measures.
4.5.3 Hawthorne effect

People often behave naturally in undisturbed settings. For instance, when
children are playing amongst their peers, they behave naturally but might
cease to do so upon the intrusion of an adult, especially when they know
that what they are doing is socially or culturally unacceptable. It could also
be due to shyness to repeat even the acceptable and commendable

activities in the presence of certain people or in particular situations. It is
common to hear parents swear that their children do not do certain things
or behave in certain ways. But even some dogs seem to learn how to hide
their stealing habits from their owners, by stealing only from other
people’s houses.
This phenomenon, referred to as the Hawthorne effect, also applies to
adults in a community. They tend to conceal their true behaviour in the
presence of certain visitors in order to give certain impressions or avoid
exposing certain facts about themselves or the community. Researchers
can overcome this problem by carrying out their observations unnoticed
(detached observation).
4.5.4 Halo effect

The Halo effect is due to preconceived ideas that lead to the formation of
unrealistic opinions about certain individuals, groups or communities. It may
be positive (favouring the target) or negative (disfavouring the target).
A positive halo effect occurs when the statements of a particular
individual are accepted as always truthful because that person is considered
to be an important elite, a rich individual, a God-fearing person, etc.
A negative type halo occurs when an individual’s statements are
dismissed due to that person’s reputation as a poor illiterate, a liar, a crook,
a thief, and so on. The researcher’s ability to keep an open mind will help
in minimising or averting the halo effect.
4.6 The issue of representative data

Gillham (2000 b) provides a comprehensive discussion about the issue of
representative data. For example, researchers must use appropriate
techniques to select a sample because they want the sample to accurately
represent the area or population studied. Similarly, they use different
methods to collect data within a social system because they are interested
in data quality. But whether or not the data collected are representative of
the opinions of the population is another matter entirely. For instance, if
the research involves listening to what people say, the researcher must be
aware of who is being heard and who is being ignored. Researchers must
also consider why some rush to provide information while others refuse to.
The bottom line is whether the information gathered is representative
of all shades of opinions about the issues under investigation. This is
linked to the problem of accessibility. In any area, some kinds of
34 Chapter Four
information are more accessible than others, and the opinions of certain
people are often disproportionately apparent. This is one of the weaknesses
of journalism, where the most easily accessible information is frequently
the most likely to be published.
There is a clear distinction between a journalist and a researcher, even
though both are concerned with gathering information. While a journalist
is simply interested in gathering information that makes news, a researcher
takes stock also of the information that has been hidden. In the words of
psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan, the most important thing to note is not
what people say, but what they avoid saying.
4.7 Triangulation in research

Social science encourages triangulation in data collection because it deals
with highly dynamic and complex social systems. According to Gillham
(2000 b), triangulation is the gathering of information from at least three
different sources on the same issue, using at least three different methods.
This approach is important because different methods have different
strengths and weaknesses, especially in regard to exploring issues within a
multiplicity of social systems. Using this multi-method approach helps
minimise the impacts of each method’s weaknesses on the data collected.
If the different methods employed produce similar information, a
researcher can be reasonably confident that he or she is getting a true picture
of the situation. But if, on other hand, they produce disparate information,
the researcher should be cautious about basing understandings and
conclusions on any set of data. This does not, however, mean that any set
of data is wrong—but is an indication that the picture is more complicated
than expected.
Gillham (ibid.) also observes a common discrepancy between what
people say about themselves and what their behaviours say about them.
For example, in interviews, people may be convincing because they are
sincere and are speaking from their hearts. It is true that they are not lying,
but are they accurate? It is not unusual to find that people simply do not
know themselves well enough.
Therefore, there are two things to seriously consider: what people
believe and say they are doing and what they are actually doing. Similarly,
what people learn may have little in common with what they do or how
they behave; to always expect a positive correlation between the two is to
misunderstand how people function in society.
1. Name four types of research and write short notes on them.
2. Distinguish between:
a) Basic and applied research,
b) Qualitative and quantitative research, and
c) Pilot and feasibility study.
3. Discuss two typical research methods, giving the methods and
instruments of data collection in each case.
4. What is the difference between:
a) An interview schedule and a questionnaire?
b) Participant and non-participant observation?
5. Distinguish between an interview guide and an interview schedule,
and state when each is used.
6. The Hawthorne effect and the halo effect can influence the quality of
data collected. With a clear distinction between the two effects,
state how each:
a) is likely to influence research, and
b) can be overcome.
7. What is triangulation in research, and why is it important?
8. What is the difference between open- and closed-ended questions?
9. Name four research designs and write short notes on them. With
convincing explanation, state which type of research is best
conducted using each of the research designs.
10. Which design best describes a test to diagnose a disease in a
hospital? Substantiate your answer with cogent examples.
CHAPTER FIVE
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.0 Introduction
Data analysis is one of the most common areas of difficulty that students
(and even a good number of researchers) face. There are several books
available specifically on the subject, each of which could be consulted for
better understanding. This chapter offers only a brief introduction.
Appendix 4 shows the relationship between research methods and the
methods and instruments of data collection and analysis most relevant to
each. Appendix 5 presents the various steps in data analysis.
5.1 Definition and types of data and analysis

Data are the facts presented to the researcher from the environment where
the research is conducted (Cooper & Schindler 2003). In other words, they
are the information gathered using the methods and tools described in
Chapter 4. As noted earlier, data are classified into quantitative and
qualitative types. Quantitative data are numerical in nature (i.e. have
numerical values or expressed in figures) while qualitative data are
descriptive or narrative in nature (i.e. expressed in words or text).
Data are also classified into primary and secondary data. Primary data
are the raw data collected from the field by the researcher and/or his or her
assistant or assistants. On the other hand, secondary data are those that had
been collected and stored for a particular purpose, and which the
researcher uses as part or all of his or her analysis to obtain answers to his
or her research questions.
Data analysis is the reduction of accumulated data to a manageable
size, and may encompass developing summaries, looking for patterns, and
applying statistical or other analytical techniques. It should be noted that
the purpose of analysis is to faithfully reflect, in summary and in organised
form, what has been learnt (Gillham 2000).
There are two types of analysis: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative analyses are applied to quantitative data and qualitative
38 Chapter Five
analyses are restricted to qualitative data. Quantitative analyses employ

statistics and are commonly referred to as statistical analyses. Qualitative
analyses make use of descriptive or narrative techniques and can be done
using content and text analyses, which will be considered later in this
chapter, but which can also be done using SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats) analysis (see Appendix 7).
Data analysis requires decision-making and creativity. For example, to
subject data to statistical analysis, it is important to classify them into
appropriate variables (see Section 5.2) and to decide the level of
measurement of the variables into which they are classified (see Section
5.4).
5.2 Definition and types of variable

Variables are concepts that are in forms that are measurable, and have at
least two values. For example, “income,” though generally understood as a
variable, is still at the level of a “concept” and needs to be given an
operational definition for it to mean the same thing to everybody—for
example, one’s income per month.
There are three key variables into which data can be classified for
analysis: independent, dependent and attribute variables. Independent
variables include those that bring about changes in phenomena or
situations. They can be described as “causative factors” or simply
“causes”. For example, when introducing plasmodium into a person’s
bloodstream, it will bring about a change in the body functioning of that
person. Therefore, plasmodium is an independent variable. Similarly, if a
certain action creates unemployment, many problems will crop up.
Therefore, unemployment is an independent variable in that context.
Dependent variables are outcomes due to the introduction of, or
changes in, independent variables. They are, in other words, the “effects”
or “impacts”. From the examples cited above, we can see that introducing
plasmodium (an independent variable) into a person’s bloodstream makes
the person suffer from malaria (a dependent variable), while creating
unemployment (an independent variable) in a society can bring about
poverty (a dependent variable) in that society. As with “income,” note also
that “poverty” is a concept that requires an operational definition.
Attribute variables are those that cannot be manipulated, changed or
controlled. Examples include gender, age, education, and income.
Data Analysis and Interpretation 39
5.3 Relationships between variables

Research often studies the relationships between pairs of variables. The
results could show that there is no relationship between a particular pair of
variables (see figure 5.1 d), or there is a relationship. Where there is a
relationship, what emerges is a general picture of how different values of
one variable are associated with different values of the other variable.
The relationship between variables can be either linear or curvilinear.
Furthermore, linear relationship is either positive or negative. In a positive
linear relationship (figure 5.1a), increases in the values of one variable
are accompanied by increases in the values of the other variable. For
example, increases in one’s education may mean increases in one’s salary.
In a negative linear relationship (figure 5.1b), increases in the values of
one variable are followed by decreases in the values of the other variable.
For instance, increases in the number of students in a class are translated
into decreases in the amount of attention given to each student by the class
teacher.
In a curvilinear relationship (figure 5.1c), increases in the values of
one variable are followed by increases in the values of the other variable
up to a point, and then by decreases in the values of that variable. For
example, an increase in the visual complexity of a picture may stimulate
an increase in the viewer’s enjoyment for the stimulus up to a point, but
this liking decreases with further increase in the visual complexity.
When the relationship between variables are plotted on a graph, the
independent variable is always on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the
dependent variable is always on the vertical axis (y-axis).
High High
(a) (b)
Low High Low High

40 Chapter Five
High High
(c) (d)
Low High Low High
Figure 5-1: Relationships between variables
5.4 Levels of measurement of variables

Variables can be measured via three key levels or scales: interval and ratio
scales, ordinal scale, and nominal scale.
Interval and ratio scales measure variables that are placed at the
highest level by virtue of the fact that their values are represented in
absolute numerical terms, which makes it possible for their cases to be
ranked from low to high, with discernible numerical differences between
them. Therefore, values of variables at both interval and ratio scales are
definite values as opposed to codes or numbers which are used to simply
represent them.
Examples of variables measured at the interval level include Fahrenheit
and Celsius scales for measuring temperature, and certain scales used for
measuring attitude and intelligence. Although there is a zero value that
represents a starting point for both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, this is
only an arbitrary zero used for convenience, and, therefore, cannot be used
to indicate the absence of temperature because there is no absence of
temperature. It may be argued that zero degree Kelvin, for example,
indicates an absence of temperature, which is not true. Looking at it
superficially, one is easily mislead into such a conclusion, but actually the
zero here is a measure of temperature and not an indication of an absence
of temperature. Therefore, it is erroneous to state, for example that 40°C is
twice as warm as 20°C. Similarly, one cannot say that a person considered
to be 40% introverted is twice as introverted as one scored 20%.
Examples of variables measured at the ratio level include age, weight,
volume, height, length, distance, income, number of individuals, etc. The
ratio scale, unlike interval level, has a fixed starting point, or absolute
zero, which represents a point where there is an absence of values of
particular variables. This situation makes it possible to suggest, for
instance, that a man aged 40 years is twice as old as one aged 20.
Similarly, one can say that a distance of 40 kilometres is twice as long as a

distance of 20 kilometres.
An ordinal scale measures variables at the medium level, where cases
can be ranked from low to high but without any calculable differences
between them. Examples of such variables include infant, teenager and
adult, or concepts such as intelligence ranked below average, average, and
above average. These examples need to be coded in order to be analysed
statistically.
A nominal scale measures variables at the lowest level by virtue mainly
of their inability to be ranked. Classification of variables (individuals,
groups, objects or responses) for measurement on this scale is simply based
on common attributes or characteristics. Examples include given names of
persons, plants, sex, age groups, religious groups, or political parties. These
examples also need to be coded for statistical analysis.
5.5 Methods of data analysis

Quantitative data can be subjected to statistical analyses and qualitative
data to content analyses. These two key methods are addressed in the
section below. Text, analysis, concerned with written text, will also be
considered.
5.5.1 Statistical analysis

Respondent Sex Age Education Income
1
Figure 5-2: Arranging data for statistical analysis
Statistical analysis involves calculations and other means of processing

data that have numerical values. Some of the numerical values may be
definite and meaningful, or assigned (used as codes) to facilitate statistical
operations. Statistical analysis can be done either manually for simple
calculations and when the dataset is relatively small, or by the use of a
computer when analysis involves complex calculations of a large dataset
or a number of datasets.
To do computer-assisted statistics requires a good knowledge of the
appropriate software. There are a number of statistical packages, including
42 Chapter Five
Excel, Database, SPSS, and Minitab. Basic knowledge of this software is

often not enough; basic statistical knowledge, such as how to assign data
to appropriate variables and how to determine their level of measurement,
is also required.
5.5.1.1 Some statistical procedures
There are three important statistical procedures: frequency distributions,

cross-tabulations and correlation, and regression analysis. Each can be
performed using SPSS.
Frequency distributions involve subjecting all the variables of a
particular project to the analysis to determine how the respondents are
distributed according to various responses. For example, the analysis may
show how many men are answering “yes” or “no” to a particular question.
Another may show which groups “support” or “do not support” a
particular cause.
Cross-tabulations, on the other hand, analyse two variables (independent
and dependent variables or attribute and dependent variables) to establish
whether there is no correlation (0) or there is perfect correlation (1.0)
between them.
Usually, variables are judiciously selected and subjected to the analysis
using appropriate correlation coefficients. For parametric data [i.e. data
representing ratio or interval level variables], Pearson is the appropriate
correlation coefficient, while Spearman is appropriate for non-parametric
data [i.e. data representing ordinal or nominal level variables].
The results of the analysis may show that correlations between some
pairs are significant or not. Where a correlation is significant, it means that
this is not just happening by chance, and it is the researcher’s task to think
critically and offer an interpretation. For example, where education and
income correlate, it could mean that people with the highest education tend
to earn more than those with the lowest.
Regression analysis is used to further analyse data where correlations
are known to exist between variables. It is important to stress that cross-
tabulations only show the strength and direction of correlations but not,
using the example above, the exact difference it makes between people of
lowest education and those of highest education, or how much impact one
variable has on another, or predictions about the variability of impacts on
certain levels. Regression analysis demonstrates these relationships.
5.5.2 Content analysis
Respondent Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3 Theme 4

1.
2.
Figure 5-3: Arranging data for content analysis
Data collected using interviews, discussions and other qualitative means

usually contain narratives or passages, and so must be subjected to content
analysis in order to make the most sense. As with statistical analysis, content
analysis can be done manually or with the help of computer software.
There are a number of software packages for doing content analysis,
including Nudist and Ethnograph. To do this requires highlighting the key
points before entering the data for the analysis, as shown on Figure 5.3.
This, for those who do not master the software, can be very time-
consuming. Therefore, the manual method may be the best choice. It is
similar to that described for the literature review (see 8.10), and involves
the following steps:
1. Read the responses and highlight the substantive or key statements.

2. Cut the highlighted points or responses into cards and pack them
according to respondents.
3. Consider the themes under which the responses fall.
4. Arrange the cards under the themes with the help of, say, a wall
chart.
5. Introduce quantitative elements to the data by noting the number of
respondents and responses they made.
6. Review and interpret the responses.
5.5.3 Text analysis

This is a critical analysis of a text or a piece of historical work, with a
view to gaining a fuller understanding of its meaning. It could be
described as reading between the lines with the aim of getting the story
behind the story. To read between the lines, in this context, is to read the
text critically and, in doing so, capture facts beyond those presented in the
text. This involves interrogating the text, as it were, to obtain truer or
additional information related to events presented in the text.
44 Chapter Five
Interrogating the text simply means asking questions beginning with

why, when, who, which, what, where and how while reading the text.
These questions are asked when encountering any sentence, phrase or
clause that contains a date or an event of historical importance. They are
also important in primary research, for in-depth understanding and critical
analysis.
In working to obtain additional information to provide answers to
interrogative questions, be sure to present only what is certain. It is better
to leave blank spaces (denoted by ellipses) than to fill gaps with faulty or
unreliable information.
Text analysis includes three key components. The first is the
Introduction, which provides an overview of the text. The introduction in
turn is composed of six sections:
o Nature of the text describes the material as political, social,

socioeconomic, economic, or politico-economic text, determines if
it is a complete or incomplete text, or an extract from a book,
journal or magazine, and if it is translated or appears in its original
language;
o Author of the text provides the author’s or authors’ name(s), as well
as date(s) and place(s) of birth, academic and professional
background(s) and a list or lists of other publications;
o Date and place of publication states the publication date of the
material, and also cites dates and locations of events cited in the
material;
o Historical context describes recent events that took place before
those described in the text;
o General idea of the text summarises the text in two or three
sentences;
o The plan is a design for transitioning from the introductory material
above to the detailed analysis itself.
The second component, which is the Detailed Analysis, starts with a

critical reading of the text, highlighting or underlining all the dates or
events of historical importance. This is followed by an interrogation of the
highlighted or underlined parts designed to obtain additional information
(see Appendix 3 for details on text interrogation).
Finally, the Conclusion summarises the researcher’s reactions to the text:
o The impression is the researcher’s opinion regarding the

complexity, style and depth of the text;
o The critique focuses on the accuracy and amount of bias evident in

the text;
o The impact highlights the results, effects or consequences of the
events described in the text, including the immediate, short-term
and long-term impacts;
o The perspective attempts to guess what is likely to happen as a
result of the events described in the text, or whether or not the
situation could be changed using which strategy or strategies and
under what circumstances.
5.6 Displaying and interpreting research results

Once data have been analysed, they are displayed in one form or the other.
These displays are referred to as result outputs. For statistical analyses, the
outputs include graphs, charts, and tables, usually supported by some
explanatory statements as necessary. In the case of content analysis, the
outputs are presented in thematic tables, often as appendices, and
presented in the results chapter as narrative or descriptive accounts (texts),
sometimes but not always supported with diagrams or pictures.
Results interpretation explains what the results mean, as well as the
implications of those results. Results can be interpreted with the help of
existing theories, experience gathered during the research, or common
sense.
Below are examples of displaying and interpreting the results of
statistical analysis (Example 5-1), content analysis (Example 5-2), and text
analysis (Example 5-3).
Example 5-1: Community knowledge and appreciation of their

natural resources
The communities of the Korup National Park area of Cameroon are

apparently blessed with rich natural resources, ranging from timber
products, non-timber forest products, fruit, nut, and oil-producing trees,
large and small mammals, reptiles, birds, fish and other living aquatic
resources (see Appendix X).
These resources are seen by the communities to be important to them
in various ways: they are a source of food, traditional medicine and
income and, therefore, an easy solution to their problems, including
poverty and the difficulties of paying for their children’s educations (see
Appendix XX).
46 Chapter Five
Table X: Number and % of resources in various statuses
Community Number of Status and number/%

resources cited
as found Abundant Scarce Very Extinct
scarce
Erat 34 14 13 6 (17.7%) 1
(41.2%) (38.2%) (2.9%)
Akpasang 53 34 14 5 0
(64.2%) (26.4%) (9.4%) (0%)
Fabe 48 39 6 2 1
(81.3%) (12.5%) (4.2%) (2%)
Baro 36 26 6 4 (11.2%) 0
(72%) (16.8%) (0%)
Abat 47 38 7 2 (4.3%) 0
(80.8%) (14.9%) (0%)
Bajo 35 26 7 2 0
(74.3%) (20%) (5.7%) (0%)
Perceived status of resource
[on % of recources cited]
100
80 Abundant
60 Scarce
40
Very scarce
20
0 Extinct
at
jo
be
ro
t
ng
a
Er
Ba
Ba
Ab
Fa
sa
pa
Ak
T arget community
Figure X: Community perception of the statuses of their resources
Although a majority of the Korup National Park communities consider

their resources to be generally still abundant, they see some as fast
becoming scarce or very scarce, with a few considered to be already
extinct (Figure X). Table X, from which Figure X was constructed, shows
the numbers and percentages of resources categorised as abundant, scarce,
very scarce, or extinct in each study community. From Figure X, it could
be deduced that Baro, Abat and Bajo—representing communities of the
northern sector of the Korup National Park—collectively have more
resource abundance than Erat, Akpasang and Fabe, which represent the
southern sector. This indicates that there is more wildlife exploitation and
other resource depleting activities in the latter than in the former
communities. This is confirmed by a recently completed wildlife and
human activities survey in the area (Okon Tiku 2007, pers. comm.). Fabe
and Erat represent communities where resource extinction is said to have
occurred already, but the situation in the latter is even far worse as its
resources are seen to be nearly as scarce as they are abundant.
The communities ascribe resource abundances to a combination of
non-utilisation, under-utilisation or high productivity of particular
resources, and consider scarcity to be due to overexploitation by both
indigenous and foreign users, largely encouraged by lack of alternative
sources of income. Some of the study communities felt that only the
advantaged still have abundant resources, and that care must be taken to
ensure proper management, in order to guarantee adequate benefits to
local communities.
According to them, one way of guaranteeing sustainable resource
utilisation for maximum community benefit is to address the problem of
increasing pressure from illegal foreign exploiters. A proposal was made
to put in place mechanisms ensuring that such activities could not take
place without consultation with, and involvement of, the local
communities. There was no mention of what precisely such mechanisms
are or should be. However, it is known that, at some point in the early
years of the Korup project, Baro formed what was termed an “Anti
Foreign Hunters Committee,” which provides an example of such a
mechanism.
Source: Inyang, E. 2007. Korup National Park environmental education

feasibility study: A consultancy report submitted to the World Wide Fund
for Nature, Cameroon.
Example 5-2 Political influence on wildlife-human conflict
Another important underlying issue that the case study reveals is the role
that some local politicians and powerful traditional rulers are said to play
in the wildlife-human conflict. According to the villagers, these people
have used their influential positions to acquire licensed guns, ostensibly
for self-protection. They often lend the weapons to highly skilled elephant
poachers—often under the guise of responding to a crop-raiding problem
in the area—when the real intent is obviously to acquire tusks. They are
also believed to use their positions to circumvent the development of any
legislative action against themselves and their hired poachers.
48 Chapter Five
Villagers are certain that the main goal of these people is to obtain the
tusks to decorate their houses, or to help some other important people do
so, as a symbol of power and authority (Figure XX).
Figure XX: Elephants tusks (flanking calabash on floor) as symbol of power and
authority
Most villagers do not support this arrangement, and, at least, one of the
interviewees was bitter about it:
One of the reasons why elephant poaching may never stop is because
government has not been hard on it. Culprits are released as soon as they
are put in custody…I cannot find any reason why these big people are
given licenses to carry big guns instead of small ones, if these guns were
really for self-protection. Or did the government think that these people
were using the guns to dress their houses? (see Appendix XXX).
The implication of all this is that the situation might signal future negative
consequences. Presently, the villagers seem to be silently questioning the
legislative discrimination. This may lead these villagers to lose their
patience to a point where they no longer support any legislative action
taken against “ordinary” poachers. The tendency could be for them to stop
reporting any cases of poaching, and some might actually decide to also
engage in the illegal activity. Should this be allowed to happen, it would
have serious repercussions on the conservation efforts at the Banyang-
Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.
Source: Inyang, E. 2002. The effects of wildlife-human conflict on

conservation initiatives: A case of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in
southwest Cameroon. An MSc. dissertation presented to the University of
Strathclyde, UK.
Example 5-3: Analysing the text
(a) Original text: “On the way to the referendum”
On 6 May 1962, after having informed and received the approval of the
Political Bureau of the CNU, Ahidjo informed the National Assembly that
he would consult the Cameroonian people “who were sovereign and
masters of their destiny” on the question of instituting a unitary state. They
would be asked to vote “Yes” or “No” to the question.
The members of the National Assembly approved the president’s
request. Certain outstanding issues can be deduced from Ahidjo’s
statement to the National Assembly. First of all, he consulted the National
Assembly, and no Member of Parliament, including West Cameroon
Members of Parliament, opposed it. Secondly, he gave priority to the
Cameroonian people whom he knew were “responsible” for their destiny.
Article 2 of the Federal Constitution empowered the members of the
National Assembly and the people to propose a referendum to revise the
constitution. Ahidjo quoted that article, which stated that….
Law No. 69/LF/15 of 10 November 1969, which prescribed the
conditions and the procedures of the referendum provided for under
Article 2 of the Federal Constitution of 1 September 1961, made the
referendum of 1972 constitutional. In fact, Law No. 69/LF/14 of 10
September 1969 also reduced the period of publication of the bill
submitted for referendum from 30 days to 10 days. It is evident, therefore,
that the strategies for dismantling the structures of the Federation were
already found in the constitution…
The disunity was so profound that, as early as 1962, during a secret
meeting held in Mamfe and attended by Peter I. Eno, S.A. Arrey, and
Moses Enow Kwei, the participants resolved to “take the Government
from the Grassland to the forest…” and to supply subversive information
directly to Ahidjo and the “gendarmes who are in town solely to collect
information about any person who criticises the order of the President.”
Similarly, meeting in Buea in Dr. E.M.L. Endeley’s house, CPNC officials
agreed “to fight hard so that the Vice President [of the Federation] and the
Prime Minister [of West Cameroon] should not both come from the
Grassfields.
50 Chapter Five
Source: Ngoh, J.V. 2004. Dismantling the federal system. In Ngoh, V.J.
(ed.). Cameroon from a federal to a unitary state 1961—1972: a critical
study. Limbe: Design House, pp 160—162.
(b) Analysed text
INTRODUCTION
Nature of the text

The text “On the Road to the Referendum” is a political text. It is an
incomplete text since it is only an extract from the book Cameroon from a
Federal to a Unitary State 1961—1972: A critical study, edited by Victor
Julius Ngoh. The text is in its original language, which is English.
Author of the text

The author of the text is Victor Julius Ngoh. He was a professor of History
at the University of Buea, Cameroon. He holds a PhD degree received
from the University of Washington, Seattle, USA. He was Dean of the
Faculty of Arts, and has published several books, including History of
Cameroon Since 1800 and Southern Cameroons, 1922—1962: A
Constitutional History.
Date and place of publication

The book Cameroon from a Federal to a Unitary State, from which the
text is extracted, was published in 2004 in Limbe. The events in the text
took place in Yaounde in 1972.
Historical context
The events highlighted in the text occurred in 1972 following—and as a
consequence of—a series of events that took place in 1970 and 1971.
Victor Julius Ngo, in “Dismantling the Federal System” in Cameroon from
Federal to a Unitary State, advances two fundamental reasons for the
events which culminated in the 1972 Referendum that signalled the
liquidation of the federal system. First, he contends that the Federal
Republic of Cameroon was experiencing serious political headaches
resulting from the Nigerian civil war. Thus, the liquidation of the federal
structure, which perpetuated regional partitcularisms, would have led to
national integration. Finally, the insecurity brought about by treaties and
sabotage led by the Unions des Population du Cameroun (UPC) from 1955
to 1970 would have been better contained if the country became a unitary
state. This was because many UPC militants took shelter in West
Cameroons and used it as a launch-pad for attacks against the Government
of Cameroon, which seriously undermined national unity.
General idea of the text

The text is essentially about Ahidjo’s consultation with the National
Assembly prior to the organisation of the 1972 Referendum, as well as the
legal framework that underpinned that Referendum. The text also exposes
the divisiveness, tribalism, mudslinging, backstabbing and character
assassination that characterised the West Cameroon politics.
The plan
Part A: Ahidjo’s Consultations before the referendum (paragraph 1)
Part B: The legal basis of the 1972 Referendum (paragraph 2)
Part C: The bitterness, divisiveness and tribalism of West Cameroon’s
politics (paragraph 3)
DETAILED ANALYSIS
Part A: Ahidjo’s consultations before the Referendum (paragraph 1)
“On 6 May 1972, after...responsible for their destiny.”

President Ahmadou Ahidjo was the President of the Federal Republic of
Cameroon. He was also the Chairman of the Political Bureau of the
Cameroon National Union (CNU). The Political Bureau of the CNU was
the most important and highest decision-making organ of the party. This
party was set up in 1966 after Ahidjo liquidated all political parties that
existed in the territory on the grounds that they fostered ethnic and
regional individualism and impaired the unity of Cameroon.
The National Assembly was one of the three tiers of the government of
the federation, and it was constitutionally empowered to sanction any
change in the constitution before that change could be effected. However,
it is important to note that the approval by the National Assembly of
Ahidjo’s bill was a foregone conclusion, in that the assembly was entirely
made up of Ahidjo’s hand-picked supporters. Ahidjo had no choice but to
consult the Cameroonian people because it was a constitutional obligation
to do so. The system of government which he put in place after the
liquidation of the Federal structure was a unitary system.
A unitary system of government concentrates all powers of the state at
the centre. Ahidjo argued that the unitary system was important because it
would facilitate closer national unity and save millions of CFA Francs
52 Chapter Five
which would have been wasted as a result of duplication of services

characteristic of the Federal system. But the unitary system systematically
led to marginalisation of the Anglophones.
Part B: The legal basis of the 1972 Referendum (paragraph 2)
“Law No. 69/LF/15 of 10 November 1969...already inbuilt in the

constitution.”
The aforementioned law of 1969 was in agreement with the federal
constitution’s provisions for revising the document. This law is quoted
here because there is an on-going distortion of Southern Cameroons and
Cameroon’s historiography, particularly by militants of the Southern
Cameroons National Congress (SCNC) that the 1972 Referendum was
unconstitutional and, therefore, null and void. In fact, Law No. 69/LF/14
of 10 November 1969 reduced the period from 30 days to 10 days because
it was part of Ahidjo’s strategy to alter the document at his whim, thus
leaving any potential opponent unprepared. This is because Ahidjo wanted
to concentrate power in his hands. To this end, Ahidjo had already put in
place a mechanism to liquidate the federal structure when the constitution
itself was drawn up. He did this by creating a highly centralised “federal”
system, which is a poor example of a true federal system.
Part C: The bitterness, divisiveness, and tribalism of West

Cameroon’s politics (paragraph 3)
“The disunity was so...should not all come from the Grassfields.”
The disunity and tribalism in West Cameroon’s politics was between
members of the Grassfield community, which dominated the ruling
Kamerun National Democratic Party (KNDP) and what was then known as
the South West Province, which dominated the opposition Cameroon
Peoples National Congress (CPNC). This disunity was not because both
parties meant well for West Cameroons as a whole, but because of the
greed and selfishness of their leaders, which illustrates their inability to put
the interest of Southern Cameroons above their personal interests.
The CPNC officials wanted to take the government from the
Grassfields because the latter had monopolised the post of Vice President
of the Federation and Prime Minister of West Cameroon. The decision to
supply subversive information to Ahidjo through his gendarmes not only
revealed the backstabbing and selfishness of the CPNC officials but also
highlighted the police state into which Ahidjo’s totalitarianism had
submerged Cameroon. It also revealed the brutality of Ahidjo’s security
network and showed that West Cameroon was experiencing Francophone

domination. Dr. Emmanuel M. L. Endeley, in whose house the last
meeting was held, was the CPNC leader who lost the plebiscite of 1961 to
his Foncha who, as a result, became the first Prime Minister of West
Cameroon.
CONCLUSION
Impression
The extract is crisp and easy to read, and the writer has a firm grasp of the
events and situations.
Critique
The writer of the text manifests even-handedness and objectivity in
analysing the 1972 pre-referendum politics in Cameroon.
Impact
The Referendum of 1972 resulted in the abrogation of the limited
autonomy that West Cameroon enjoyed during the days of the federal
system. For example, the Southern Cameroons House of Chiefs was
abolished. Also, the Cameroon Airlines and West Cameroon’s electricity
supplier, POWERCAM, were liquidated. Moreover, the National Produce
Marketing Board of West Cameroon was undermined. West
Cameroonians were also marginalised in the political landscape, and social
amenities and infrastructure (such as roads, hospitals, and schools) were in
short supply. The referendum also led to what has come to be known as
the Anglophone Problem.
Perspective
The 1972 referendum, which resulted in Cameroon’s status as a unitary
state, has brought great friction and stress on Cameroon. One of such
headaches is the Anglophone Problem. If the Cameroon Peoples
Democratic Movement (CPDM), the Francophone-dominated government
in Yaounde, focused on this problem and tried to deal with it squarely
rather than use the strategy of “cosmetic” appointments of Anglophones to
ceremonial positions, peace and confidence—requirements essential for
national building—would have been restored. If, on the other hand, they
continue with their do-nothing attitude and claim that the problem does not
exist, the crisis could deteriorate into a bitter tension that might finally
plunge the nation into a devastating civil war.
54 Chapter Five
Source: A contribution in 2007 by Etim Elijah, then an undergraduate

student of History, University of Buea, Cameroon.
1. Variables are concepts that can be measured using different scales,
and are the basis of data classification. With cogent examples,
differentiate between:
a) Independent and dependent variables, and
b) Interval and ordinal scales.
2. Frequency distributions, cross-tabulations and regression analysis
are extremely important techniques for data analysis. With brief
descriptions of the procedures for each, state their uses.
3. Name two methods of data analysis and write short notes on them.
4. Text analysis is not a method of data analysis per se, but a special
type of analysis. Discuss, highlighting the importance of text
analysis in research.
5. Distinguish between content and text analyses.
6. On the table below, write down the scales, on the right column, that
can be used to measure the variables on the left column.
Variable Measurement scale

i) Sex
ii) Age (e.g. of responses: 10 years,
20 years, 25 years, 40 years)
iii) Age (e.g. of response options:
Below 20 years, Above 20 years)
iv) Occupation
v) What was your score in the exams?
(e.g. of response options: Below
average, Average, Above average)
vi) What was your score in the
exams? (e.g. of responses: 50%,
60%, 70%)
vii) Number of hunters in a village
viii) You are a regular user of the
Internet (e.g. of response option:
True, False)
ix) How often do you use the

Internet? (e.g. of response options: 2
times a week, 3 times a week, 4 times
a week)
x) How efficient are you in using the
Internet? (e.g. of response:
Inefficient, Efficient, Very efficient)
xi) The average temperatures of the
three rainiest months are 30°C, 32°C
and 34°C, respectively
PART II:
ACADEMIC ASSIGNMENTS
CHAPTER SIX
PREPARING FOR ACADEMIC WORK
6.0 Introduction
Academic improvement depends on developing the habit of regularly
reading current articles and reports published in scientific journals, as well
as magazines, textbooks and long essays, theses, dissertations or other
student projects. This helps increase and up-date one’s knowledge base in
the field of study, and familiarises the researcher with various types of
assignment questions or topics and how other researchers and students
have approached these.
6.1 Independent study

An assignment (aimed at writing a short or long essay) prepares students
for independent academic research which, in turn, prepares them for work-
based research or consultancy. Attention to the structure, style, language
and tone of existing research during the independent study will inevitably
help develop in students important writing skills and habits. Below are
some steps to consider when doing assignments:
a) Try to understand the assignment and the associated requirements

properly.
b) From the assignment question, or topic, frame a set of guiding
questions (or research questions); that is, determine what is
expected before embarking on the independent study. For example,
the topic “abolition of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade” could
include any of the following research questions:
i) What was the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, and what was its
significance?
ii) What other forms of slave trade existed, and what made these
different from the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade?
iii) Did these forms of slave trade influence the trans-Atlantic
Trade and, if so, how? What other factors influenced the trans-
60 Chapter Six
Atlantic Slave Trade, and how?

iv) What were the effects of the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade? Did
these effects contribute to its abolition, and, if so, how? What
other factors contributed to its abolition?
v) Were there any individuals or institutions that helped abolish
the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade? If so, who were they and what
roles did they play?
vi) What, if any, were the effects of the abolition of the trans-
Atlantic Slave Trade?
c) With these questions in mind, the next step is to search for and
study the books, journal articles and other relevant sources that
could provide answers to the questions. Depending on the nature of
the assignment, the researcher may have to conduct interviews or
spend some time observing events, activities or behaviours in order
to obtain adequate answers to the questions.
It is important to develop the habit of noting the correct reference (author’s

name, title of source, year and place of publication, and publisher) of each
source before embarking on the reading of a book or any other literature
source. This is to ensure that a complete and accurate list of references is
available.
d) Be sure to use the required bibliographical system or style.

e) While reading, jot down the relevant points from each source.
6.2 Developing an assignment or academic essay structure

a) With the help of your research questions and other information
gathered, brainstorm on the broad areas covered by the assignment
and jot down additional ideas.
b) Rearrange these ideas in a logical fashion, and include an
introduction at the beginning and a conclusion at the end. These
form the essay outline, which can be part of the actual essay or
simply used as a guide to writing the piece. Again, given the topic
“abolition of the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,” the outline may look
like the example below:
i. Introduction
ii. Factors that promoted the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
iii. Organisation and scope of the slave trade
iv. Consequences of the slave trade
v. Abolition of the slave trade: Causes, key players and justification
Preparing for Academic Work 61
vi. Consequences of the abolition of the slave trade

vii. Conclusion
c) Under each of the outlined sections, jot down, as in the general
areas, points to be discussed. These could be placed into sub-
sections, starting from the most important. Consider the following
example:
Sub-topic: iv. Consequences of the slave trade

Economic
Political
Social
d) Select and logically arrange the materials gathered from the books
or journals into the above themes—that is, the economic, political
and social consequences of the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
6.3 Analysis in writing

Once materials have been arranged into the thematic areas where they
naturally or logically belong, they must be analysed. What does this term
mean? To analyse simply means to review the literature, and to extract
more meaning from the available materials. This involves discussing,
defining, interpreting, arguing, inferring, analogising, asserting, comparing,
contrasting, and concluding.
The process of literature review (see 8.10 for details) begins with a logical
and careful pulling together of strings of similar and differing findings,
interpretations, assertions and conclusions of various authors who have
contributed toward the development of particular bodies of knowledge. These
strings are then subjected to discussions, interpretations, assertions, and so on,
which are techniques for providing transitional links between them or, based
on and necessitated by new evidence, a way of stretching some of them out to
take on new meanings, new values and new significances. For more ideas on
analysis, see the text analysis section in Chapter 5.
Literature review helps broaden students’ horizons on the subject areas
under study. It is a means of avoiding undue narration, and facilitates the
strengthening and validation of personal interpretations and points of view.
6.4 Academic writing and language

Made up of words and symbols, language is an important medium of
communication. Every subject has its own set of technical terms that are
62 Chapter Six
employed to express concepts and describe situations. Academic and

scientific writers are strongly advised not to use superficial, ornamental or
flowery language. Also, using the same words repeatedly can overwork
them and make an essay boring. To avoid this, make use of synonyms, but
be sure to use them correctly. To improve academic writing, it is advisable
to spend a considerable amount of time reading journals and other
published research materials in the field of study.
Academic writing distinguishes itself from other forms of writing by
its robustness, by the degree of intellectual rigorousness involved, by the
level of control in the choice and expression of words, and by the degree
of caution in what is said. Academic writing should demonstrate sound
knowledge in the subject area and must be presented in a logical fashion,
with conclusions, assertions or inferences supported by hard, unchallengeable
evidence.
This evidence is normally derived from references (secondary sources),
which may be combined with the results of a study (primary sources), if
field research has been carried out. In the latter case, methods used to
derive at the results must be described. Evidence brings validity, reliability
and credibility to the essay or paper and, therefore, helps readers accept
the findings with confidence and seriousness.
6.5 Accuracy and clarity

Often, students hurry to submit their essays without bothering to review
them. A student desiring to score high marks should spend adequate time
reviewing all work. Students should double-check to ensure that the facts
presented are accurate, and that there are no grammatical or other
mistakes. Simple mistakes, be they punctuations or omissions of words,
can change a sentence’s meaning completely. For example, a sentence that
begins “Deserts do not have” rather than the intended “Deserts do have”
will be confusing. Would a teacher guess that the student meant the other
way around? Likely not, and the student would lose valuable marks!
Another important point is clarity. Is the writing clear enough? Is it
free of ambiguity? Is it precise? Does the essay read well? A student could
pretend to be someone else and, while reading, determines if the writing is
clear. Long, complicated sentences can obscure the meaning. Below is a
case in point:
In 1986 some mineral deposits were discovered in the Sudan, but because
of the arid nature of the country, many mining machines could not be
driven to the central point due to poor transportation network and the
sandy nature of the region which makes movement impossible scared most
of the labour force and consequently the area remains very poor, since
transport is the main factor of development and urbanisation.
The sentence above should be split and rewritten in order to make it read
clearly. The revised version might look like this:
In 1986 some mineral deposits were discovered in Sudan, and this raised a
lot of hope for the country. Unfortunately, due to its arid and sandy nature,
the road network system was very poor and mining machines could not be
transported to the site of exploitation. The poor roads have also contributed
to the generally low labour force in the country, with the concomitant low
productivity, high level of poverty and underdevelopment.
6.6 Writing an introduction

An introduction is very important in an essay, as it is in any form of good
writing. It appears at the beginning of the piece, and is usually written
before the main body of the essay. A good introduction will include the
most exciting and effective information and will captivate the reader’s
interest. The introduction may require revision after the main body of the
essay is complete—this is to ensure that the two have a clear link.
A good introduction should end by announcing to the reader what to
expect in the essay. The following excerpt from the introduction to a
community drama paper is an example:
In this essay we will consider the theoretical underpinning of community
drama, examine its development, highlight the inherent constraints, and
then propose a strategy for integrating it into the traditional system as a
means of ensuring its sustainability.
6.7 Writing a conclusion

A conclusion always appears at the end of the essay, and is written after
the essay is completed. It pulls together, by way of summary, the salient
points developed in the essay and also makes important statements or
assertions based on the evidence presented. As with an introduction, which
should stimulate the interest of the reader, a conclusion should leave the
reader convinced by the facts presented and arguments raised in the essay.
It is the writer’s last chance to make the reader accept his or her views, so
it must be bold, strong and convincing, and based on clear evidence. To
write a good conclusion, go through the main body of your essay or the
findings of your research work, highlighting the salient points. Then use
these points, as evidences, to make “bold” or categorical statements that
64 Chapter Six
may serve as summaries, inferences or assertions. The following examples

are from the conclusions of an assignment paper and a dissertation:
Example 6-1 Conclusion and recommendations
Community drama has a lot of flexibility and offers many opportunities

for application in a wide range of contexts. However, this can be both
helpful and detrimental. On the one hand, it affords the voiceless and
powerless the opportunity to express themselves and act in ways that could
contribute meaningfully to the betterment of their community and the
society as a whole. On the other hand, the fact that the activity is more or
less improvisation-based makes it a rather risky business, and measures
need to be taken to ensure that every participant understands and works
within the limit of a defined frame of reference.
In the course of developing a community drama programme, it is
advisable also to consider the factors that are likely to facilitate or militate
against it. At this stage it is necessary to figure out the methods that could
be used to take advantage of the facilitating factors and those that could be
deployed to minimise the effects of the militating factors. This depends on
the purpose and objectives of the programme vis-à-vis the traditional and
socio-political context in which it is to be implemented.
Example 6-2 Real causes of crop-raiding by the major raider species
Farms close to the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary are commonly raided

by elephants. However, this depends on the season and on the intensity of
hunting in the protected area. If hunting were high during the wet season,
you could make an accurate guess that certain communities living close to
the Wildlife Sanctuary would soon experience crop damage by elephants,
every other factor being equal. Increased hunting increases the migratory
movements of these animals and correspondingly increases their rate of
encounter and raiding of farms.
The above factors do not influence crop-raiding by cane rats and bush
pigs. These animals destroy crops at any distance from the Wildlife
Sanctuary. Cane rats are known to raid even gardens behind houses. The
factor that is generally believed to be contributing to crop-raiding by these
other animals is the isolated pattern of farming common in the area. The
patches of secondary vegetation created between the farms provide
suitable habitats and breeding grounds for the animals. These animals hide
in the nearby secondary forest patches during periods of high risk, and
dash into the farms when conditions are less threatening.
The isolated pattern of farming is largely encouraged by the traditional

shifting agricultural system commonly practised in the area. Farms are
abandoned after a few years, either due to noticed poor soil conditions or,
more commonly, to acquire new pieces of land. The abandoned plots are
normally left fallow for 4 – 5 years. The fallow period can be even longer,
depending on how long it takes for landowners to return to and put the
abandoned plots into further agricultural use. Leasing such long
abandoned plots of land for other farmers to use in cultivating even food
crops is not a common practice at Banyang-Mbo.
A similar situation is the irregular weeding of farms in the area.
Coupled with the mixed cropping commonly practised, this situation
favours the ecological behaviour of cane rats. These shy animals take
advantage of the extra cover provided by the weeds and over-crowded
crops to hide under and gradually, but persistently, destroy the crops.
6.8 Proofreading and editing

Proofreading and editing are an important part of any writing assignment.
Proofreading is simply looking for and correcting minor mistakes, such as
misspellings or repetition/omission of words, incorrect punctuations, etc.
Editing, on the other hand, involves a review of major issues, like word
choice, subject-verb agreement, structure, flow, clarity, length, and so on.
Essays should be proofread and edited, even after the final handwritten
or typed copy is completed. Proofreading and editing should be done in a
relaxed and fun atmosphere, but with great attention to detail. Final
proofreading and editing will almost always reveal the need for a number
of corrections, and will always improve the quality of the piece.
6.9 A quick note of advice

Completing a strong essay requires one to carefully follow a series of
important steps. It is important to start the work early in order to avoid a
last-minute rush, and to leave enough time for proofreading, editing, and
revising the essay.
The only magic in essay writing (if there is any magic at all) is to make
sure that adequate materials, appropriate language and an academic style
of writing are evident. The structure of the essay and the organisation of
ideas are also of paramount importance.
Similarly, it is absolutely crucial to ensure that citations, the
bibliography or the references are accurate and in compliance with the
required styles. Lastly, it is important that the essay does not go far beyond
66 Chapter Six
the maximum recommended length. The difference between the length

required and that of the final product should be no more than ten percent.
1. Developing essay plans or outlines
Step 1: Write down five topics on subjects or issues of current
discussion or debate.
Step 2: For each topic, develop a plan or an outline that could guide the
writing process.
2. Reviewing literature
Step 1: Select one topic from Step 1 above.
Step 2: Identify three sources of literature that contain information on
the topic.
Step 3: Study the literature and jot down, from each source, at least
five important statements that are relevant to the topic.
Step 4: Use the statements from the various literature sources to
compose a one-page essay, making sure that each source is
accurately cited.
3. Writing introductions
Step 1: Carefully read the essay.
Step 2: Write a suitable introduction to the essay.
4. Writing conclusions
Step 1: Read the essay again, beginning with the introduction, and
highlight the salient points.
Step 2: Use the highlighted points to write the conclusion.
5. Writing essays based on available literature

Step 1: Select any other topic and prepare a plan for it.
Step 2: Carry out research, using at least four sources of relevant
literature.
Step 3: Compose the essay using the information gathered from the
literature.
Step 4: Edit the essay, making sure that it is four pages long, typed on
A-4 size paper, in 14 point font size and 1.5 line spacing. Give it
the best academic tone, style and features possible.
6. Writing essays based on field research

Step 1: Formulate a topic based on an issue of interest regarding the
society or the natural environment.
Step 2: Develop a list of questions to guide an exploration of the issue.
Step 3: Choose about five to ten people to approach in obtaining
answers to those questions.
Step 4: Inform the people of the need to interview them.
Step 5: Hold interviews and jot down their responses to the questions.
Step 6: Use their responses to compose the essay.
Step 7: Read about three sources of literature on the topic and jot down
the salient points that support or contradict the survey findings.
Step 8: Incorporate the points from the literature into the original
essay, and give the essay the academic tone, style and features it
deserves.
Step 9: Edit the essay, ensuring that it is at least ten pages long and at
most twelve pages long, typed on A-4 size paper, in 14 point font
size and 1.5 line spacing.
CHAPTER SEVEN
FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
7.0 Introduction
Academic writing is very different from ordinary writing—not only
because of its almost stereotypical structure and tone, but also because of
certain distinguishing features. This chapter describes the features in some
detail, with supporting examples. It also provides examples of references
for various literature sources.
7.1 Citing authors within the text

Citing information sources within a text, otherwise known as referencing,
is an important practice in the academic tradition. It serves to demonstrate
the writer’s scope of knowledge in the subject under discussion, and
provides evidence or support for the points raised.
There are four referencing systems, of which the following two are
commonly used in universities and departments. Which one to use
depends on the discipline and on the recommendation of the relevant
department.
7.1.1 Author-date system

This is common to most disciplines—science, social sciences, arts and the
humanities. The last name (surname) of the author is cited first, followed
by the publication date of the piece cited. This is done in one of the
following two ways, depending on how the materials are presented.
i) As Rubin (1995) stresses, these stories must be handed down from

generation to generation in order to survive.
ii) Marx strongly condemned oppression and held the conviction that
although the dominant art would always be that of the dominant
class, this does not prevent other sectors or classes from fostering
their own art, guided by their own perspectives, which translates
70 Chapter Seven
the knowledge necessary to them (Boal, 1979).
Sometimes several authors making similar statements may be cited, as

follows:
But some of the very ancient stories have been either lost (Finnegan,
1992; Rubin, 1995) or preserved by special groups (Vansina, 1961).
7.1.2 Reference by number system

This is commonly used in the arts and humanities, disciplines which seem
to place a lot of emphasis on an uninterrupted flow of ideas. A superscript
numeral is used to represent a particular book or paper of a particular
author or authors. The following example is based on the references
above:
But some of the very ancient stories have been either lost1 or
preserved by special groups.2
7.2 Bibliography and references

Bibliography is a broad term which includes literature sources, consulted
and not consulted, that deal with the subject at hand. It includes those to
which the author makes reference and/or those to which the author has not
made reference. References include only those sources which the writer
cites or otherwise makes reference to. The “bibliography” or “references”
is evidence of academic honesty, and an important component of the
academic tradition.
A bibliography is more appropriate for textbooks or some forms of
essays. Most scientific writing uses references, and references are also
recommended for students’ theses, dissertations or similar projects. The
“bibliography” or the “references” appears at the end of the work, and
both are presented in exactly the same way. Though there are several
systems for writing a bibliography and references, just four seem to be
recommended by universities and departments: (a) footnote and endnote
systems, (b) Harvard, (c) American Psychological Association (APA) and
(d) Modern Languages Association (MLA). It should be clear that the
footnote and endnote systems do not have any particular styles of their
own, but borrow the styles of the other systems. Also, the styles deployed
by the various systems differ slightly with different literature sources.
Features of Academic Writing 71
7.2.1 Footnotes and endnotes

When using the reference by number system, the “bibliography” or the
“references” is presented either as endnotes or as a combination of
footnotes and endnotes. These are characterised by the use of numbers to
represent the literature sources. The rule is to assign a number to only one
source or a group of sources.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of every page where the references
are made (with the font size always much smaller than that of the main
text and usually, but not always separated from the latter by a short
horizontal line). Endnotes appear at the end of the essay and are presented
in the same font size as the main text. From the examples given under
reference by number system, we have our examples for footnotes and
endnotes below:
But some of the very ancient stories have been either lost1 or preserved
by special groups.2
1
Finnegan, R. Oral traditions and the verbal arts:A guide to research
practices. London: Routledge, 1992; Rubin, D.C. Memory in oral
traditions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
2
Vansina, J. Oral tradition: A study in historical methodology. Chicago:
Aldine Publishing company, 1961.
ENDNOTES (or simply NOTES)

1. Finnegan, R. Oral traditions and the verbal arts: A guide to
research practices. London: Routledge, 1992. Rubin, D.C.
Memory in oral traditions. New York: Oxford University Press,
1995.
2. Vansina, J. Oral tradition: A study in historical methodology.
Chicago: Aldine Publishing company, 1961.
7.2.2 Harvard. APA and MLA formats

With the author-date system of referencing, the bibliography is written in
either the Harvard and APA systems (mostly for the sciences) or the MLA
system (mostly for the arts and humanities), as recommended by most of
our universities. The difference between the Harvard and APA is in the
separation of dates, and the difference between these two systems
72 Chapter Seven
generally and the MLA system is in the placement of places of publication

and dates. In Harvard and APA systems, the date comes immediately after
the author’s name, separated by brackets (for APA) or periods (for
Harvard). See examples below:
For APA (American Psychological Association) system:
Rubin, D.C. (1995). Memory in oral traditions. New York:

Oxford University Press.
For Harvard system:
Rubin, D.C. 1995. Memory in oral traditions. New York:

Oxford University Press.
In the MLA (Modern Languages Association) system, the date is

placed at the very end, separated by a comma:
Rubin, D. C., Memory in oral traditions, New York, Oxford

University Press, 1961.
7.3 References for various literature sources

There are reference books for the Harvard, APA and MLA styles which
may be consulted for a fuller understanding of this subject. This section
offers only a summary on how to prepare references for books, chapters in
books, books in volumes and series, journals, papers or articles, and so on,
presented in the Harvard style. Knowledge gained in Section 7.2.2 above
should allow any writer to adapt Harvard style references to the MLA or
APA styles.
7.3.1 Books
It is simple to write the reference for a book. If a book comes in various
editions, the edition used should be cited. Some examples in the Harvard
style are below:
Vansina, J. 1961. Oral tradition: A study in historical

methodology. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
Young, P.V. 1966. Scientific social survey research (4thedition.).

Englewood Cliff: Prentice Hall Inc.
7.3.2 Book chapters

Macdonald, D. 1959. A theory of many cultures. In B. Rosenberg
and D. Manning White (eds.). Mass culture: The popular arts in
America. New York: Macmillan.
7.3.3 Books in volumes and series

Books published in volumes or series should be cited as follows:
i) Durbin, C. 1994. The role of local people in the successful

maintenance of protected areas in Madagascar. Environmental
Conservation, Vol. 21. The Foundation for Environmental
Conservation.
ii) Stone, R. 1997. What’s your role?: Training for organisational

impact: A guide for training officers in protected area
management. African Biodiversity Series, No 5. Washington, D.C.:
Biodiversity Support Program.
7.3.4 Journals
Journals, unlike textbooks, offer up-to-date research findings, especially
regarding recent issues. Note also that journals are normally organised using
volume numbers, as shown in the third example below. The part of the
citation reading “6(2), 166—178” references Volume 6, Number 2 of the
journal, with the article occupying pages 166 to 178.
i) Thouless, C.R. 1994. Conflict between humans and elephants in

northern Kenya. Oryx, 28, 119 –127.
ii) Hoare, R.E. 1999. Determinants of human-elephant conflicts in a

land-use mosaic. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 689 – 700.
iii) Layrargues, P.P. 2000. Solving local environmental problems in

environmental education: A Brazilian case study. Environmental
Education Research, 6(2), 166 – 178.
74 Chapter Seven
7.3.5 Papers
These citations can include policy papers to technical, occasional and
conference papers. Policy papers may be cited using publication numbers.
Some examples are below:
i) Baker, R. 1987. Administrative innovation for environmental

management. Occasional Paper No. 16. School of Public and
Environmental Affairs, Indiana University. Bloomington: Indiana
University.
ii) Ntianoa-Baidu, Y. 1990. Coastal wetlands conservation: The

Save the Seashore Birds Project. In Kiss, A. (ed.). Living with
wildlife: Wildlife resource management with local participation
in Africa. The World Bank Technical paper No. 130, 91—95.
iii) Noibi, Y. 1990. Pre-service teacher environmental knowledge

and attitude: The Lagos experience. A paper prepared for the 5th
international environmental education conference held in Churchill
School, Churchill, UK, from 25 – 29 June. 1990. Unpublished.
7.3.6 Reports
Field trips—as well as monthly, quarterly, annual and final reports—
should be cited like the example below:
Nchanji, A. C. 2001. Crop-raiding by wildlife at the Banyang-Mbo

Wildlife Sanctuary. WCS/Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary Project
final report.
7.3.7 Dissertations and theses

Nkwatoh, A.F. 2000. Evaluation of trade in non-timber-forest
products in the Ejagham Forest Reserve of southwest Cameroon. A
PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Natural Resource
Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
7.3.8 The Internet

The Internet is a global database that contains invaluable information on
almost every, if not every, subject or discipline imaginable. Materials from
a website should be referenced as below:
John, P. 2001. Studying rural communities. [online] Available:

http://www.earth1.epa.gov:80/OW/WOW/ (Accessed 10 July 2007)
7.3.9 Translations
Tcheumetcha, J. M. 2009. How to set up a cutting grass breeding
farm (Inyang, Felitia Eni, Trans.). Limbe: WWF Coastal Forests
Programme. (Original work published 2008)
Or, if an original French work was the source but there is a

translation in English, the reference is written as follows:
Tcheumetcha, J. M. 2008. Comment developper une ferme

d'aulacodes [How to set up a cutting grass breeding farm] (Inyang,
Felitia Eni, Trans.). Limbe: WWF Coastal Forests Programme.
Note that 2008 is the publication date of the original French work
and 2009 that of the translation, and that WWF is the publisher of
the original French work.
7.3.10 Multiple publications by the same author

What if the writer uses two or more books, papers or reports by the same
author published in the same year? How are they differentiated? One way
is by assigning a letter to each literature source, placed immediately after
the date; the author’s name in each of the following sources can then be
replaced with a dash. See examples below:
Inyang, E. 2003a. Lessons learnt in the establishment and implementation

of a community-based conservation model for the Banyang-Mbo
Wildlife Sanctuary in southwest Cameroon. A consultancy report
prepared for the Wildlife Conservation Society.
—. 2003b. The Last Hope. Limbe: Presbook.
—. 2003c. The Korup Project: A dramatic presentation. A consultancy
report prepared for the GTZ.
—. 2003d. Drama as an evaluation tool: A training guide. Limbe:
Presbook.
76 Chapter Seven
1. With cogent examples, distinguish between the Harvard, MLA and
APA styles.
2. Distinguish between the footnote and endnote systems.
3. Name the two popular systems of referencing, illustrating each with
two examples.
4. As an editor of a journal, one of your responsibilities is to ensure that
the bibliography (or references) is presented correctly. In the
documents numbered a—d below, underline the appropriate parts, as
necessary:
a) Hoare, R.E. 1999. Determinants of human-elephant conflicts in a
land-use mosaic. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 689 – 700.
b) Macdonald, D. 1959. A theory of many cultures. In B. Rosenberg
and D. Manning White (eds.). Mass culture: The popular arts in
America. New York: Macmillan.
c) Nkwatoh, A.F. 2000. Evaluation of trade in non-timber forest
products in the Ejagham Forest Reserve of southwest Cameroon. A
PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Natural Resource
Management of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
d) Ntianoa-Baidu, Y. 1990. Coastal wetlands conservation: The Save
the Seashore Birds Project. In Kiss, A. (ed.). Living with wildlife:
Wildlife resource management with local participation in Africa.
The World Bank Technical paper No. 130, 91—95.
5. In preparing a list of literature sources consulted in your research, state
when you would use a bibliography or a list of references.
6. During the course of an enquiry, information was gathered from the
books numbered a—d. Using the details provided below, prepare a
bibliography in the Harvard system.
a) “Rethinking African development” written by Lual A. Deng and
published by Africa World Press, Inc in Trenton in 1998.
b) “Tragedy of the commons” written by Garret Hardin as a chapter
occupying pages 3 to 16 in “Managing the commons” edited by
John A. Baden and Douglas S. Nooman, with a forward by William
D. Ruckelshaus and published in 1998 by Indiana University Press
in Bloomington, Indiana.
c) “Case study research methods” written by Bill Gillham and
published in 2000 by Continuum in London.
d) “Biology” written by Peter H. Raven and George B. Johnson and
published in New York in 2002 by McGraw-Hill.
PART III:
THE THESIS PROJECT AND INTERNSHIP

CHAPTER EIGHT
KEY STEPS IN A THESIS RESEARCH PROJECT
8.0 Introduction
This chapter is concerned with conducting a thesis research project. It
begins with allocating time for thesis research tasks, and continues
through selecting a topic, formulating a research problem and reviewing
the literature, and concludes with writing a methodology chapter.
8.1 Allocating adequate time for thesis research tasks

Students often have a lot of stress when doing their research. This is
mostly due to the problem of allocating time for the various research tasks
(see Figure 8.1).
Figure 8-1: Inyang’s Research Clock

80 Chapter Eight
Inyang’s Research Clock is aimed at keeping students aware as to how far,

in visual terms, they are to the completion point. It can be stressful for a
student to realise that he or she is still left with a huge amount of work to
complete when the time to hand in the report is quickly approaching. This
is due to the fact that the student has failed to manage time strategically.
This clock is intended to guide the student in the proper allocation of
time for the various research tasks; that is, when he or she would have
completed a substantial amount of each task. The clock intervals are not
equal because they do not reflect the weight of work at each interval or
task level. Therefore, the student is left with the responsibility of assigning
dates to each interval—in the boxes provided—that reflect the amount of
workload estimated for each task.
8.2 Before selecting a thesis research topic

x Consult dissertations or theses written by previous students to see how
they formulated their topics and what they covered in their research;
x Consider real-life problems of interest;
x Study articles in journals, periodicals and other such literature sources,
to gain knowledge in a potential area of study.
8.3 Considerations in selecting a thesis research topic

a) Select a topic of interest, and which you have the prerequisite
knowledge and technical ability to handle;
b) The topic selected should address a problem or an issue that is
important for research;
c) Such a topic should also be researchable within the limits imposed by
time, space, and financial resources;
d) Consideration should be given also to whether there is someone
available to supervise the extended study of the topic; such a person
must also have interest and knowledge in the field chosen.
8.4 Selecting a research topic

Selecting a topic may be as easy as dreaming one up in a split second; or,
it may require several hours or days of brainstorming. Many researchers
use a “concept map” (Figure 8.2) to brainstorm and select a research topic.
Start by considering a problem area of interest and then stating it as a
broad topic (for example, “Poverty in Cameroon”). Place this broad topic
in a large circle at the centre and then brainstorm to come up with topics
Key Steps in a Thesis Research Project 81
related to it, and place them in smaller circles linked to it. Pick from the
related topics the one that appeals most and brainstorm again to come up
with topics linked to it.
Figure 8-2: Using a concept map to select a topic
Continue the exercise until the number of possible linked topics is as large
as possible. At this point a topic can be formulated. For example, based on
Figure 8.2, the topic may be “The effects of strikes on plantations in
southwest Cameroon: A case of the Cameroon Development Corporation.”
Or, it could be as simple as “The effects of strikes on plantations in
southwest Cameroon,” provided there are enough resources and time to
carry out the larger-scale research. Topics that are this broad in scope are
recommended more for postgraduate research.
82 Chapter Eight
8.5 Getting and working with a supervisor

After having decided on the topic, the next step is to select a supervisor.
Normally, it is the responsibility of the student’s department to find one.
The role of a supervisor is to guide the student’s research project, to
serve as the critical other and, therefore, to help shape ideas. The
supervisor draws up a schedule of work, which includes a meeting
schedule and when and how the draft thesis, long essay or project is to be
submitted for review.
Remember that the supervisor’s role is to guide the effort and not to do
the student’s project. Remember also that the supervisor is usually an
assessor or examiner as well. The quality of the work, coupled with a
respect for deadlines and the demonstration of learning can earn the
student high marks.
8.6 Developing a rationale or research problem

The “rationale” or “research problem”, also written separately as
“statement of the problem” and “significance of study” (see Appendix
1.1), is the first important step in any research endeavour. The “problem”
aspect of the rationale is the heart of any research effort, and should be
clearly stated. Every other thing about a research project originates from
and depends on it and, therefore, ample time should be dedicated to
developing it. The significance aspect of the rationale demonstrates how
important the research project is and what it will contribute in terms of
knowledge, policy formulation, and/or practice, with a proposal of new
lines of action to address pressing issues.
Example 8-1: Sample of a rationale or research problem
Conflicts between humans and wildlife are common in communities adjacent

to protected areas in Africa and elsewhere. A good number of causes of this
conflict have been identified, most of which are rooted in the incompatibility
of human activities with the ecological activities and behaviour of the
wildlife. Several strategies have been implemented to address the situation,
most with varying and not so encouraging long-term results.
In the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, the issue has become so
complex that the objectives of establishing this protected area stand the risk
of not being achieved. The Wildlife Conservation Society/Banyang-Mbo
Wildlife Sanctuary Project, acting in a technical and advisory role, is
charged with managing the area in collaboration with the government of
Cameroon and the local communities, using a community-based

conservation approach.
The project has invested a lot of resources, time and energy in an effort to
find practical ways of addressing the problem. It has even gone further by
extending goodwill to communities, in hopes of enlisting their cooperation in
tackling the problem. However, most of them continue to take measures that
are not only incompatible with the conservation objectives of the Wildlife
Sanctuary but evidently contribute to the perpetuation of the conflict, thereby
making the conservation of this important protected area rather problematic.
By carefully examining the views and concerns of the local communities
and placing them in juxtaposition with the factors and activities seen to
contribute to the problem and with the measures so far taken to address the
problem, it might be possible to gain useful insights that could inform the
creation of innovative strategies for encouraging community participation in
finding lasting solutions to the problem. Should those strategies work, a huge
contribution would have been made to knowledge about the perennial
problem of wildlife-human conflict on the African continent and elsewhere.
8.7 Formulating research questions

Research questions are those raised by a researcher considering a pertinent
problem. On one hand, they are an indication of the existence of a problem
that begs for a scientific investigation. On the other hand, they are an
extension of an already formulated research problem and serve to further
clarify it.
Example 8-2: Samples of research questions: Wildlife/human conflicts
The research will attempt to answer the following questions:
1. What are the differences and /or similarities in opinion between the
local communities and the project in regard to the species
considered to cause the most crop damage?
2. What factors contribute to the wildlife-human conflict in the
affected communities of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, and
in what ways do these factors contribute to the conflict, from the
communities’ and the project’s points of view?
3. What are the communities’ interpretations of the underlying causes
of the wildlife-human conflict, and what are the implications of
those interpretations for conservation at the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife
Sanctuary?
84 Chapter Eight
4. What strategies have so far been employed to address the situation,

and why and to what extent have these worked or not worked?
5. What further strategies can be employed to reduce the effects of the
conflict on the conservation efforts of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife
Sanctuary Project, and why are these thought to have the potential
to do so?
8.8 Formulating aim and objectives

The aim of a research project points to what is to be ultimately achieved as
a result of the research process, and the objectives are the incremental
goals or steps that will help in achieving the aim. The aim originates from
the rationale, or problem statement, and the objectives originate from, and
should be linked to, the aim. The aim and objectives should be expressed
with action-oriented verbs, such as identify, examine, assess, evaluate,
describe, develop, quantify, determine, ascertain, etc.
Example 8-3 Sample of aim and objectives: Wildlife/human conflicts
The aim of the research is to develop a better understanding of the factors

and issues involved in the wildlife-human conflict in affected communities
of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in Southwest Cameroon, with a
view to identifying appropriate strategies to reduce its effects on the
conservation efforts at the protected area. The research intends to achieve
the following objectives:
1. To identify the differences and/or similarities in opinion between

the local communities and the project in regard to the species
considered as the most destructive to farm crops at the Banyang-
Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary;
2. To identify the factors that contribute to the wildlife-human conflict
in the affected communities of the Banyang-Mbo;
3. To examine how these factors contribute to the conflict;
4. To examine the communities’ interpretations of the underlying
causes of the human-wildlife conflict and the implications of those
interpretations for the conservation of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife
Sanctuary;
5. To assess why the strategies so far employed to address the
situation have or have not been effective;
6. To identify strategies that could be further employed to reduce the
effects of the conflict on the conservation efforts of the project.
8.9 Formulating hypotheses

Hypotheses are answers or solutions proposed beforehand by a researcher
for eventual validation or rejection via data gathered from the proposed
scientific research. They are intelligent guesses or hunches about a
situation, an issue or a phenomenon. They are informed by theories,
results of past research, practical problems, observations, and common
sense or held beliefs.
There are two types of hypotheses—null hypotheses and research
hypotheses. A null hypothesis is one which states that there is no change,
no difference or no effect due to an action, while a research hypothesis
states that there is. There are three types of research hypotheses: the
hypothesis of difference, the hypothesis of point-prevalence, and the
hypothesis of association.
Example 8-4: Samples of hypotheses
Ho (Null hypothesis): The performance in public exams of students from

any community attending public schools is equal to that of those
attending private schools.
H1 (Research hypothesis 1): The performance in public exams of
students from any community attending public schools is not equal to
that of those attending private schools (hypothesis of difference).
students from any community attending public schools is that 30% of
those who sit for such exams pass and that for those attending private
schools 90% of those who sit for the exams pass (hypothesis of point-
prevalence).
students from any community attending public schools is three times
lower than that of those attending private schools (hypothesis of
association).
8.10 The literature review

The literature review is an important operation that runs through the entire
research process. It begins when the researcher identifies the research
problem and chooses the topic, and concludes only when he or she finishes
writing the research report. It can be accomplished in the following five
steps:
86 Chapter Eight
Step 1: Searching and selecting literature sources

Well-defined research questions enable the writer to decide on the type of
information that must be collected during the research. This is not limited
to only the data collected from the field; it also includes information on
what other researchers have found that is relevant to the topic. These
questions help determine which journals, books, reports, and so on, should
be consulted in order to obtain the information. The abstracts of journal
papers, the executive summaries of reports, and the introductions of books
will also demonstrate whether or not the right choices have been made.
Finally, references in the selected sources will help locate new titles that
must be consulted. Again, the literature review continues from the
beginning of the research process to the very end.
Step 2: Reading the literature sources

The researcher must dedicate ample time to read the selected journal
articles, papers, books (or book chapters), and reports. Key points or
passages that are relevant to the research topic should be highlighted or,
preferably, written down on sheets of paper. Writing directly on sheets of
paper is preferable because it preserves the printed pages. It also
eliminates extra work, as the writer must write down key points at some
point during the research. A well-organised bibliography should also be
created at this point. Assign an author number to every key point or
passage, and note the page number in order to avoid confusion later.
Step 3: Cutting and packing key points

Once an adequate number—say ten to twenty—of different sources have
been consulted, the cutting and packing of key points can begin. Key
points or passages, written on the sheets of paper, are cut into separate
cards, making sure that each card retains the author’s number and page
numbers from which the information was taken (one could write down the
full references to make the work even easier). The cards are then arranged
into packs, with each pack representing a literature source.
Step 4: Arranging key points into themes

During the course of reading, highlighting and cutting the key points and
passages into cards, the researcher is also sub-consciously generating
themes in which each logically belongs. These themes are written on
separate cards and posted on a wall chart. Taking one card pack at a time,
the researcher places each card under the appropriate theme. Themes may
require rewording or other revision to accommodate more cards; new
themes may be added where accommodation is not possible. At this
juncture, the themes can be arranged in an order that makes the most
sense.
Step 5: Composing key points into essays

Taking one theme at a time, the researcher then rearranges the cards
logically so that they begin to tell a story. Close attention to this story will
ensure that the cards that are in agreement or disagreement with each other
are placed next to one another.
Some of these key points or passages will fully or partially answer
some of the research questions; or, they may prove or disprove some of
the hypotheses. Gaps in knowledge, and targets for additional research,
may also be identified
After completing all of the above arrangements and considerations,
the next step is to compose an essay for each thematic area, citing the
authors appropriately. The ability to execute the literature review
effectively depends on how well ideas are organised and to what degree
critical analyses and arguments are based on evidence from the literature,
rather than on assumptions.
Example 8-5: Sample of reviewed literature
Below are (a) contents of bibliographic cards containing literature from

four different imaginary authors on the subject of the bush meat trade
followed by (b) a literature review from them.
a) Bibliographic cards
1. Bush meat trade in the coastal region

Johns Christopher, 2006, Journal of Conservation Science 10, 133—
145.
The volume of bush meat trade along the coastal region in still on the
increase (page 135).
2. The importance of bush meat trade in rural economy.

Abul James, Paul Oke, and Susan Awor 2004, Economic review 14,
100—121.
Bush meat trade has brought about a significant boom in the rural
economy (page 118).
88 Chapter Eight
3. Bush meat trade in the Savannah region

Asong Tanyi, 2006, Conservation Biology 18, 355—365.
The volume of bush meat trade is steadily decreasing in the Savannah
region due to over-hunting (page 350).
4. A comparative analysis of the effects of bush meat trade in selected

African regions.
Donald Mike, 2005, Journal of Conservation Science 5, 88—155.
Many rural African communities experienced a significant boom in
their economies due to increase in bush meat trade. However, this
welcome result is now shown to yield progressively negative outcomes
in the Savannah region due to over-hunting. The trade is steadily
dropping, and this situation is likely to be a common experience in
other regions within the next five years (page 100).
b) Review of the literature
Hunting is one of the major economic activities in the rural areas of

Africa. This activity has helped fuel the popular bush meat trade which,
according to James et al. (2004) and Mike (2005), has resulted in a
significant boom in the rural economy.
However, trade in bush meat is fast becoming not only a conservation
issue but also an economic problem. Although the volume is still on the
increase in the coastal region (Christopher 2006), a steady decrease is
already being experienced in the savannah region (Tanyi 2006). The
situation is attributed to over-hunting (Mike 2005; Tanyi 2006), which is
likely to become common in other regions within the next five years (Mike
2005).
Note:
1)“et al.” which appears immediately after the first author’s last
name and meaning “and others”, is used in subsequent citations when
there are three or more authors for a literature source, normally after
all authors’ last names have been given in the first citation.
2) Use the symbol “&” when authors’ names appear in parentheses,
for example:…(John & Mike 2000). Use the word “and” when the
names are part of the text, for example: John and Mike (2000)….
3) When citing authors using the author-date system and the
references are presented in the Harvard system, comas are not placed
between the authors and the dates. Therefore,…(Christopher 2006) is

correct while …(Christopher, 2006) is not acceptable.
8.11 Importance of the literature review

a) It summarises what has been done in your field of study and limits
repetition;
b) It highlights the extent to which the subject has been covered,
identifies gaps in knowledge and helps the researcher decide how to
focus the study and maximise the contribution to the research that
already exists;
c) It identifies possible areas for further research;
d) It outlines a good methodology for research, and exposes the strengths
and weaknesses of methodologies employed by previous researchers.
8.12 Theoretical, empirical and conceptual frameworks

Each research report (a project, a thesis, or a dissertation), as well as every
research proposal, has a chapter dedicated to the literature review. The
literature used in this chapter can be grouped into three categories:
theoretical literature, empirical literature and conceptual literature. These
categories are in turn developed into frameworks—theoretical framework,
empirical framework, and conceptual framework—that are commonly
interwoven and presented in the chapter in separate sections or as a single,
continuous piece. These frameworks can also be presented as distinct parts
of the chapter, though with the categories of literature still arranged in
themes within each part.
The theoretical framework consists of a body of literature built upon a
set of theories or issues related to the broad field of study. It references all,
or a good number of, the theories put forward to explain the relationships
between variables explored in previous studies and/or the implications of
the results of the studies. All research should highlight any limitations or
pitfalls in existing theories and, in doing so, call for modifications or
updates.
The empirical framework comprises the results or findings presented
and discussed in previous pertinent studies. It is an opportunity to
highlight and discuss the similarities and differences in the results of
previous studies, as well as to identify gaps in knowledge that need to be
filled, or new ground that needs to be broken.
The conceptual framework, which stems from the theoretical
framework, is a specific aspect of the latter that has become the basis of
90 Chapter Eight
the study. It is a set of theories and issues that are specific and that bring
focus. Informed by gaps in knowledge not only within the theoretical
framework but also within the empirical framework, the conceptual
framework is used to formulate a research problem.
However, this is not to suggest that a research problem must
necessarily originate from the theoretical framework. There are indeed
many situations where a research problem is inspired by observed natural
phenomena or societal problems. In this case, the literature review is done
to establish the theoretical and conceptual basis of the formulated
problem, which could, in turn, necessitate a modification or revision of the
problem statement. Thus, the study may provide an opportunity to add to
or modify existing theories and issues, thereby expanding and improving
the knowledge base in the field of study.
8.13 Developing a methodology

The reliability of research results depends on the application of a sound
methodology. It is of utmost importance, therefore, to provide adequate
details in the methodology chapter, as shown in Example 8-6 below:
Example 8-6: Sample of methodology chapter
In the generic research report format (see 9.1 and 9.2 in Chapter 9), the
methodology chapter is always Chapter 3. Therefore, the sections in this
example are supposed to be numbered 3.1 to 3.4.
The research strategy

The research used a cross-sectional study design in order to obtain
information on the prevailing situation. The survey method was employed
with the aim of rapidly gathering information that would give a fair picture
of the status quo. This was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 concentrated
on the literature review to obtain relevant information from documents
produced by the then-Korup project, and Phase 2 consisted of field work
marked by focused group interviews.
Sample and sampling strategy

A total of six communities were selected to equally represent the southern
and northern parts of the Korup National Park (see appendix X). The
selection also recognised the exposure of the communities to the Korup
project activities, as well as their impact on the national park.
Each community was given the freedom to select a total of fifteen

individuals (five men, five women and five youths) known to have
adequate knowledge and experience about the project to participate in the
research. However, far more than the expected number of participants
showed up in each community. All were allowed to participate in the
exercise, as this response had an extra advantage in that it provided an
opportunity to bring more diverse experiences and perspectives into the
discussions.
Data collection
The research started with a pilot study in the community of Ikondokondo.
The main purpose was to test the research instrument (interview schedule).
Furthermore, this part of the study also provided an opportunity to train a
research assistant. In addition, the study results necessitated a
reformulation and increase in the number of the research objectives, and
provided a basis for developing a frame of analysis.
The pilot study was followed by an extensive literature review that
ultimately provided much relevant information from reports, materials and
documents produced by the Korup project.
The field work made use of focus group interviews conducted by the
principal investigator, using an interview schedule (see Appendix XX).
Responses from each research participant were either accepted right away
as correct or debated and agreed upon by all the participants before they
were recorded by the research assistant in an agreed format.
Data analysis
The data from the interviews were edited through cross-validation with
information collected from the literature review. The consolidated data
were then subjected to partial content analysis, consisting of pulling
together and synthesising them into single tables or boxes to have a
holistic view of emerging patterns. Some of the (largely qualitative) data
were reduced to quantitative forms, through simple counts, for calculation
of percentages. Others were coded and subjected to simple statistical
operations, using Excel, for the production of graphs.
92 Chapter Eight
1. Why is literature review necessary in research?
2. What is the role of a supervisor in a thesis research project?
3. a) With two examples of each, distinguish between research questions
and hypotheses.
b) What are the functional differences between research questions
and hypotheses?
4. With the help of Inyang’s Research Clock, describe the key tasks in
a typical thesis research project.
5. Describe the process of literature review.
CHAPTER NINE
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL, A THESIS

AND AN INTERNSHIP REPORT
9.0 Introduction
As already noted, a research proposal is a document that describes the
complete plan of the research, including where, when and how it will be
conducted. A thesis, dissertation or project is a research report that
describes where, when and how the research was conducted, as well as the
findings and interpretations, implications and conclusions drawn from
them. The first part of the thesis includes the proposal, which is written to
indicate what “was” done rather than what “will be” done.
This chapter provides detailed descriptions of both a research proposal
and a thesis. It also touches on the research article, describes how to
defend a thesis, and offers some information about internship.
9.1 Anatomy of a research proposal

This section outlines a common structure, and highlights the various parts,
of a typical research proposal.
…Cover Page…
The information here includes the title of the proposal, the student’s name,
and other details. The student needs to check this with the library or an
academic advisor.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A table of contents lists the proposal’s main topics and subtopics, and
indicates the pages where these appear. These entries are usually aligned
on the right so that readers may locate the topics they want to read with
ease.
94 Chapter Nine
ABSTRACT
The abstract is a summary of the important aspects of the proposal. It
should include (1) an introduction, which describes where and when the
research will be conducted and the aim or purpose of the research project,
and (2) an overview of the methodology which details the methods and
tools that will be used to collect and analyse data. Although it is the last
section of the paper to be written, the abstract appears at the beginning of
the proposal.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The first chapter of the research proposal outlines your research plan and
introduces the questions and hypotheses at the centre of the study.
Study area
This section characterises the location(s) of the study. Important
information may range from a geographical description of the place to its
demographic, ethnic, socio-economic, political and cultural considerations.
However, in disciplines such as Literature, the study area is not always
physical—it may be ideological, especially when studying a piece of work
or works of an author or authors.
Study rationale
This is a clear and passionate description or statement of the problem. It
should also offer a convincing justification for the research in terms, for
instance, of its contribution to policy, knowledge and/or practice. This is
the foundation of a research proposal, and a lot of effort is usually required
to formulate and develop it. Therefore, it is the very first issue addressed
after selecting a research area and tentative topic. It often guides the
reformulation or fine-tuning of the topic. As mentioned earlier, the
rationale could be stated in two parts as “Statement of the problem” and as
“Justification of study”.
Research questions
This is a list of questions that stem from, and further clarify, the rationale
or research problem. They are the questions to which the researcher must
endeavour to find answers.
Aim and objectives of study

The aim of a research proposal is a general, inspirational statement
derived from the rationale, describing the goal of the research—what
knowledge will be discovered or what will be better-known as a result of
A Research Proposal, a Thesis and an Internship Report 95
the process. The objectives are the specific issues to be pursued. Closely
linked to the research questions, they are sub-statements derived from
and, in turn, supporting the aim. They are usually outlined in list form.
Hypotheses
These are initial, intelligent responses to the research questions. These
hypotheses must later be supported (validated) or disproved by evidence
and analysis presented in the paper.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review pulls together and interprets important statements
from various sources that are relevant to the area of study. These
statements are gathered mostly from published sources, and describe what
other researchers have found, their conclusions or assertions, and the
theories they have developed. It is important to identify agreements and
disagreements amongst the various authors, as well as any gaps in their
knowledge. These authors should be appropriately cited both within the
text and in the references.
Introduction
The introduction is built upon general statements from the literature, or
could be based almost entirely upon commentary about the reviewed
literature. It may be advisable to write this at the end of the review in order
to properly tie it in with the general body.
[The Main body]

Sub-topics can be framed and developed based on the themes emanating
from the literature. Some writers choose to complete the literature review
chapter in the form of a continuous essay— this is simply a matter of
choice.
Conclusion
The conclusion summarises the literature reviewed, and focuses on ideas
derived from the review or built on general conclusions from the literature.
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Research design
This section presents an overview of the research design(s) or strategy. It
references the methods used and the rationale for using them. It is
advisable to also offer a clear presentation of the research questions or
hypotheses as derived from the objectives.
96 Chapter Nine
Sample and sampling strategy

This section describes the portion or sample of the population and/or area
under study. It should include a statement as to whether the sample is
statistically or theoretically representative and acceptable. This section
also describes the technique(s) employed in selecting the sample from the
study population or area, and the justification for employing them.
Data collection
This part of the paper describes the methods and instruments used for
collecting data, descriptions of the procedures for collecting the data, and
the justification for using each.
Data analysis
This section describes how the data are manipulated into forms that make
the most sense. For example, it may describe a traditional colour coding
system that consists of manually highlighting substantive parts of
statements gathered from the field. It may instead describe the use of
computer programmes like Nudist and Ethnograph. Depending on the type
of data collected, this step may involve calculating final numerical values
and percentages, producing graphs, charts and tables or developing
descriptive, narrative or analytical statements.
Ethical considerations
These considerations include all arrangements and precautionary measures
undertaken before and during the course of the research, such as securing
the necessary permissions to carry out the research in the place selected,
protecting the identities of the questionnaire respondents and ensuring that
interviewees are not revealed, and guaranteeing that no one is negatively
affected by the results of the research.
Scope and limitations

The scope describes the relevant geographical, cultural, subject areas, and
so on, that will be covered by the study. The information on limitations
highlights the technical, financial, logistical, social, administrative or other
constraints likely to affect the conduct or results of the research. These
should be stated clearly and convincingly, and should include strategies to
address these constraints so that they do not seriously influence the
research results. These strategies provide further justification for conducting
the research.
REFERENCES
The references section should list all literature sources that were cited
within the text and used to inform the development of the proposal.
Formatting of the references section should reflect the appropriate and
recommended academic style.
TIMETABLE
The timetable shows a schedule for the research process, and includes the
time allocated for each step in that process. This is best presented in
tabular form, as shown in the Appendix of the sample research proposal
below.
REPORT OUTLINE
Students may be required to describe the form that the final report will
take; that is, its structural outline. The three chapters of the research
proposal are simply further developed and restructured to form the first
three chapters of the thesis, and the remaining chapters reference results, a
discussion of the results, and the writer’s conclusions and recommendations.
This, however, is, by no means, the only acceptable format; writers are
free to adopt the most appealing structure, provided that it follows the
logic of research. It should be noted that different academic departments
may recommend different formats, but these different formats follow the
same logical structure.
Note: The sections in a research proposal, like those of a research report

or thesis, are usually numbered. For example, for chapter 1, the sections
are numbered 1.1, 1.2, etc. This is not demonstrated throughout this book
in order to avoid confusion with its chapter numbering.
Example 9-1: Sample of a research proposal
(The sample given here does not follow the generic format described
above, just to illustrate that there are other formats for writing research
proposals. It is important to obtain the recommended format from the
library or an academic advisor).
98 Chapter Nine
Improving the role of the Rural Woman in the Socio-economic

Development of Africa: A case of Nguti Sub-Division in Southwest
Cameroon
Abstract
This proposal is for a field research that will be conducted in five
communities in Nguti Sub-Division in southwest Cameroon. The purpose
is to highlight the roles played by women in the socio-economic
development of the Sub-Division in particular and Cameroon at large, and
to address militating problems and issues.
A survey will be conducted in selected communities, with questionnaires
as the key data collection instrument, supplemented with observations and
semi-structured interviews. Quantitative data will be analysed using SPSS
and the qualitative bit will be analysed using content analysis.
Study Area
Nguti Sub-Division is in Kupe Muanenguba Division in the South West
Region of Cameroon, a country that is blessed with natural resources but
which has remained one of the poorest in Africa.
Cameroon has ten Regions, and the South West, though one of the
richest in terms of natural and human resources, is clearly one of the
poorest in the country. It is no surprise, therefore, that Nguti Sub-Division
is one of the poorest, with more than 60% of its communities inaccessible
by road.
The principal economic activities in the Sub-Division are hunting,
farming and collection of non-timber forest products, such as bush mango
(Inyang 2002). Women are engaged mainly in the last two activities, and
also combine these with some petty trading in game meat and non-timber
forest products.
The Research Problem

Though not adequately recognised and encouraged, due perhaps to limited
and reduced impact, the rural African woman has always played a
significant role in the socio-economic development of the continent. In
Cameroon, particularly Nguti Sub-Division, she faces a lot of problems in
the execution of this role, due largely to what appears to be financial,
social, religious, cultural and political constraints. This situation is
explained by (Krantz 2001) who asserts that gender is an aspect of social
relations and that the fact that relations between men and women are
characterised by inequality and social domination, they form part of the
problem.
Fortunately, there is increasing global effort to improve the life of the

African woman and to give her adequate opportunity to perform her roles
in ways that would make her create more visible socio-economic impact
on the community in which she lives in particular and on the continent at
large.
However, this plausible effort may not yield the intended results on a
sustainable basis until there is proper understanding of the issues
underlying the obvious marginalisation faced by the woman in the first
place, which could suggest more appropriate ways of addressing them.
The research, therefore, should be able to inform policy and practice in
efforts aimed at addressing issues of women’s marginalisation and
empowerment.
Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to highlight the roles played by the women of
Nguti Sub-Division in the socio-economic development of this Sub-
Division in particular and Cameroon at large, and to expose the issues that
underlie their marginalisation and powerlessness in the socio-economic
domain. Specifically, the objectives are to:
1) Identify the roles played by the women of Nguti Sub-Division in

the domain of socio-economic development;
2) Examine the problems that underlie their marginalisation and
powerlessness in that domain, and
3) Propose practical measures that would raise them from that
marginalised and powerless position.
Literature Review
(This is simply to illustrate how to plan the areas to be covered by the
literature review chapter; in doing a proposal the student needs to write
the full review). The main literature review will concentrate, starting from
the general to the specific areas, on: 1) the role of the woman, the rural
woman, and/or the rural African woman in socio-economic development,
2) cultural, religious, economic and political constraints on the woman, the
rural woman and/or the rural African woman in the socio-economic
domain, and 3) current efforts aimed at improving the life of the woman,
at global, regional and/ or local levels.
100 Chapter Nine
Methodology
A survey will be conducted in five communities in the Nguti Sub-Division
of southwest Cameroon using questionnaires as the key instruments of
data collection. This will be supplemented with observations and semi-
structured interviews in order to dig into the underlying issues.
The communities will be selected using the stratified random sampling
technique to ensure that the main ethnic groups and key economic sectors
of the Sub-Division are included. Within each selected community, a
number of women will be selected to equally represent at least 50% of the
households. Selection of households will be done using the random
sampling technique in order to give each household an equal chance of
being selected.
The quantitative data collected from the questionnaires will be
subjected to statistical analysis using SPSS, with particular attention to
frequency distribution, cross-tabulation, and correlation of key variables
(Inyang 2005). The qualitative data that may be contained in the
questionnaires and those largely obtained from observations and semi-
structured interviews will be analysed using the content analysis described
by Gillham (2000).
References (should start on a new page)

Gillham, B. 2000. Case Study Methods. London: Continuum.
Inyang, E. 2002. The Effects of Wildlife-human Conflict on
Conservation Initiatives: A case of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife
Sanctuary in Southwest Cameroon. An MSc thesis presented to the
University of Strathclyde.
—. 2005. Doing academic assignments. Limbe: The Cure Series
Publishers.
Krantz, L. 2001. The sustainable livelihood approach to poverty
reduction: An introduction. London: Sida.
Appendix: Timetable (should start on a new page)
9.2 Anatomy of a thesis

This section describes the structure and various elements of a typical
thesis, and highlights each of those elements.
…Cover Page…
See 9.1
...Title page…
This contains the same information as appears on the cover page.
PRESENTATION
The student needs to ask for the appropriate statement from the library or
an academic advisor.
…Copyright page…
The appropriate copyright statement will differ from university to
university, and, in all cases, will reflect the copyright laws of the local
country. Therefore, it is best for the student to request information about
the appropriate statement from the university librarian or an academic
advisor.
102 Chapter Nine
CERTIFICATION
This is a certification by the student’s supervisor and the faculty dean that
the thesis conforms to acceptable standards. The statement can be obtained
from the library or an academic advisor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This section allows the student to thank all those who helped during his or
her academic career and the research work.
DEDICATION
The student may choose to dedicate, with a few brief words, the thesis to
some person or persons.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
See 9.1
ABSTRACT
See 9.1. But in a thesis, the sentences are rewritten to reflect what was
done rather that what will be done. Also, there is an expansion to include
(1) the key results and attempted discussions and interpretations of them,
and (2) the main conclusions and recommendations made, if any.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
See 9.1, but usually with additional details.
LITERATURE REVIEW
See 9.1, but usually with additional literature.
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
See 9.1, but note that it is rewritten to reflect what was done rather than
what will be done, usually, but not necessarily, with additional details.
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
All findings based on the analysed data are presented here and in a logical
format. They may be presented in sub-topics as derived from the themes
arising out of the analysed data. The results might be displayed in the form
of graphs, charts, or tables and supported by some explanatory statements,
as necessary, or as narrative or descriptive presentations further illustrated
with pictures or diagrams. In some cases, a combination of both of the
above methods may be used, especially when the research combines both
quantitative and qualitative approaches.
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

This section interprets the study’s results in the light of other researchers’
statistical, experiential, or theoretical observations. For advanced degrees,
the author must compare and contrast his or her findings with those of
previous studies; in some cases, it is advisable to include this aspect for
undergraduate theses.
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions based on the results and discussion, as well as any
recommendations for other professionals and researchers or policymakers
appear in this section.
REFERENCES
This includes all literature sources, cited within the text, that informed the
research work.
Example 9-2 Sample of a thesis
The first three sections of a typical research proposal—the introduction,

the literature review and the methodology outline—are discussed above.
Most academic theses also begin with these three sections, but then are
expanded to include three additional content blocks.
Below are examples of these three critical topics: a description of the
research results, a discussion of those results, and a section devoted to the
author’s conclusions and recommendations. In an effort to save space,
only an abridged version of each section is presented.
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The wild animals in conflict with humans at Banyang-Mbo
The survey and case study highlighted the main similarities and
differences between local communities and the project regarding what
were considered to be the major crop raiding species at Banyang-Mbo. Of
the eight different raider species identified to damage crops in the area,
villagers reported only three (squirrels, bush pigs and cane rats) causing
problems in all the twelve target communities (Figure 4.1). However, they
considered elephants as the most destructive raiders, followed by cane rats
and bush pigs. The reverse was the case from the standpoint of the project,
which regarded cane rats as the most destructive, followed by bush pigs
and elephants (Figure 4.1).
104 Chapter Nine
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1: Comparison of (a) villagers’ and (b) project’s perceptions of the level
of destructiveness of the identified crop-raiders
There were reported cases of severe crop damage by elephants in Tali 1,

Ntenmbang and Ntale, followed by less severe cases in Defang and
Fotabe. Although the communities observed that cane rats and bush pigs
were more regular on the farms and should have therefore caused far more
crop damage in the long run, they perceived as greatest the destruction by
the rather seasonal elephants. This had led to their conclusion that crop
damage levels were largely determined by the presence or absence of these
animals. Another interesting result of the study was that crop damage by
elephants was restricted more or less to communities on the periphery of
the wildlife sanctuary, with Bambe and Bejange as the only exceptions
(see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Crop-raiders identification in the twelve target communities (not in

ranking order)
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The ecological context of the wildlife-human conflict
Both the local communities and the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary
Project identified elephants, cane rats and bush pigs as the major crop
raiders at the sanctuary. The study has also highlighted the fact that crop
raiding by elephants was restricted to communities close to that area. This
phenomenon seemed to have been largely influenced by the high levels of
poaching in the sanctuary. The poaching might have influenced the
ranging behaviours of these animals and increased their number of
encounters and amount of raiding in cultivated fields.
The exceptions of Bambe and Bejange (the communities closest to the
sanctuary) could have been due to natural barriers, such as mountains or
rivers with steep banks between the sanctuary and the communities.
However, this remains to be confirmed because no studies have been
conducted to find out why.
Other factors might have also influenced the crop-raiding behaviour of
elephants. For example, the small size of the sanctuary (620 km2), relative
to elephants’ home ranges of 350 – 600 km2, might have accounted for the
high frequency of observations of fresh signs of these animals in the area.
This could give a false impression of high elephant populations which
would then provide justification for employing methods that help reduce
these to minimise their crop raiding impact.
The communities and the project also considered the isolated pattern of
farming to have influenced crop raiding, although this was not seen by the
villagers to be of any significance when considering elephant crop raiding.
There may not be any major differences between the secondary growth
resulting from logging activities, where elephant crop-raiding is generally
known to be high, and the secondary vegetation due to the isolated pattern
of farming, since both involve a period of deforestation followed by that of
forest regeneration. Therefore, it may be true that this pattern of farming
might have also led to greater crop raiding by elephants. This point is
supported by the fact that the villagers reported that elephants preferentially
raided farms overgrown with umbrella trees and most preferred shrubs.
Patches of secondary vegetation between farms—the products of the
isolated pattern of farming in the area—are known to influence crop
raiding by these animals. These forest patches provide not only suitable
habitats for all the raider species but also breeding grounds for the smaller
ones. These patches also provide safe refuges where smaller species hide
during periods of high risk (e.g. daytime) and dash into the farms at safer
moments to feed on cultivated crops.
106 Chapter Nine
In addition to the patches of secondary vegetation, irregular weeding of

farms was seen to encourage crop raiding by cane rats. These are
reportedly shy animals, and the bushy farms clearly favour their ecological
behaviour. The animals find it safe to visit the farms as they can hide
under the additional vegetation cover while feeding on the crops.
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Crop-raiders and their spatial impacts at Banyang-Mbo
Wild animals caused a big problem at Banyang-Mbo, with elephants, cane
rats and bush pigs identified as the major raider species.
Cane rats and bush pigs were observed in all the communities to cause
considerable damage, mainly to food crops, whereas elephants damaged
both food and cash crops in most villages located near the wildlife
sanctuary.
Cane rats and bush pigs have no crop raiding seasons, but elephants
raid crops during the wet season. Villagers strongly believed that elephants
were the most difficult to control of all the raider species.
They also perceived crop raiding levels to be determined by the
presence or absence of elephants as they, unlike the project, considered
these animals to be the most destructive—this despite the general
observation that bush pigs and cane rats had longer periods of crop raiding
and should therefore cause more overall damage.
Source: Modified and abridged from Inyang, E. 2002. The effects of

wildlife-human conflict on conservation initiatives: A case of the
Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in southwest Cameroon.
Example 9-3: Format of a thesis
After considering the anatomies of a research proposal and thesis, it should

now be clear what a thesis format or structure looks like. Different
departments recommend different formats, and it is advisable for the
student to ask from his or her department the appropriate format to adopt.
Below is a generic format.
Cover materials
x Title page
x Presentation page
x Copyright page
x Thesis certification page
x Acknowledgements
x Dedication (optional)
x Table of contents
x Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction
x Study area
x Statement of the problem
x Research questions
x Aim and objectives of study
x Hypotheses (optional)
x Significance of study
Chapter 2: Literature Review
x Introduction
x …, etc
x Conclusion
Chapter 3: Methodology
x The research strategy
x Sample and sampling strategy
x Data collection
x Data analysis
x Ethical considerations
x Limitations of study
Chapter 4: Results
x Introduction
x …, etc
x Conclusion
Chapter 5: Discussion of Results
x Introduction
x …, etc
x Conclusion
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

x Conclusions
x Recommendations
References
Appendices (as necessary)

108 Chapter Nine
9.3 Anatomy of a research paper

The essence of research is to gain new knowledge. This knowledge is
usually shared with other researchers, or with policy-makers and
practitioners, through publication of papers or articles in scientific
journals. An article submitted to a journal must go through a peer review
system. This is to ensure that everything in the article—from the title to
the references—is factually, technically, scientifically and grammatically
correct. It is common to see a draft article returned to the author several
times before it is accepted for publication. Even the structure of the article
may need to be revised completely. Below is a common format for a
research article:
Abstract
The research paper abstract should be 100 to 120 words in length,
containing a sentence or two each from the paper’s introduction,
methodology, results and discussion sections.
Introduction
The introduction should focus on the problem under study, the literature
review and the rationale of the study.
Methodology
This section provides information on the sample, sample size and sampling
techniques, as well as on research procedures and data collection and
analysis instruments.
Results
The paper’s findings—including tables, graphs, and so on—may be placed
directly in the text, or at the end of the paper. If the latter approach is used,
the figures must be referenced within the text.
Discussion
Here, the author should provide interpretation of, or comments on, the results
of the study, stating whether and how those results contribute to increased
knowledge of the problem. Relationships between the results and past
research or theory should also be discussed.
Note that the Results and Discussion sections of the paper could be
combined if the discussion is brief and greater clarity is better achieved by
the combination.
Conclusion
The conclusion summarises key findings and their implications.
References
A list of the literature cited, presented in the recommended style, is the focus
of this section.
Appendices
The appendices, if any, present materials that would otherwise clutter or
interrupt the flow of the paper’s main body.
9.4 Internship and internship report

Students of some university departments or professional institutions are
often required to undergo internships in selected establishments (other
institutions, ministries, organisations, companies, industries, workshops,
and so on). The purpose is to afford students opportunities to gain work
experiences. This means that the intern is expected to work for the
establishment, often without any form of remuneration.
Interns are normally provided with an orientation that includes a brief
historical discussion about the establishment, the objective and structure of
the establishment, how the establishment functions, expected duties, a tour
of the establishment, and so on. Interns are also assigned a supervisor
whose role is to assign tasks, supervise and correct the tasks carried out,
and assess task-specific and overall performances. Internship exposes the
student to job opportunities; it is, therefore, important to exert the very
best and demonstrate a dedication to whatever is assigned.
Interns may discover that supervisors may demand that things be done
in some particular way—a way different from what that student was taught
or using methods the student may feel are inappropriate. If this happens,
the intern should simply pay attention and note the different approaches.
However, it remains important to ask questions, for clarification and to
learn. For those who have no work experience, the internship is the first
opportunity to see the links or gaps between theory and practice. It also
exposes the intern to current and more practical methods and applications.
The intern will be expected to submit a report to his or her academic
department at the end of the experience. A diary should be kept in order to
note the work done every day, the difficulties encountered, how those
difficulties were overcome, and observations of how people interact and
work in the establishment. There should also be a weekly summary of the
diary, which should include the intern’s reflection on the activities and
110 Chapter Nine
experiences.
While the intern is sometimes given an internship report format, most
often he or she is expected to develop one based on the nature of the
assignment at the establishment. In fact, there is no standard format for an
internship report. Example 9.3 is one proposed format.
Example 9-4 Anatomy of an internship report
Introduction
The introduction includes opening statements about the importance of, and
the home institution’s policy on, the internship experience, where and
when the internship occurred, and its main and specific objectives.
Establishment used for internship

The report should describe where the establishment is found, when and
why it was created, its current staff strength, organisational structure,
activities, and achievements to date, as well as a description of the specific
area or areas where activities are carried out.
Activities and methods

This section provides a description of the key activities carried out during
the internship, how they were carried out, and the results, if any.
Observations and lessons learned

A discussion of observations, and what was learnt from them, should also
be included.
Conclusion and recommendations

Finally, the internship report should offer a summary of key findings and
recommendations for improvement.
9.5 Hints on oral presentation of a thesis

Doctoral, Masters and, quite recently—though not frequently—Diploma
and Certificate level students of professional institutions are required to
make oral presentations of their research to a panel of judges, generally
referred to as vivo and known in common parlance as “thesis defence.”
This is often a time when students tremble—but this should not be the
case! Instead, it should be a time to celebrate because it is a rare
opportunity and a special honour for them.
It is a common practice for researchers to share the results of their

studies with other practitioners in workshops or conferences, because it is
important for others to learn about new findings. In the same way, every
institution recognises the importance of research and would not want to
hide the results of their students’ efforts. This is one reason why students
must share their research results with the panel of judges and others who
are available to learn.
To prepare for the vivo, the student is advised to imagine that he or she
has been asked to share knowledge of something very special—something
no one else knows about, and something which people are begging to
learn. Students undergoing the thesis defence must have facts at their
fingertips, and must understand their own research projects in such detail
that they can present these as though they are relating their story to a group
of interested individuals. And, in telling the story, the student must
maintain eye contact with the audience (including the panel of judges) in a
manner that portrays confidence in the exercise. Of course, he or she must
convince the audience that the work is original and not copied from
another.
Also important is to decide what aspects of the thesis story are most
important and most interesting. It is not possible to present every detail in
the thesis, so key points under the following headings should be the focus:
Introduction
Start by greeting the panel of judges, beginning with the chairperson, in as
lively but formal a manner as possible. Then announce the research topic
to the presentation.
Problem statement
Provide a summary statement of the problem addressed and why it was
considered important for the study.
Aim and Objectives

Present the aims and objectives of your research project.
Methodology
Offer a few words about the sample population or area, sampling
techniques, data collection and analysis methods, and the chronology of
the research.
Results
Present the key findings and discuss them.
112 Chapter Nine
Conclusion and recommendations

This stage of the presentation should include only the main conclusions
and recommendations suggested in the study, including contributions to
knowledge.
Note: Be sure to finish the presentation within the time allocated for it!
And after the presentation, expect questions from members of the panel.
Again, this should not cause panic! Note that even though the panel is set
up to examine the paper and the author, the members are also interested
in, and are using the opportunity to learn from, the research. Therefore,
they normally must ask for some clarification, just as students ask their
teachers for further explanation when necessary.
1. What are the structural differences between a research proposal and
a thesis?
2. You have just finished writing your thesis and are preparing for
your defence. Outline the parts you will present and discuss how
you will prepare yourself.
3. What is a research article and what is its purpose?
4. Discuss the importance of internship and how you should conduct
yourself during this exercise.
Avoiding lies, half-truths or inverted truths in publications
Did you read the poem at the very beginning of this book? Have you
understood it well? A research journey helps one to avoid telling lies, half-
truths or inverted truths either inadvertently or deliberately.
Lies, half-truths or inverted truths are commonly told in everyday
conversations, to spice these up, as it were; but also in instances of self-
defense or settling of scores, and in private or official correspondences and
communiques, etc., often with neutral or negative (but rarely with
positive) effects on individuals, communities, and so on.
However, the worst lies, half-truths or inverted truths are those
published in reports, legal and policy documents, theses, papers, books,
etc. These can mislead and stagnate, if not destroy, generation after
generation.
As a child, I believed in whatever was published the way we believe in
what is contained in holy books. Today children still hold this strong belief
and would tell even their highly educated parents, "No, Dad/Mum, I am
correct; I read that in...."
It takes a lot of experience and critical observation to be able to
decipher lies, half-truths or inverted truths in published works, be these in
the form of words, pictures, drawings, flow charts, tables, graphs, etc.
Therefore, deliberately telling lies, half-truths or inverted truths in
publications is nothing short of committing intellectual genocide which, in
some instances, may lead to socioeconomic genocide and/ or downright
physical genocide.
Ekpe Inyang, 3 July 2017

APPENDICES
Appendix A: From problem statement to research

instruments
As noted earlier, a rationale can be written separately as “problem
statement” and “significance of study,” though they are usually not placed
next to each other in the text. By now it should be clear that formulating a
rationale or problem statement is not an easy task. Still, this aspect is the
heart of the research project. If it is not well-constructed, then what
follows will definitely be faulty. It is for this reason that the extra example
below is provided. It serves to guide the writing of a rationale separately as
“problem statement” and “significance of study.” It also provides an
opportunity to see the link between research instruments and study
objectives or research questions.
Appendix A-1 Problem statement

The problem of cohabitation has become a common phenomenon amongst
University students in X (country), as elsewhere. The situation in the
University of Y in X has taken on such an unprecedented dimension that
there is an urgent need to find ways of addressing it.
It is known that the practice is one of the factors that contribute to the
generally low academic performance amongst students and falling
standards in the University of Y. But the motivation behind the
relationship and the atmosphere around it that would have contributed to
the poor performance and the extent to which it contributes to the situation
are not well understood.
It is, perhaps, due to the insufficient knowledge about its contribution
to the situation that the attention of the authorities of the University of Y
has not been drawn to the issue of rampant cohabitation amongst the
students, despite the increasing cases of students getting involved in some
academic malpractices, spending more years on their courses than
required, or dropping out of school. There is no underscoring that such
students feel really frustrated, and may become social liabilities and
constitute a source of problems for the University.
116 Appendices
Appendix A-2 Research questions

1. What factors encourage cohabitation amongst the students of the
University of Y?
2. What is the nature of the relationship and what atmosphere
characterises it?
3. What are the psychological, social and economic impacts of the
relationship on the students involved?
4. How and to what extent has the relationship contributed to the
academic performances of the students?
Appendix A-3 Main objective

The main objective of the study was to explore the motivation behind the
practice of cohabitation amongst the students of the University of Y,
exposing its psychological, social, economic and academic impact on
them, with a view to informing the formulation of policies and action
plans to address the situation.
Appendix A-4 Specific objectives

The specific objectives were to:
1. Identify the factors that encourage cohabitation amongst the students of

the University of Y;
2. Examine the nature and atmosphere that characterise their relationships;
3. Assess the immediate impact (psychological, social, economic) the
relationship has on them;
4. Determine how the relationship has contributed to their academic
performance, and
5. Determine to what extent the relationship has contributed to their
academic performance
Appendix A-5 Significance of study

Cohabitation amongst University students is, in large measure, a social
problem that seems to have far-reaching effects on both the University
system and society at large. By exploring the issue in great detail,
exposing its magnitude and extent to which it contributes to the relatively
poor academic situation in the University of Y, the results of the study
could draw the attention of the authorities of the institution to it and place
Doing Academic Research 117
them in an informed position to formulate policies and take measures

aimed at addressing the situation. It could also motivate involved students
to reassess their situation and take meaningful steps to redress it, as well as
prevent susceptible students from falling into the same situation. Overall,
the study would contribute to a better, deeper understanding of the practice
as a social phenomenon.
Appendix A-6 Interview guide

1. Personal details
2. Cohabitation: when started, reasons and experience
3. Academic performance before cohabitation
4. Academic performance after cohabitation
Appendix A-7 Interview schedule

1. Sex……………………….
2. Age………………………
3. What is your level (year) in the University at the moment?
4. When did you enrol into the University?
5. What is your assessment of your academic performance now? What is
your GPA?
6. What do you think accounts for your present academic performance?
7. When did you start cohabiting?
8. Why did you choose to cohabit? Do your parents know about it? If not,
do you intend to make them know about it? Why or why not?
9. What is your experience with cohabitation? How has it affected you
psychologically, socially, and economically? What are you doing now
that you were not doing before? What are you not doing now that you
were doing before?
10. What is your assessment of your academic performance before
cohabitation? What were your O-Level and A-Level grades? What was
your GPA then?
Appendix A-8 Questionnaire

I am Joseph Awor, a final-year student of the University of Y. I am
presently conducting research on cohabitation amongst undergraduate
students and the impact on their academic performance. The aim is to
inform the formulation of policies and encourage measures that could
address the situation, if it is seen to have any negative impact. Please, give
118 Appendices
your very honest responses to the questions below by checking the

appropriate boxes with an “X” and providing short statements in the
spaces provided. All responses will be treated in strict confidence.
1. Sex:
Male
Female
2. Age:
Below 18
18
Above 18
3. Academic Level:
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
4. Year enrolled into the University .........................................................
5. What is your present GPA? ................................................................ .
6. What do you think accounts for your present performance? (Tick one
only)
Illness
Lack of finance
Disturbance in relationship
Mutual love and care
7. Which year did you start cohabiting?...................................................
8. Why did you choose to cohabit? (Tick only the most important
reason)
Financial help
Social protection
Imitation of friends
Find lasting partner
9. Do your parents know about the relationship?

Yes
No
10. If “no” to Q. 9, do you intend to let them know?

Yes
No
11. If “yes” to Q.10, why? (Please, be brief) ..........................................
12. If “no” to Q.10, why not? (Please, be brief) .......................................
13. What is your overall experience with cohabiting?

Positive
Negative
14. If positive, what is the impact on you? (Tick only the most
important to you)
Sense of fulfilment
Financial stability
Feeling of security
Rise in social status
15. If negative, what is the impact on you? (Tick only the most
important to you)
Disappointment
Financial instability
Distraction from study
Social embarrassment
16. What are you doing now that you were not doing before? (Tick
only one)
Dedication to study
Frequent partying
17. What are not doing now that you were doing before? (Tick only
one)
Dedication to study
Frequent partying
18. How would you assess your academic performance before

cohabitation?
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
120 Appendices
19. What grades did you score in your O’Level subjects? .......................
20. What grades did you score in your A’Level subjects? .......................
21. What was your GPA before cohabitation? .........................................
Thank you so much for taking the time

off to complete this questionnaire.
Appendix B: Observation form

122 Appendices
Appendix C: Interrogating the text in text analysis

Part A: Ahidjo’s consultations before the Referendum
“On 6 May 1972. after...responsible for their own destiny.”
x Who was Ahmadou Ahidjo?

x What was his position within the Political Bureau of the CNU?
x Why was the CNU set up?
x What was the position of the National Assembly in the government
system of Cameroon?
x Why was it necessary for Ahidjo to obtain the permission of the
National Assembly?
x What made it clear that Ahidjo’s decision to revise the constitution
would not be frustrated by the National Assembly?
x Why was it necessary for Ahidjo to consult the people before holding
the 1972 Referendum?
x Which system of government was put in place in Cameroon after the
liquidation of the federal structure?
x What was the effect of the Unitary system on West Cameroon?
x What reasons did Ahidjo advance for the liquidation of the federal
structure?
Part B: The legal basis of the 1972 Referendum

“Law No. 69/LF/15 of 10 November 1969...already inbuilt in the
constitution.
x What was the legal and constitutional basis for the organisation of
Referendum of 1972?
x How was Law No. 69/LF/15 of November 1969 consistent with the
Federal constitution?
x How does the law show that accusations of the May 20 Referendum
were bogus and unconstitutional?
x Why did Law No. 69/LF/14 of 10 November 1969 reduce the period of
publication of the bill from 30 to 10 days?
x How did Ahidjo put in place strategies to maximise power?
Part C: The bitterness, divisiveness, and tribalism of West Cameroon

politics
“The disunity was so...should not all come from the Grassfields”
x What was the geographical nature of the political division amongst

West Cameroon?
x Which parties were involved in this bitter rivalry?
x What was the source of this disunity?
x Why did the CPNC leaders want to take the government from the
Grassfields region?
x How did they intend to go about this?
x How did the activities of the gendarmes portray the style of Ahidjo’s
regime?
x How did their activities reveal the relationship between Anglophone
and Francophone Cameroon?
x Who was Dr. Endeley?
x What was his place in the history of West Cameroon politics?
124 Appendices
Appendix D: Matching research methods with data

collection and analysis
Appendix E: Steps in data analysis
Source: Modified from Kumar, R. 1999. Research methodology: a step-by-step

guide for beginners. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
126 Appendices
Appendix F: Academic reports sample pages

Appendix F-1 Essay cover page
…UNIVERSITY OF...
FACULTY/SCHOOL OF...
DEPARTEMENT OF...
COURSE CODE:…………...............................
COURSE TITLE:…………...............................
COURSE INSTRUCTOR:…..………………...
TOPIC:………………...………………………
PRESENTED BY:
…NAME OF STUDENT…
(…registration number…)
…submission date…
Appendix F-2 Thesis cover/title page
…TOPIC…
Appendix F-3 Thesis presentation page
…UNIVERSITY OF…
FACULTY/SCHOOL OF……
…topic…
(…registration number…)
SUPERVISOR:………………………………..
A THESIS PRESENTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF….
…submission date…
Appendix F-4 Thesis certification page
I certify that I have read this study and that in my

opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of
scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree
of………………….
…signature…
…Name…
Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my

opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of
scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree
of………………….
…signature…
…Name…
Dean/Director, Faculty/School of……
128 Appendices
Appendix G: SWOT analysis grid

SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats.
Strengths and Weaknesses are internal while Opportunities and Threats are
external to an entity being analysed. The analysis is commonly used for
the understanding of individuals, groups of individuals, communities,
organisations and institutions but often left at the level of developing the
SWOT, without going into the analysis, either due to time constraint or
ignorance as to the purpose of the exercise. The primary goal of SWOT
analysis is to gain a firm understanding of what is going on within the
entity and formulate strategies for improving the status quo.
SWOT ANALYSIS
SWOT Analysis Strategy Implementation
of strategy
Strengths Contributing Effects How to When By
(internal) factors maintain whom
(internal and/ or improve
or external)
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
Weaknesses Contributing Effects How to When By
(internal) factors reduce or whom
(internal and/ remedy
or external)
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
Opportunities Contributing Effects How to When By
(external) factors take whom
(internal and/ advantage
or external) of
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
Threats Contributing Effects How to When By
(external) factors reduce or whom
(internal and/ eliminate
or external)
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bell, J. 1999. Doing your action research: a guide for first-time

researchers in education and social science. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Cooper, D. R. and Schindler, P. S. 2003. Business research methods. New
York: McGraw-Hill & IRWIN.
Cozby, P. C. 2001. Methods in behavioural research (7th edition). New
York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Dunn, S. D. 2001. Statistics and data analysis for the behavioral sciences.
New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Edwards, A. and Talbot, R. 1999. The hard-pressed researcher: a
research handbook for caring professionals. New York: Addison
Wesley Longman Publishing.
Etim E. 2006. The socio-economic impact of the Korup Project on the
Korup ethnic communities. A B.A. thesis presented to the University
of Buea, Cameroon.
Fowler, F. J. 2002. Survey research methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Gillham, B. 2000 a. Developing a questionnaire. London: Continuum.
—. 2000 b. Case study research methods. London: Continuum.
Grinnell, R (ed.). 1993. Social work, research and evaluation (4th
edition). Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
Inyang, E. 2001. Community drama as instrument for community
sensitisation and mobilisation. To appear in Jua, R.M. (ed.). Emerging
perspectives on Anglophone Cameroon drama and theatre: 1950 to the
present (in press.).
—. 2002. The effects of wildlife-human conflict on conservation
initiatives: a case of the Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in southwest
Cameroon. An MSc dissertation presented to the University of
Strathclyde, UK.
—. 2007. Korup National Park environmental education feasibility study.
A consultancy report submitted to the World Wide Fund for Nature.
Kumar, R. 1999. Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for
beginners. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Leedy, P. D. and Ormrod, J. E. 2001. Practical research: planning and
design. Saddle River: Prentice Hall, Inc.
130 Bibliography
Mason, J. 1998. Qualitative researching. London: Sage Publications.

Ngoh, V. J. 2004. Dismantling the federal system. In Ngoh, V. J. (ed.).
Cameroon from a federal to a unitary State 1961—1972: a critical
study. Limbe: Design House.
Siegel, A. F. 1997. Practical business statistics (3rd edition). London:
IRWIN.
Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research. California: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Sutherland, W.J. 2000. The conservation handbook: research,
management and policy. Cambridge: Blackwell Science.
Vaus, D. 2002. Analysing social science data: 50 key problems in data
analysis. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Vaus, D. A. 1991. Surveys in social research. North Sydney: Allen &
Unwin Pty Ltd.
White, E and Edwards, A. (eds.). 2000. Conservation research in the
African rainforests: a technical handbook. New York: Wildlife
Conservation Society.
INDEX
Abstract, 94, 102 Descriptive research, 20

Academic writing, 61, 62, 69 design, 12, 15, 22, 23, 24, 25, 35, 44
Accuracy, 62 detached observation, 28
aim, 12, 43, 84, 90, 94, 99, 117 diary, 109
American Psychological dissertation, 49, 64, 89, 93, 129
Association, 70, 72 editing, 65
Analysing the text, 49 empirical, 6, 89, 90
analytical, 1, 37, 96 empirical framework, 89, 90
APA, 70, 71, 72, 76 endnotes, 71
Appendices, 107, 109 Ethical considerations, 96, 107
Appendix, 27, 28, 37, 44, 45, 48, 82, Ethnograph, 96
97, 101, 115, 116, 117, 121, 122, evidence, 7, 16, 61, 62, 63, 69, 70,
124, 125 87, 95
Applied research, 20 examination papers, 1
Archival research, 26 Excel, 42, 91
Attribute variables, 38 Extraction, 26
axis, 39 findings, 7, 16, 21, 61, 62, 67, 73,
baseline, 22 89, 93, 102, 103, 108, 109, 110,
Basic research, 20 111
bias, 12, 30, 31, 45 fishbowl draw, 13
bibliography, 65, 70, 71, 76, 86 flowery language, 62
Book chapters, 73 Footnotes, 71
botanical inventory, 29 frequency distribution, 100
Case Study Methods, 100 generalisations, 9
Census, 29 Global Positioning System, 29
clarity, 1, 62, 65, 108 GPS, 29
classification, 5, 54 halo effect, 30, 33, 35
concept, 7, 38, 80, 81 Harvard system, 76
conceptual framework, 89 Hawthorne effect, 30, 32, 33, 35
Conclusion, 53, 106 hypothesis, 12, 26, 85
Construct validity, 8 hypothesis of association, 85
correlation, 21, 34, 42, 100 hypothesis of difference, 85
Correlational research, 21 hypothesis of point-prevalence, 85
critical scrutiny, 7 impact, 21, 22, 23, 42, 45, 73, 90,
Data analysis, 26, 37, 38, 91, 96, 98, 99, 105, 116, 117, 119, 129
107 implication, 48
data processing, 11 independent study, 1
database, 74 Independent variables, 38
dependent variable, 38, 39 inferences, 9, 62
132 Index
Internet, 26, 27, 54, 55, 74 population, 12, 13, 14, 22, 23, 24,
interpretation of data, 5 29, 33, 96, 111
interval and ratio scales, 40 presentation skills, 1
interview, 8, 15, 27, 28, 35, 67, 91 Primary data, 37
interview schedule, 27, 35 primary sources, 62
interviewee, 8, 27, 28 procedures, 7, 12, 16, 42, 49, 54, 96,
interviewer, 8, 27, 28 108
Interviewing, 27 process of inquiry, 5, 6, 7
introduction, 15, 23, 37, 38, 44, 60, project, 12, 15, 16, 17, 23, 42, 47,
63, 66, 94, 95, 100, 103, 108, 79, 82, 83, 84, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,
110 94, 103, 104, 105, 106, 111, 115
inventory, 29 Proofreading, 65
Inyang’s research clock, 80 purposive sampling, 12
journals, 17, 26, 59, 61, 62, 73, 80, Qualitative data, 16
86, 108 Qualitative research, 19
knowledge base, 6, 59, 90 Quantitative data, 16, 37, 41, 98
language, 1, 44, 50, 59, 61, 65 quantitative research, 35
literature review, 15, 26, 43, 61, 85, questionnaire, 8, 27, 35, 96, 121,
86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 99, 129
103, 108 Questionnaire administration, 27
literature sources, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, quota sampling, 12
76, 80, 86, 97, 103 Random sampling, 12
logical procedure, 7 ratio scale, 40
long essay, 59, 82 references, 62, 65, 69, 70, 71, 72,
magazines, 26, 59 73, 76, 86, 89, 95, 97, 108
Main objective, 116 regression analysis, 42, 54
manipulation of facts, 7 reliability, 7, 8, 62, 90
measurable variables, 8 reports, 17, 26, 59, 74, 75, 86, 91
Measurement, 29, 54 Reports, 74
measurements, 8, 16, 26, 29 research, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13,
methodology, 5, 13, 15, 71, 72, 79, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24,
89, 90, 94, 103, 108 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 44,
Minitab, 42 45, 54, 59, 60, 62, 66, 67, 71, 72,
MLA, 70, 71, 72, 76 73, 76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,
Modern Languages Association, 70, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
72 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 103, 106,
natural sciences, 24, 25 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 115,
Nature of the text, 44, 50 117, 124, 129
nominal scale, 40, 41 research design, 11, 12, 15, 95
Nudist, 43, 96 Research Methodology, 125, 129
observation, 5, 6, 15, 28, 106 research problem, 11, 15, 79, 82, 83,
ordinal scale, 40, 41 85, 90, 94
Papers, 74 research process, 15, 16, 31, 84
participant observation, 25, 28, 35 research proposal, 11, 15, 17, 89,
physical sciences, 6, 25 93, 94, 97, 103, 106, 112
placebo effect, 30, 31
research questions, 12, 16, 26, 37, study, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14,
59, 60, 83, 86, 87, 92, 95, 115 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29,
research topic, 11, 31, 80, 86, 111 35, 46, 47, 50, 59, 60, 61, 62, 71,
respondent, 8, 28 72, 73, 76, 80, 82, 89, 90, 91, 94,
respondents, 8, 27, 42, 43, 96 95, 96, 99, 103, 104, 105, 107,
Results, 102, 103, 105 108, 111, 112, 115, 116, 119,
retrospective study design, 23, 24 129, 130
rigorous, 7, 13 study area, 15, 94
Sample, 82, 84, 87, 90, 96, 97, 103, Study limitations, 96
107 supervisor, 1, 82, 92, 102, 109
sample size, 9, 12, 13, 108 survey method, 24, 90
sampling frame, 13 systematic, 5, 6, 12
sampling strategy, 12, 13, 14, 15, Text analysis, 43, 44, 54
90, 96, 107 textbooks, 13, 59, 70, 73
sampling technique, 9, 100 theoretical framework, 89, 90
secondary data, 15, 37 theses, 1, 59, 70, 74, 80, 103
secondary sources, 62 thesis defence, 110, 111
significance of study, 115 Translations, 75
social sciences, 6, 7, 23, 24, 25 Triangulation, 34
software, 41, 43 Valid, 7
Specific objectives, 116 validity, 7, 8, 9, 62
SPSS, 42, 98, 100 variable, 9, 38, 39, 42
standardisation, 1 verifiable, 6
statistical analysis, 38, 41, 43, 45, vivo, 110, 111
100 x-axis, 39
stratified random sampling, 12, 13, y-axis, 39
100

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Doing Academic

This book first published 2017

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2017 by Ekpe Inyang

ISBN (10): 1-5275-0322-4

products that enhance our understanding

Ekpe Inyang, 9 August 2007

Preface ...................................................................................................... xiii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Part I: General Research Methodology

Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 5

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 11

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 19

Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 37

Part II: Academic Assignments

Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 59

Part III: The Thesis Project and Internship

Chapter Eight ............................................................................................. 79

Appendices .............................................................................................. 115

Bibliography ............................................................................................ 129

Index ........................................................................................................ 131

Suh Joseph Che (PhD), Associate Professor

University and college students are usually required to carry out

and anatomy of a research proposal, writing the thesis or research article

Assignments are an important part of university education and

GENERAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

2.1 Definition of research

2.2 Purpose and importance of research

limited, crude, and inadequate bodies of knowledge. But, through

2.3 Characteristics of research

which focus on issues relating to society, an open system with a

2.3.4 Valid and verifiable

2.4 The concepts of reliability and validity in research

definitions of these concepts.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

3.1 Formulating a research problem

is to formulate the research questions (which help to further clarify the

3.2 Conceptualising a research design

3.3 Selecting a sample

o random sampling strategy

Random sampling strategy gives each unit an equal chance of being

fishbowl draw, and is often used in lottery.

x Establish a sampling frame by numbering all the identified units of

Stratified random sampling strategy ensures that each important

Quota sampling strategy consists of standing or sitting at a convenient

Snowball sampling strategy is the selection of a sample using

Purposive sampling strategy consists of identifying the likelihood that

3.4 Writing a research proposal

3.5 Developing instruments for data collection

3.6 Collecting the data

library or archive—and collect the necessary data. Data collection involves

3.7 Processing the data

3.8 Writing a research report

3.9 Communicating the research results

RESEARCH TYPES, DESIGNS,

4.1 Types of research

4.1.1 Quantitative research