Integration Techniques

1 Integration by Parts
The formula
Z forZ the differential of a product is d(uv) = u dv + vdu. By integrating both sides, we obtain
uv = u dv + v du. Then, the following is the formula for integration by parts,
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.
Z
Thus, the process involves splitting the integrand into two parts, where vdu is hoped to be a simpler
integral.

2 Integration of Trigonometric Expressions

Z
TYPE A. sinm u cosn u du

Case 1: Either m or n is odd natural number

If m is odd, factor out sin u du and change the remaining even power of sine to cosine using the trig identity

sin2 u = 1 − cos2 u.

If n is odd, factor out cos u du and change the remaining even power of cosine to sine using the trig identity

cos2 u = 1 − sin2 u.

Case 2: Both m and n are even natural numbers

The following half-angle formulas are used to lower the degree of the expressions:

1 − cos 2u 1 + cos 2u
sin2 u = and cos2 u = .
2 2
Z
TYPE B. tanm u secn u du
Case 1: n is an even natural number
Factor out sec2 u du and change the remaining even power of secants to tangents using the trig identity

sec2 u = 1 + tan2 u.

Case 2: m is an odd natural number

Factor out sec u tan u du and change the remaining even power of tangents to secants using the trig identity

tan2 u = −1 + sec2 u.
Z
TYPE C. cotm u cscn u du
Case 1: n is an even natural number
Factor out csc2 udu and change the remaining even power of secants to tangents using the trig identity

1
 csc2 u = 1 + cot2 u.

Case 2: m is an odd natural number

Factor out csc u cot udu and change the remaining even power of cotangents to cosecants using the trig identity

cot2 u = −1 + csc2 u.

3 The Integration by Trigonometric Substitution

We use Trigonometric substitution if the integrand contains any of the following expressions:
p
a2 − x2
p
a2 + x2
p
x2 − a2
√
Case 1: Integrands containing a2 − x2

Let x = a sin θ. Then this gives

x p
θ = arcsin and a2 − x2 = a cos θ.
a
The right triangle which can be used to solve the other trigonometric functions is given below: (Note: θ
should be indicated.)



a  x


 √θ
√ a2 − x2
Case 2: Integrands containing a2 + x2

Let x = a tan θ. Then this gives

x p
θ = arctan and a2 + x2 = a sec θ.
a
The right triangle which can be used to solve the other trigonometric functions is given below: (Note: θ
should be indicated.)

√ 
a2 + x
2 
 x

θ
a

2
 √
Case 3: Integrands containing x2 − a2

Let x = a sec θ. Then this gives

x p
θ = arcsec and x2 − a2 = a tan θ.
a
The right triangle which can be used to solve the other trigonometric functions is given below: (Note: θ
should be indicated.)


 √
x  x2 − a2
 
θ
a
Summary:

Given Expression Trig Substitution

√ x
a2 − x2 x = a sin θ θ = arcsin
2
√ x
a2 + x2 x = a tan θ θ = arctan
a
√ x
x2 − a2 x = a sec θ θ = arcsec
a

4 Integration of Rational Functions (Quotients of Polynomials)

P (x)
Form of the integrand: , where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(x) 6= 0.
Q(x)
Z
P (x)
3 Steps in Evaluating the Integral: dx
Q(x)

Step 1: If the degree of a P (x) ≥ degree of Q(x), perform a long division, thus expressing the given rational
function as a polynomial plus a “proper fraction" (remainder divided by the divisor Q(x)).

Step 2: Factor Q(x) into a product of powers of distinct linear and quadratic factors.

Theorem. Every polynomial can be decomposed into a product of powers of distinct linear and quadratic factors
in the fields of real numbers.

Step 3: Write the proper fraction as a sum of simpler “proper partial fractions".
-(This is possible and it is known as the “Method of Partial Fractions".)
-Each of the terms in this sum of proper partial fractions can be integrated by the previous techniques of
integration.

For each linear factor (x + a)n allow the terms

A1 A2 A3 An
+ 2
+ 3
+ ··· +
x + a (x + a) (x + a) (x + a)n

3
in the partial fraction decomposition, and for each quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c)n allow the terms
B1 x + C 1 B2 x + C2 B3 x + C3 Bn x + Cn
+ + + ··· +
(ax2 + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)3 (ax2 + bx + c)n

in the partial fraction decomposition, where A0i s, Bi0 s and Ci0 s are properly chosen constant.

5 Two Rationalizing Substitution

p
Case 1: Whenever an integrand contains a single irrational expression of the form (ax + b) q , where p and q are
integers, the substitution
1 uq − b q
u = (ax + b) q ⇐⇒ uq = ax + b ⇐⇒ x = ⇐⇒ dx = uq−1 du
a a
will convert the given integrand into a rational function of u.
Case 2: If a single irrational expression of one of the forms
√ √ √
a2 − x2 , x2 + a2 , x2 − a2

appears in the integrand, and if xq (where q is an integer) also appears in the integrand, then the substitution
1 1 1
u = (a2 − x2 ) 2 or u = (x2 + a2 ) 2 or u = (x2 − a2 ) 2

will convert the given integrand into a rational function of u.