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CONTENTS i

SIXTEENTH EDITION

Junqueira’s

Basic Histology T E X T A N D AT L A S

Anthony L. Mescher, PhD


Professor of Anatomy and Cell Biology
Indiana University School of Medicine
Bloomington, Indiana

New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto

00_Mescher_FM_pi-x.indd 1 19/03/21 2:24 PM


Copyright © 2021 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the
publisher.

ISBN: 978-1-26-046297-5
MHID: 1-26-046297-8

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Notice
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Contents
PREFACE VII | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IX

1 Histology & Its Methods 5 Connective Tissue 96


of Study 1 Cells of Connective Tissue 96
Preparation of Tissues for Study 1 Fibers 103
Light Microscopy 4 Ground Substance 111
Electron Microscopy 8 Types of Connective Tissue 114
Autoradiography 9 Summary of Key Points 119
Cell & Tissue Culture 10 Assess Your Knowledge 120
Enzyme Histochemistry 10
Visualizing Specific Molecules 10 6 Adipose Tissue 122
Interpretation of Structures in Tissue White Adipose Tissue 122
Sections 14 Brown Adipose Tissue 126
Summary of Key Points 15 Summary of Key Points 127
Assess Your Knowledge 16 Assess Your Knowledge 128

2 The Cytoplasm 17 7 Cartilage 129


Cell Differentiation 17 Hyaline Cartilage 129
The Plasma Membrane 17 Elastic Cartilage 133
Cytoplasmic Organelles 27 Fibrocartilage 134
The Cytoskeleton 42 Cartilage Formation, Growth, & Repair 134
Inclusions 48 Summary of Key Points 136
Summary of Key Points 51 Assess Your Knowledge 136
Assess Your Knowledge 52
8 Bone 138
3 The Nucleus 53 Bone Cells 138
Components of the Nucleus 53 Bone Matrix 143
The Cell Cycle 58 Periosteum & Endosteum 143
Mitosis 61 Types of Bone 143
Stem Cells & Tissue Renewal 65 Osteogenesis 148
Meiosis 65 Bone Remodeling & Repair 152
Apoptosis 67 Metabolic Role of Bone 153
Summary of Key Points 69 Joints 155
Assess Your Knowledge 70 Summary of Key Points 158
Assess Your Knowledge 159
4 Epithelial Tissue 71
Characteristic Features of Epithelial Cells 72 9 Nerve Tissue & the Nervous
Specializations of the Apical Cell Surface 77 System 161
Types of Epithelia 80 Development of Nerve Tissue 161
Transport Across Epithelia 88 Neurons 163
Renewal of Epithelial Cells 88 Glial Cells & Neuronal Activity 168
Summary of Key Points 90 Central Nervous System 175
Assess Your Knowledge 93 Peripheral Nervous System 182

iii

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iv CONTENTS

Neural Plasticity & Regeneration 187 15 Digestive Tract 295


Summary of Key Points 190
General Structure of the Digestive Tract 295
Assess Your Knowledge 191
Oral Cavity 298
Esophagus 305
10 Muscle Tissue 193 Stomach 307
Skeletal Muscle 193 Small Intestine 314
Cardiac Muscle 206 Large Intestine 318
Smooth Muscle 208 Summary of Key Points 326
Regeneration of Muscle Tissue 213 Assess Your Knowledge 327
Summary of Key Points 213
Assess Your Knowledge 214 16 Organs Associated with the
Digestive Tract 329
11 The Circulatory System 215 Salivary Glands 329
Heart 215 Pancreas 332
Tissues of the Vascular Wall 219 Liver 335
Vasculature 220 Biliary Tract & Gallbladder 345
Lymphatic Vascular System 232 Summary of Key Points 346
Summary of Key Points 235 Assess Your Knowledge 348
Assess Your Knowledge 235

17 The Respiratory System 349


12 Blood 237 Nasal Cavities 349
Composition of Plasma 237 Pharynx 351
Blood Cells 239 Larynx 352
Summary of Key Points 252 Trachea 354
Assess Your Knowledge 253 Bronchial Tree & Lung 354
Lung Vasculature & Nerves 367
13 Hemopoiesis 254 Pleural Membranes 368
Stem Cells, Growth Factors, & Differentiation 254 Respiratory Movements 369
Bone Marrow 255 Summary of Key Points 369
Maturation of Erythrocytes 258 Assess Your Knowledge 370
Maturation of Granulocytes 260
Maturation of Agranulocytes 263 18 Skin 371
Origin of Platelets 263 Epidermis 372
Summary of Key Points 265 Dermis 380
Assess Your Knowledge 265 Subcutaneous Tissue 381
Sensory Receptors 382
14 The Immune System & Lymphoid Hair 383
Organs 267 Nails 384
Innate & Adaptive Immunity 267 Skin Glands 385
Cytokines 269 Skin Repair 388
Antigens & Antibodies 269 Summary of Key Points 391
Antigen Presentation 271 Assess Your Knowledge 392
Cells of Adaptive Immunity 273
Thymus 276 19 The Urinary System 393
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue 281 Kidneys 393
Lymph Nodes 282 Blood Circulation 394
Spleen 286 Renal Function: Filtration, Secretion, &
Summary of Key Points 293 Reabsorption 395
Assess Your Knowledge 294 Ureters, Bladder, & Urethra 406

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CONTENTS v

Summary of Key Points 410 22 The Female Reproductive System 460


Assess Your Knowledge 411
Ovaries 460
Uterine Tubes 470
20 Endocrine Glands 413 Major Events of Fertilization 471
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) 413 Uterus 471
Adrenal Glands 423 Embryonic Implantation, Decidua, & The Placenta 478
Pancreatic Islets 427 Cervix 482
Diffuse Neuroendocrine Vagina 483
System 429 External Genitalia 483
Thyroid Gland 430 Mammary Glands 483
Parathyroid Glands 432 Summary of Key Points 488
Pineal Gland 435 Assess Your Knowledge 489
Summary of Key Points 437
Assess Your Knowledge 437
23 The Eye & Ear: Special Sense
Organs 490
21 The Male Reproductive
Eyes: The Photoreceptor System 490
System 439 Ears: The Vestibuloauditory System 509
Testes 439 Summary of Key Points 522
Intratesticular Ducts 449 Assess Your Knowledge 522
Excretory Genital Ducts 449
Accessory Glands 451
APPENDIX 525
Penis 456
Summary of Key Points 457 FIGURE CREDITS 527
Assess Your Knowledge 459 INDEX 529

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vi CONTENTS

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Preface
Publication of the 16th English edition of Basic Histology marks updated as needed. Inserted throughout each chapter are more
the 50th anniversary of the book’s creation by L. C. Junqueira, numerous, short paragraphs indicating how the information
M.D. and colleagues. That edition, the first histology textbook presented can be applied clinically and emphasizing the
published in soft cover, was compact, concise, highly readable, foundational relevance of the material learned.
yet authoritative and quickly set the standard by which The art and other figures are presented in each chapter,
subsequent textbooks in the area of histology and cell biology with the goal to simplify learning and integration with related
would be judged. After Dr. Junqueira’s death I accepted the material. Used throughout the text the McGraw Hill biomedical
McGraw Hill editors’ challenge to maintain this high standard illustrations are arguably the most useful, thorough, and
with the English edition and strove to improve all aspects attractive of any similar medical textbook. Every human tissue
of the book’s utility for the modern student in the health and cell is shown with electron and light micrographs which
professions while maintaining its compact size and ease of comprise a complete atlas of cell, tissue, and organ structures
use. Based on its position as a perennial best-seller among fully compatible with the students’ own collection of glass or
Histology textbooks on Amazon and its selection as a Core digital light microscope slides.
Title in the Health Sciences by Doody’s Book Review Service, The digital version of Junqueira’s Basic Histology: Text and
Junqueira’s Basic Histology clearly continues as the preeminent Atlas includes significant changes with this edition. The digital
source of concise yet thorough information on human tissue version is available at no charge to health science students
structure and function. For five decades this educational whose medical library offers McGraw Hill’s AccessMedicine
resource has met the needs of learners for a well-organized among its electronic resources, which includes the library
and summarizing presentation of cell biology and histology resources of more than 95% of medical schools in North
that integrates the material with that of biochemistry, America. Each chapter of this new SIXTEENTH edition
immunology, endocrinology, and physiology and provides now incorporates a detailed Lab Guide for that material,
an excellent foundation for subsequent studies in pathology. including (1) the learning objectives for that laboratory
The text is prepared specifically for students of medicine session, (2) a list of important structures to identify and
and other health-related professions, as well as for advanced terms to use and understand, (3) detailed microscopic
undergraduate courses in human tissue biology. Because of its directions for studying each tissue and locating those
value and appeal to students and instructors alike, Junqueira’s structures, and (4) self-assessment questions with each
Basic Histology: Text and Atlas has been translated into more session. These laboratory exercises link the photographic
than a dozen languages and is used in medical schools material in the Junqueira textbook and correlate with slides
throughout the world. in any virtual or glass slide collection, making this digital Lab
Unlike any other histology texts and atlases, each chapter Guide a unique instrument among the learning resources of
of this edition again includes a set of multiple-choice Self-Test any other histology text and atlas. No other major textbook
Questions, which allow readers to assess their comprehension of tissue biology includes such detailed guidance for learners
and knowledge of important points in the subject. A few through the microscopic or laboratory portion of the typical
questions in each set utilize clinical vignettes for framing the medical school coverage of histology. As of this writing in
medical relevance and applications of basic science concepts, mid-2020, the previous FIFTEENTH edition of Junqueira
as recommended by the United States National Board of on AccessMedicine continues to include these features of the
Medical Examiners, in addition to the questions assessing digital Lab Guide, along with links to an excellent collection of
learners’ understanding of basic concepts. Each chapter also scannable and focusable virtual light microscope slides.
includes a Summary of Key Points to guide students for Students who cannot link to AccessMedicine will lack this
review of the most clearly important information. Summary digital Lab Guide but may still utilize the collection of over 150
Tables in each chapter organize and condense important virtual light microscope slides of human tissues and organs
information, facilitating efficient learning. Modern page at: http://medsci.indiana.edu/junqueira/virtual/junqueira.
design and graphics further simplify study of this material. htm. This set of virtual slides is presently available without
Each chapter has been revised and shortened where restrictions for use with any instructor’s guide for human
feasible, while coverage of specific topics has been expanded and histology lab exercises.

vii

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viii PREFACE

As with other recent editions of Junqueira, both print For additional review of what’s been learned or to
and digital versions of this edition facilitate learning by their assist rapid assimilation of the material in Junqueira’s Basic
overall organization: Histology, McGraw Hill has published a set of 200 full-color
Basic Histology Flash Cards, which I’ve also authored. Each
■■ An opening chapter reviews the histological
card includes images of key structures to identify, a summary
techniques which allow understanding of cell and
of important facts about those structures, and a clinical
tissue structure.
comment. This valuable learning aid is available as a set of
■■ Two chapters then summarize the structural and
actual cards from Amazon.com, or as an app for smartphones
functional organization of human cell biology,
or tablets from the online App Store.
presenting the cytoplasm and nucleus separately.
With its proven strengths, excellent up-to-date pedagogical
■■ The next seven chapters cover the four basic tissues that
features, and links with the new digital Lab Guide, I am
make up our organs: epithelia, connective tissue (and its
confident that Junqueira’s Basic Histology will continue as one of
major sub-types), nervous tissue, and muscle.
the most valuable and most widely read educational resources
■■ Remaining chapters explain the organization and
in histology. As always, users are invited to provide me with
functional significance of these tissues in each of
feedback about any aspect of the book’s content or features.
the body’s organ systems, closing with up-to-date
consideration of cells in the unique organs of special
Anthony L. Mescher
sense, the eye and ear.
Indiana University School of Medicine—Bloomington

00_Mescher_FM_pi-x.indd 8 19/03/21 2:24 PM


Acknowledgments
I wish to thank the students at Indiana University School Anatomy, Histology, & Cell Biology: PreTest Self-Assessment
of Medicine and the undergraduates at Indiana University & Review, by Robert Klein and George Enders. The use
Bloomington with whom I studied histology and cell biology here of questions from these valuable resources is gratefully
for over 38 years and from whom I have learned much about acknowledged. Students are referred to those review books for
presenting basic concepts most effectively. Their input has hundreds of additional self-assessment questions.
greatly helped in the task of maintaining and updating the I am also grateful to colleagues and reviewers throughout
presentations in this classic textbook. The help of Sue Childress the world who provided specialized expertise or original
and Dr. Mark Braun was invaluable in slide preparation photographs, as also acknowledged further in these figures’
and creation of the virtual microscope for human histology captions. I thank those professors and students in the
respectively. United States and countries throughout the world who provided
As with the last edition, the present text includes useful suggestions that have improved the new edition of
multiple-choice questions at the end of each chapter, aimed Junqueira’s Basic Histology. Finally, I am pleased to acknowledge
to test the learner’s retention and understanding of important the help and collegiality provided by the staff of McGraw Hill,
points in that body of material. Many of these questions were especially editor Michael Weitz, whose work made possible
used in my courses, but others are taken or modified from a publication of this 16th edition of Junqueira’s Basic Histology:
few of the many excellent review books published by McGraw Text and Atlas.
Hill/Lange for students preparing to take the United States
Medical Licensing Examination. These include Histology Anthony L. Mescher
and Cell Biology: Examination and Board Review, by Douglas
Indiana University School of Medicine—Bloomington
Paulsen; USMLE Road Map: Histology, by Harold Sheedlo; and

ix

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x CONTENTS

00_Mescher_FM_pi-x.indd 10 19/03/21 2:24 PM


C H A P T E R

Fixation
1
PREPARATION OF TISSUES FOR STUDY
Histology & Its
Methods of Study
1
1
AUTORADIOGRAPHY 9
CELL & TISSUE CULTURE 10
Embedding & Sectioning 3
ENZYME HISTOCHEMISTRY 10
Staining 3
LIGHT MICROSCOPY 4 VISUALIZING SPECIFIC MOLECULES 10
Bright-Field Microscopy 4 Immunohistochemistry 11
Fluorescence Microscopy 5 Hybridization Techniques 12
Phase-Contrast Microscopy 5 INTERPRETATION OF STRUCTURES IN TISSUE
Confocal Microscopy 5 SECTIONS 14
Polarizing Microscopy 7 SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS 15
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 8 ASSESS YOUR KNOWLEDGE 16
Transmission Electron Microscopy 8
Scanning Electron Microscopy 9

H istology is the study of the tissues of the body and


how these tissues are arranged to constitute organs.
This subject involves all aspects of tissue biology, with
the focus on how cells’ structure and arrangement optimize
functions specific to each organ.
a better knowledge of tissue biology. Familiarity with the tools
and methods of any branch of science is essential for a proper
understanding of the subject. This chapter reviews common
methods used to study cells and tissues, focusing on micro-
scopic approaches.
Tissues have two interacting components: cells and extra-
cellular matrix (ECM). The ECM consists of many kinds of
macromolecules, most of which form complex structures,
such as collagen fibrils. The ECM supports the cells and con-
››PREPARATION OF TISSUES
tains the fluid transporting nutrients to the cells, and carry- FOR STUDY
ing away their wastes and secretory products. Cells produce The most common procedure used in histologic research is
the ECM locally and are in turn strongly influenced by matrix the preparation of tissue slices or “sections” that can be exam-
molecules. Many matrix components bind to specific cell ined visually with transmitted light. Because most tissues and
surface receptors that span the cell membranes and connect organs are too thick for light to pass through, thin translu-
to structural components inside the cells, forming a contin- cent sections are cut from them and placed on glass slides for
uum in which cells and the ECM function together in a well- microscopic examination of the internal structures.
coordinated manner. The ideal microscopic preparation is preserved so that the
During development, cells and their associated matrix tissue on the slide has the same structural features it had in the
become functionally specialized and give rise to fundamen- body. However, this is often not feasible because the prepara-
tal types of tissues with characteristic structural features. tion process can remove cellular lipid, with slight distortions
Organs are formed by an orderly combination of these tissues, of cell structure. The basic steps used in tissue preparation for
and their precise arrangement allows the functioning of each light microscopy are shown in Figure 1–1.
organ and of the organism as a whole.
The small size of cells and matrix components makes his-
tology dependent on the use of microscopes and molecular Fixation
methods of study. Advances in biochemistry, molecular biol- To preserve tissue structure and prevent degradation by
ogy, physiology, immunology, and pathology are essential for enzymes released from the cells or microorganisms, pieces of

01_Mescher_ch01_p001-016.indd 1 18/03/21 11:23 PM


2 CHAPTER 1 ■ Histology & Its Methods of Study

FIGURE 1–1 Sectioning fixed and embedded tissue.

52°- 60°C

(a) Fixation Dehydration Clearing Infiltration Embedding

Drive wheel

Block holder
Paraffin block

Tissue
Steel knife

Most tissues studied histologically are prepared as shown, with Similar steps are used in preparing tissue for transmission elec-
this sequence of steps (a): tron microscopy (TEM), except special fixatives and dehydrating
solutions are used with smaller tissue samples and embedding
■■ Fixation: Small pieces of tissue are placed in solutions of
involves epoxy resins which become harder than paraffin to allow
chemicals that cross-link proteins and inactivate degradative
very thin sectioning.
enzymes, which preserve cell and tissue structure.
■■ Dehydration: The tissue is transferred through a series of (b) A microtome is used for sectioning paraffin-embedded tissues
increasingly concentrated alcohol solutions, ending in 100%, for light microscopy. The trimmed tissue specimen is mounted
which removes all water. in the paraffin block holder, and each turn of the drive wheel by
■■ Clearing: Alcohol is removed in organic solvents in which the histologist advances the holder a controlled distance, gener-
both alcohol and paraffin are miscible. ally from 1 to 10 μm. After each forward move, the tissue block
■■ Infiltration: The tissue is then placed in melted paraffin until it passes over the steel knife edge and a section is cut at a thickness
becomes completely infiltrated with this substance. equal to the distance the block advanced. The paraffin sections
■■ Embedding: The paraffin-infiltrated tissue is placed in a small are placed on glass slides and allowed to adhere, deparaffinized,
mold with melted paraffin and allowed to harden. and stained for light microscope study. For TEM, sections less than
■■ Trimming: The resulting paraffin block is trimmed to expose 1 μm thick are prepared from resin-embedded cells using an ultra-
the tissue for sectioning (slicing) on a microtome. microtome with a glass or diamond knife.

organs are placed as soon as possible after removal from the microscopy, react with the amine groups (NH2) of proteins,
body in solutions of stabilizing or cross-linking compounds preventing their degradation by common proteases. Glutaral-
called fixatives. Because a fixative must fully diffuse through dehyde also cross-links adjacent proteins, reinforcing cell and
the tissues to preserve all cells, tissues are usually cut into ECM structures.
small fragments before fixation to facilitate penetration. To Electron microscopy provides much greater magni-
improve cell preservation in large organs, fixatives are often fication and resolution of very small cellular structures,
introduced via blood vessels, with vascular perfusion allowing and fixation must be done very carefully to preserve addi-
fixation rapidly throughout the tissues. tional “ultrastructural” detail. Typically in such studies,
One widely used fixative for light microscopy is forma- glutaraldehyde-treated tissue is then immersed in buffered
lin, a buffered isotonic solution of 37% formaldehyde. Both osmium tetroxide, which preserves (and stains) cellular lipids
this compound and glutaraldehyde, a fixative used for electron as well as proteins.

01_Mescher_ch01_p001-016.indd 2 18/03/21 11:23 PM


Preparation of Tissues for Study 3

Embedding & Sectioning Staining

C H A P T E R
To permit thin sectioning, fixed tissues are infiltrated and Most cells and extracellular material are completely color-
embedded in a material that imparts a firm consistency. less, and to be studied microscopically tissue sections must
Embedding materials include paraffin, used routinely for light be stained (dyed). Methods of staining have been devised that
microscopy, and plastic resins, which are adapted for both make various tissue components not only conspicuous but also
light and electron microscopy. distinguishable from one another. Dyes stain material more or
Before infiltration with such media, the fixed tissue must less selectively, often behaving like acidic or basic compounds
undergo dehydration by having its water extracted gradually and forming electrostatic (salt) linkages with ionizable radicals

1
by transfers through a series of increasing ethanol solutions, of macromolecules in tissues. Cell components, such as nucleic

Histology & Its Methods of Study ■ Preparation of Tissues for Study


ending in 100% ethanol. The ethanol is then replaced by an acids with a net negative charge (anionic), have an affinity for
organic solvent miscible with both alcohol and the embedding basic dyes and are termed basophilic; cationic components,
medium, a step referred to as clearing because infiltration with such as proteins with many ionized amino groups, stain more
the reagents used here gives the tissue a translucent appearance. readily with acidic dyes and are termed acidophilic.
The fully cleared tissue is then placed in melted paraffin Examples of basic dyes include toluidine blue, alcian blue,
in an oven at 52°C-60°C, which evaporates the clearing solvent and methylene blue. Hematoxylin behaves like a basic dye,
and promotes infiltration of the tissue with paraffin, and then staining basophilic tissue components. The main tissue com-
embedded by allowing it to harden in a small container of ponents that ionize and react with basic dyes do so because of
paraffin at room temperature. Tissues to be embedded with acids in their composition (DNA, RNA, and glycosaminogly-
plastic resin are also dehydrated in ethanol and then infiltrated cans). Acid dyes (eg, eosin, orange G, and acid fuchsin) stain
with plastic solvents that harden when cross-linking polymer- the acidophilic components of tissues such as mitochondria,
izers are added. Plastic embedding avoids the higher tempera- secretory granules, and collagen.
tures needed with paraffin, which helps avoid tissue distortion. Of all staining methods, the simple combination of
The hardened block with tissue and surrounding embed- hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) is used most commonly.
ding medium is trimmed and placed for sectioning in an Hematoxylin stains DNA in the cell nucleus, RNA-rich por-
instrument called a microtome (Figure 1–1). Paraffin sections tions of the cytoplasm, and the matrix of cartilage, produc-
are typically cut at 3-10 μm thickness for light microscopy, but ing a dark blue or purple color. In contrast, eosin stains other
electron microscopy requires sections less than 1 μm thick. cytoplasmic structures and collagen pink (Figure 1–2a). Here
One micrometer (1 μm) equals 1/1000 of a millimeter (mm) eosin is considered a counterstain, which is usually a single
or 10−6 m. Other spatial units commonly used in microscopy dye applied separately to distinguish additional features of a
are the nanometer (1 nm = 0.001 μm = 10−6 mm = 10−9 m) and tissue. More complex procedures, such as trichrome stains (eg,
angstrom (1 Å = 0.1 nm or 10−4 μm). The sections are placed Masson trichrome), allow greater distinctions among various
on glass slides and stained for light microscopy or on metal extracellular tissue components.
grids for electron-microscopic staining and examination. The periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) reaction utilizes the
hexose rings of polysaccharides and other carbohydrate-rich
tissue structures and stains such macromolecules distinctly
› ›› MEDICAL APPLICATION purple or magenta. Figure 1–2b shows an example of cells with
Biopsies are tissue samples removed during surgery or routine carbohydrate-rich areas well-stained by the PAS reaction. The
medical procedures. In the operating room, biopsies are fixed DNA of cell nuclei can be specifically stained using a modifi-
in vials of formalin for processing and microscopic analysis in cation of the PAS procedure called the Feulgen reaction.
a pathology laboratory. If results of such analyses are required Basophilic or PAS-positive material can be further identi-
before the medical procedure is completed, for example to fied by enzyme digestion, pretreatment of a tissue section with
know whether a growth is malignant before the patient is an enzyme that specifically digests one substrate. For example,
closed, a much more rapid processing method is used. The pretreatment with ribonuclease will greatly reduce cytoplas-
biopsy is rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen, preserving cell mic basophilia with little overall effect on the nucleus, indicat-
structures and at the same time making the tissue hard and ing the importance of RNA for the cytoplasmic staining.
ready for sectioning. A microtome called a cryostat in a cabi- Lipid-rich structures of cells are revealed by avoiding the
net at subfreezing temperature is used to section the block processing steps that remove lipids, such as treatment with
with tissue, and the frozen sections are placed on slides for heat and organic solvents, and staining with lipid-soluble
rapid staining and microscopic examination by a pathologist. dyes such as Sudan black, which can be useful in diagnosis
Freezing of tissues is also effective in histochemical stud- of metabolic diseases that involve intracellular accumulations
ies of very sensitive enzymes or small molecules because of cholesterol, phospholipids, or glycolipids. Less common
freezing, unlike fixation, does not inactivate most enzymes. methods of staining can employ metal impregnation tech-
Finally, because clearing solvents often dissolve cell lipids in niques, typically using solutions of silver salts to visualize
fixed tissues, frozen sections are also useful when structures certain ECM fibers and specific cellular elements in nervous
containing lipids are to be studied histologically. tissue. The Appendix lists important staining procedures used
for most of the light micrographs in this book.

01_Mescher_ch01_p001-016.indd 3 18/03/21 11:23 PM


4 CHAPTER 1 ■ Histology & Its Methods of Study

FIGURE 1–2 Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) staining.

G G
G
L
L

a b

Micrographs of epithelium lining the small intestine, (a) stained lumen, where projecting microvilli have a prominent layer of
with H&E, and (b) stained with the PAS reaction for glycoproteins. glycoproteins at the lumen (L) and in the mucin-rich secretory
With H&E, basophilic cell nuclei are stained purple, while cyto- granules of goblet cells. Cell surface glycoproteins and mucin are
plasm stains pink. Cell regions with abundant oligosaccharides PAS-positive because of their high content of oligosaccharides
on glycoproteins, such as the ends of the cells at the lumen (L) and polysaccharides, respectively. The PAS-stained tissue was
or the scattered mucus-secreting goblet cells (G), are poorly counterstained with hematoxylin to show the cell nuclei.
stained. With PAS, however, cell staining is most intense at the (a. X400; b. X300)

Slide preparation, from tissue fixation to observation (or ocular lens) further magnifying this image and projecting
with a light microscope, may take from 12 hours to 2½ days, it onto the viewer’s retina or a charge-coupled device (CCD)
depending on the size of the tissue, the embedding medium, highly sensitive to low light levels with a camera and a monitor.
and the method of staining. The final step before microscopic The total magnification is obtained by multiplying the magni-
observation is mounting a protective glass coverslip on the fying power of the objective and ocular lenses.
slide with clear adhesive. The critical factor in obtaining a crisp, detailed image
with a light microscope is its resolving power, defined as
the smallest distance between two structures at which they can be
››LIGHT MICROSCOPY seen as separate objects. The maximal resolving power of the
light microscope is approximately 0.2 μm, which can permit
Conventional bright-field microscopy and more specialized clear images magnified 1000-1500 times. Objects smaller or
applications like fluorescence, phase-contrast, confocal, and thinner than 0.2 μm (such as a single ribosome or cytoplasmic
polarizing microscopy are all based on the interaction of light microfilament) cannot be distinguished with this instrument.
with tissue components and are used to reveal and study tissue Likewise, two structures such as mitochondria will be seen as
features. only one object if they are separated by less than 0.2 μm. The
microscope’s resolving power determines the quality of the
Bright-Field Microscopy image, its clarity and richness of detail, and depends mainly on
With the bright-field microscope, stained tissue is examined the quality of its objective lens. Magnification is of value only
with ordinary light passing through the preparation. As shown when accompanied by high resolution. Objective lenses pro-
in Figure 1–3, the microscope includes an optical system and viding higher magnification are designed to also have higher
mechanisms to move and focus the specimen. The optical resolving power. The eyepiece lens only enlarges the image
components are the condenser focusing light on the object obtained by the objective and does not improve resolution.
to be studied; the objective lens enlarging and projecting the Virtual microscopy, typically used for the study of
image of the object toward the observer; and the eyepiece bright-field microscopic preparations, involves the conversion

01_Mescher_ch01_p001-016.indd 4 18/03/21 11:24 PM


Other documents randomly have
different content
are milder, and safer, such as shall work rather downward than
upward, causing easie vomits, which also thou mayest give to
children, and those that are old without danger, yet some respect
being had of the disease, and age.

The flowers of Antimony diaphoretical.

T he foresaid flowers if they be cast into melted Nitre, and be left


a while in melting, are made fixt, so as to become
Diaphoretical, and lose their Cathartical Vertue. The acid water being
separated from the flowers, if it be evaporated, leaves behind the
best spirit of salt, serving for the same or such like uses again.

Of the External use of the Corrosive Oyle of Antimony.

T his oyle hath been long used by Chirurgions, for they have with
a feather applyed it to wounds almost uncurable, to separate
impurities, for the acceleration of the cure, that afterwards other
medicaments being applyed may the better operate. But it is better
if it be mixed, with spirit of Salt, for they are easily mixed and it is
made more mild thereby, and the too great corrosive faculty thereof
is mitigated. Neither is there any other besides the spirit of Salt, with
which this oyle can be mixed, unless it be the strongest spirit of
Nitre, for the weak spirit of Nitre precipitates the butter of Antimony,
as you may see in the preparation of Bezoardicum Minerale. But the
strongest spirit of nitre dissolving this butter, makes a red solution of
wonderfull Vertue in Chymistry, of which we are not to treat in this
place; and if this be drawn off again by distillation, it leaves behind
the first time a fixed Antimony, and Diaphoretical, which otherwise
must be drawn off twice, or thrice, viz. if it be weak, and not able to
dissolve the butter without precipitation.
Now this Bezoardicum is the best, and safest Diaphoretick in all
diseases that require sweat, as in the plague, French pox, feavers,
scorbute, leprosy, &c. if it be given from 6. 8. 10. to twenty grains in
proper vehicles; it penetrates the whole body, and evacuates all evil
humours by sweat and urine.
The Oyl of Arsenic and Auripigmentum.

A s the spirit of salt doth not easily work upon Antimony by reason
of the abundance of crude sulphur, unless it be reduced into
flowers, in the preparation whereof, some part of its sulphur is
burnt; so also Arsenic and Auripigmentum are hardly dissolved with
spirit of salt, unless they be reduced into flowers, and the spirit of
salt be very strong, which may be able to work upon it. These may
be distilled by retort like Antimony into a thick heavy oyl; which
being used in cancrous eating ulcers, exceeds that of Antimony in
mortifying, mundifying, and purging those evils. After the same
manner may corrosive oyls be made out of all the realgars being
ordained for outward uses.

Oyl of Lapis Calaminaris.

T ake of the best yellow or red Lapis Calaminaris very subtilly


powdered, as much as you please, and pour upon it five or six
times as much of rectified spirit of salt, mix and stir them well
together, and do not leave them long unstirred, but ever and anon
shake the glass with the materials; and this do oftentimes, or else
the Lapis Calaminaris will grow together into a very hard stone,
which can be dissolved no more, and is prevented by the aforesaid
often shaking: and when the spirit of salt will dissolve no more
thereof in frigido, set the glass in warm sand so long, until the spirit
be tinged with a most yellow colour, which then decant, and pour on
fresh, and again set it in digestion to extract, and do not forget to
shake the glass often. The solution being finished filter it, and cast
away the residue of the terra mortua. Afterwards set the solution in
sand, and give fire, and almost three parts of the spirit of salt will go
over insipid, which is nothing but the flegme, although the spirit was
never so well rectified; the reason whereof is the most dry nature of
lapis calaminaris, to which the spirit of salt is very friendly, and
therefore very hard to be separated from it. For I never knew any
mineral or metal (beside Zinck) which exceeds lapis calaminaris in
dryness. At last when no more flegm will go over, let all things cool;
which being done, take out the glass, and thou shalt find a red thick
oyl, as fat as oyl olive, and not very corrosive; for that spirit of salt
being almost mortified with the lapis calaminaris is deprived of its
acidity. This oyl is to be kept from the air; or else within a few dayes
it attracts much air which it converts into water, and thereby
becomes weakened.
This Oyl is of wonderful Vertue, being used as well inwardly as
outwardly. And I wonder that in so long a time there hath been no
body, who hath operated in lapis calaminaris and described the
nature thereof, seeing it hath in it a golden sulphur (of which thing
in the fourth Part) for if the terrestreity thereof were separated from
it artificially, pure gold would be manifested therein; now the
greatest part thereof is volatile, and immature, and cannot easily be
reduced into a body in melting, wherefore hitherto that stone hath
not been esteemed of by Chymists, but to the wise was alwayes
pretious, &c.

The use of the Oyl of Lapis Calaminaris.

I f it be given from 1. 2. 3. drops to ten, and fifteen with sutable


vehicles, it purgeth the dropsy, leprosy, gout, and other noxious
fixed humors not yielding to vegetable Catharticks, of which more at
large in the second Part of the spirit of urine and salt of tartar. It
serves outwardly for an excellent vulnerary balsome, the like to
which can scarce be shewed, not only in reducing old corrupt
wounds, but also in those that are green, for it doth powerfully dry,
mundify, and consolidate.
It is also used in houshold affairs, for birdlime being dissolved in
it, yields a certain tenacious matter serving to catch birds, mice, &c.
about the house or in the field. For it is as permanent in the heat of
the Sun, as in the cold of Winter, wherefore it may be used at any
time of the year; all small animals stick to it if they do but touch the
matter.
A ligature or string smeered therewith, and bound about any tree
prevents the spiders from climbing up thereon, and other kinds of
insects that are noxious to the fruit; a thing worth taking notice of.
This oyl is not by the pouring on of water corrupted, neither is it
precipitated, as that of Antimony: wherefore it is useful for many
things. Common yellow sulphur boyled in it, viz. in a strong fire, so
as to be dissolved in it, swims upon it like fat, is thereby purified and
made as transparent as yellow pellucid glass, and a better medicine
than those common flowers of sulphur: it serves also for other uses,
all which to relate here it would be too tedious.
This oyl being mixed with clean sand, and distilled by retort in a
fire that is very strong (otherwise the spirit of salt will not leave the
lapis calaminaris) yields a most fiery spirit, the lapis calaminaris
remaining in the bottom of the retort.
This spirit is so strong, that it can scarce be kept; it dissolves all
metals, and all minerals (excepting silver and sulphur) wherefore by
the help thereof many excellent medicaments are made, which
cannot be made with the common spirit though never so well
rectified, which although it be often rectified, yet it is not without
flegm, which cannot be separated from it by the power of
rectification, so well as with lapis calaminaris.
This spirit doth perform many things in medicine, & alchymy, as
also in other arts, as you may easily conjecture; but here is not
opportunity to speak more of these things, yet for the sake of the
sick I shall add one thing, to which few things are to be compared;
the plain & short process whereof I would not have thee be offended
at. And it is this, viz. mix this spirit with the best rectifyed spirit of
wine, digest this mixture some while, and the spirit of salt will
separate the spirit of wine, and will make the oyl of wine swim on
the top, the volatile salt being mortified: and this oyl is a most
incomparable cordial, especially if with the said spirit of wine, spices
have first been extracted, and with the said spirit of salt, gold hath
been dissolved. For then in the digestion of this mixture, the oyl of
wine being separated, attracts the essence of the cordial species,
and of other vegetables, being extracted before with the spirit of
wine, as also the tincture of gold, and so by consequence a most
efficacious incomparable and universal medicine for all diseases,
fortifying the Humidum radicale, that it may be able to overcome its
enemies; for which let praise and glory be given to the immortal God
for ever who hath revealed to us so great secrets.

Of the Extrinsecal use of the spirit of Salt in the Kitchen.

I said before that instead of Vinegar, and verjuice it may be used,


as also instead of the juice of Limons, now it remains that I
shew you how it is to be used, and that indeed as well for the sake
of the healthy as the sick.
Let him therefore that will dress a pullet, pigeons, veal, &c. in the
first place put a sufficient quantity of spices, of water, and butter,
and then as he pleaseth a greater, or lesser quantity of spirit of salt:
and by this means fleshes are sooner made ready being boyled, then
that common way; an old hen though the flesh thereof be old is
made as tender as a chicken by the addition of this spirit: but he
that will use it instead of the juice of Limons with rost meat, must
put into it the pill of Limons for preservation sake, because it
preserves it. It is used instead of verjuice by it self alone, or mixed
with a little sugar, if it be too acid.
He that will stew beef, and make it as tender as kid, must first
dissolve in it tartar and a little salt before he wets the flesh
therewith, and the flesh will not only be preserved but made tender
thereby: but to keep flesh a long time you must mix some water
therewith, and with weights press down the flesh, that it may be
covered with the pickle: for by this means flesh may be preserved a
great while.
After the same manner may all kinds of garden fruits be
preserved, as cucumbers, purslain, fennel, broom, German capers,
&c. and indeed better than in vinegar. Also flowers, and hearbs may
a long while be preserved by the help thereof, so that you may have
a rose all the winter.
It preserves also wine, if a little be mixed therewith. A little
thereof being mixed with milk precipitates the cheese, which if it be
rightly made is never corrupted, being like to such cheese as they
call Parmesan. The whey of that milk dissolves Iron, and cures any
scab being washed therewith.
With the help of spirit of salt is made with honey, and sugar a
most pleasant drink, not unlike to wine. There is made also of
certain fruits with the spirit of salt a very good vinegar like to the
Rhenish vinegar. Such and many more things, which I will not now
divulge, may be done with spirit of salt.
And thus have I in some measure taught the use of the spirit of
salt, which I would not have you take as if I had revealed all things;
for, brevities sake, as also for some other reasons I have silently
passed over many things. Neither do I know all things my self: but
those things, which I do know, I have so far declared that others
may from thence have hints of seeking further. He that would
describe all, and every power and vertue thereof, had need to write
a whole volum, the which is not my purpose at this time to do, but
may perhaps be done another time. There shall also be shewed in
the second part of this book, some secrets which may be prepared
by the help of this spirit: as how it may be dulcified to extract the
tincture of gold, and of other metals, leaving a white body, which
tincture is a medicine not to be slighted. Wherefore now seeing it is
manifest how great things this spirit can do, every one will desire a
good quantity for his houshold uses, especially seeing most excellent
spirits may be made after an easie and short way.

How an acid spirit, or vinegar may be distilled out of all vegetables,


as hearbs, woods, roots, seeds, &c.

F irst put a few living coals into the furnace, then put upon them
the wood that is to be distilled, that it may be burnt: out of
which whilst it is burning goes forth the acid spirit thereof into the
receiver, where being condensed it falls down into another receiver,
resembling almost common vinegar in its smell, wherefore also it is
called the vinegar of woods.
And after this manner you may draw forth an acid spirit out of any
wood, or vegetable, and that in a great quantity without costs,
because the wood to be distilled is put but upon a very few living
coals, and upon that another, for one kindles the other; and this
spirit requires no more charges than of the wood to be distilled;
which is a great difference betwixt this, and the common way of
distilling, where besides retorts, is required another fire; and out of a
great retort scarce a pound of spirit is drawn in the space of five or
six hours; whereas in ours in the space of one day, and that without
any cost or labor may be extracted twenty or thirty pound, because
the wood is immediately to be cast into the fire to be distilled, and
that not in pieces, but whole. Now this spirit (being rectified) may
commodiously be used in divers Chymical operations, for it doth
easily dissolve animal stones, as the eyes of Crabs, the stones of
Perches, and Carps, Corals also and Pearl, &c. as doth vinegar of
wine. By means thereof also are dissolved the glasses of metals, as
of tin, lead, Antimony, and are extracted, and reduced into sweet
oyles.
This vinegar being taken inwardly of it self doth cause sweat
wonderfully, wherefore it is good in many diseases, especially that
which is made of Oak, Box; Guaiacum, Juniper, and other heavy
woods; for by how much the heavier the woods are, by so much the
more acid spirit do they yield.
Being used outwardly it mundifies ulcers, wounds, consolidates,
extinguisheth, and mitigates inflammations caused by fire, cures the
scab, but especially the decoction being made of its own wood in the
same. Being mixed with warm water for a bath for the lower part of
the body, it cures occult diseases of women; as also malignant ulcers
of the leggs.
This spirit therefore deserves some place in the shops, i. e. it is
unjustly rejected in the shops, seeing it is easie to be made. In
distilling of wormwood and other vegetables, there remaines in the
bottom of the furnace ashes, which being extracted with warm water
yields a salt by decoction, which being again dissolved in its own
spirit or vinegar, and filtred, doth by the evaporation of the flegm,
being placed in a cold place pass into a Crystalline salt, which is of a
pleasant tast, not like unto a lixivium, nor unto other salts that are
dissolved in the air. This salt is also more efficacious (being reduced
into Crystals by its proper Spirit) than that which is made by the help
of sulphur, or Aqua fortis, and oyl of Vitriol, and otherways which
Chymists, and Apothecaries use.

The spirit of paper and linnen cloath.

P ieces of linnen cloth gathered, and got from Sempsters being


cast into the furnace upon living coals, yield a most acid spirit,
which tingeth the nailes, skin, & hair with a yellow colour, restores
members destroyed with cold, is good in a gangrene, and erysipelas
if linen clothes wet in the same be applyed thereto, &c. The same
doth spirit made of paper, viz. of the pieces thereof.

The spirit of silk.

A fter the same manner is there a spirit made of pieces of silk,


which is not so sharp as that which is made of linnen and
paper, neither doth it tinge the Skin, but is most excellent in wounds
as well old as green, and it makes the Skin beautiful.

The spirit of mans hair, and of other animals, as also of horns.

O ut of horns also, and hair is made a spirit, but most fetid,


wherefore it is not so useful, although otherwise it may serve
for divers arts: being rectified it comes clear and to be of the odour
of the spirit of urine. It dissolves common sulphur, and yields a
water, that cures the scab in a very short time.
Now for this business, shreds of woollen cloth undyed may serve,
being cast in a good quantity into the furnace. Pieces of cloath dipt
in this spirit and hanged in vineyards, and fields, keep out Deer and
Swine from coming in, because they are afraid of the smell of that
spirit, as of an huntsman that waits to catch them.
The spirit of vinegar, honey, and sugar.

H e that will distil liquid things, must cast red hot coals into them,
as for example into vinegar in the furnace, or if it be honey, or
sugar, let them first be dissolved in water, by which means they will
be drank up by the coals, which being therewith impregnated, must
afterwards at several times be cast into the furnace, and be burnt;
and whilst the coals are burning, that which is incombustible comes
forth. And by this means you may distil liquid things in a great
quantity.
Vinegar which is distilled this way, is of the same nature, as that
which is distilled in close vessels.
But honey and sugar that are distilled after this manner, are a little
altered, and acquire other vertues: but how they shall be distilled
without the loss of their volatile spirit shall be taught in the second
Part. Also after this manner may all liquid things being drunk up by
living coals be distilled.
Of the use of distilled vinegar many things might be said, but
because the Books of all the Chymists treat abundantly thereof, I
account it needless to repeat what they have writ. Yet this is worth
taking notice of, that the sharpest vinegar hath a great affinity with
some metals, which may be extracted by the help thereof; also
dissolved, and reduced into medicaments; yea, many things may be
made with the help thereof, as the books of all the Chymists testify.
But there is yet another vinegar, of which there is often mention
made in the books of Philosophers, by the help whereof, many
wonderful things are performed in the solution of metals, the name
whereof the ancients have been silent in; of which I do not here
treat, because it cannot be made by this furnace; but I shall treat of
it in another part; yet so that I incur not the Curse of the
Philosophers.

How spirits may be made out of the salt of tartar, vitriolated


tartar, the spirit of salt tartarizated, and of other such like
fixed salts.

A s many Chymists as there hath been, almost all have been of the
opinion that a spirit cannot be drawn out of salt of tartar, and
other fixed salts. For experience hath taught that by retort little or
no spirit can be drawn from thence, as I had often experience of
before the invention of this furnace: the reason of which thing was
the admixtion of sand, earth, bole, pouder of tiles, &c. for to prevent
the flowing of the salt of tartar, being by this means dispersed. But
this is done through the ignorance of Authors, who have been
ignorant of the properties of salt of tartar. For a stony matter, as
sand, flint, bole, &c. being mixed with salt of tartar, feeling the heat
of the fire, and being made red with the same, is joyned to it most
closely, so as no spirit can be drawn from thence, but become a
most hard stone. For sand, and such things that are like to it, have
so great an affinity with the salt of tartar, that being once united can
scarce ever be separated. Yet it may be made by Art by the addition
of pure sand, or flint, because the whole substance of the salt of
tartar may be turned into a spirit in the space of one or two hours,
as shall be taught in the second part, and it excells all other
medicaments in vertue, in curing the stone, and gout. And if by the
regiment of art there be left any Caput Mortuum in the distillation, it
hath, being dissolved in the air, a power to putrify metals being
prepared, and mixed with it, in the space of few hours, so as to
make them become black, and to grow up like trees with their roots,
trunks, and boughs, which by how much the longer they are so left,
become the better. Of calx of lead being subtilized, and of salt of
tartar may be made a spiritus gradatorius of wonderful vertues as
well in Medicine as Alchymy. There is made of the Caput Mortuum,
per deliquium a green liquor which doth wonderful things; whence it
is proved, That Saturn is not the lowest of the Planets; enough to
the wise.

And so is the Lac Virginis, and the Philosophical Sanguis Draconis


made.
S ometimes there is found a certain earth, or bole, which hath no
affinity with tartar, which being mixed with salt of tartar yields a
spirit, but very little. But in this furnace may all fixed things be
elevated, because the species not being included in it, but dispersed,
being cast upon the fire, are from the fire elevated through the aire,
and are being refrigerated in the recipients again condensed, which
cannot be so well done by a close retort.
He therefore that will make the spirit of the salt of tartar, need do
nothing else than to call the calcined tartar into the fire, and it will
wholly come over in a spirit: but then there are required glass
recipients, because those that are earthen cannot retain it.
And this is the way whereby most fixed salts are distilled into a
spirit by the first furnace. In the second furnace (viz. in the furnace
of the second Part) it may be done better, and easier, where
together with the preparation shall be taught the use thereof.

The spirits, flowers, and salts of Minerals and stones.

B y this way spirits may be raised from any mineral or stone, and
that without the addition of any other thing: yet so as that the
minerals, and stones, as flints, Crystal, talk, lapis calaminaris,
Marcasite, Antimony, being ground be with an Iron ladle cast upon
the coals, and there will arise together with a certain acid spirit,
some salt and flowers, which are to be washed off from the
recipients, and filtred, and the flowers will remain in Charta bibula,
or filter for the water together with the spirit, and the salt passeth
through the filter, all which may be separated, rectified and be kept
by themselves for their proper uses. Now this you must know, that
you must choose such minerals which have not been touched by the
fire, if you desire to have their spirit.

How minerals, and metals may be reduced into flowers, and of their
vertues.

H itherto the flowers of metals, and minerals have not been in


use, excepting the flowers of Antimony, and sulphur, which are
easily sublimed: for Chymists have not dared to attempt the
sublimation of other metals, and fixed minerals, being content with
the solution of them with Aqua fortis, and corrosive waters,
precipitating them with the liquor of salt of tartar, and afterward
edulcorating, and drying them; and being so prepared they have
called them their Flowers: but by Flowers I understand the same
matter which is by the help of fire without the addition of any other
thing sublimed, and turned into a most subtile pouder, not to be
perceived by the teeth or eyes, which indeed is (in my judgment) to
be accounted for the true flowers; when as the flowers which others
make are more corporeal, and cannot be so well edulcorated, but
retain some saltness in them, as may be perceived by the increase
of their weight, and therefore hurtful to the eyes, and other parts.
But our flowers being by the force of the fire sublimed by
themselves, are not only without saltness, but are also so subtile
that being taken inwardly presently operate, and put forth their
powers, viz. according to the pleasure of the Physitian. Neither is
their preparation so costly as the others.
Metals also, and minerals are maturated, and amended in their
sublimation, that they may be the more safely taken; but in other
preparations they are rather destroyed, and corrupted, as experience
witnesseth: Now how these kind of flowers are to be made I shall
now teach, and indeed of each metal by it self, whereby the artist in
the preparation cannot erre, and first thus.

Of Gold and Silver.

G old and silver can hardly be brought into flowers, because many
are of opinion, that nothing comes from them in the fire,
especially from Gold, although it should be left there for ever: which
although it be true, viz. that nothing comes from gold in the fire,
although it should remain there a long time, and from silver but a
little except it have copper or any other metal mixed, which yet
vapours away but by little and little.
Which I say although it be so, yet they being broken and subtilized
and scattered upon coals, and so dispersed, may by the force of the
fire and help of the air be sublimed, and reduced into flowers.
Now seeing the aforesaid metals are dear, and of a great price,
and the furnace with its recipients large, I would not that any one
should cast them in, especially gold, because he cannot recover
them all; but I shall to those that desire to make these flowers shew
another way in the second part, whereby they may make them
without the loss of the metal; to which I refer the reader. For this
furnace serves for the subliming of metals, and minerals, which are
not so pretious, the loosing of part whereof is not so much regarded.
And thus much is said to shew that gold, and silver, although fixed,
may be sublimed. Now other metals may more easily be sublimed,
yet one more easily than another, neither need they any other
preparation but beating small, before they be cast into the fire.

Flowers of Iron and Copper.

T ake of the filings of Iron or Copper, as much as you please, cast


them with an Iron laddle upon burning coals, viz. scatteringly,
and there will arise from Iron a red vapour, but from Copper a green,
and will be sublimed into the sublimatory vessels. As the fire abates
it must be renewed with fresh coales, and the casting in of these
filings be continued, until you have got a sufficient quantity of
flowers, and then you may let all cool. This being done take off the
sublimatory vessels, take out the flowers, and keep them, for they
are very good if they be mixed with unguents, and emplasters: and
being used inwardly cause vomiting; therefore they are better in
Chirurgery, where scarce any thing is to be compared to them.
Copper being dissolved in spirit of salt, and precipitated with oyl of
vitriol, edulcorated, dryed, and sublimed, yields flowers, which being
in the air resolved into a green balsom, is most useful in wounds and
old putrid ulcers, and is a most pretious treasure.

Flowers of Lead and Tin.


Y ou need not reduce these metals into small crums, it is sufficient
if they be cast in piece by piece, but then you must under the
grate put an earthen platter glazed, and filled with water, to gather
that which flows down melted, which is to be taken out, and cast
again into the fire, and this so often until all the metal be turned into
flowers, which afterwards are again, the vessels being cold, to be
taken out, as hath been said of the flowers of Mars and Venus. And
these flowers are most excellent being mixed with plaisters and
oyntments in old and green wounds, for they have a greater power
to dry, than metals calcined, as experience can testifie.

Of Mercury.

T his is easily reduced into flowers, because it is very volatile, but


not for the aforesaid reason, because it leapes in the fire, and
seeks to descend. And if you desire to have the flowers thereof, mix
in first with sulphur that you may pulverize it, and cast it in
mortified. And if you cast into a red hot crucible set in the furnace, a
little quick Mercury, viz. by times with a ladle, presently it will fly out,
and some part thereof will be resolved into an acid water, which is to
be preferred before the flowers in my judgment; but the rest of the
Mercury drops into the receiver. But here are required glass vessels,
because the aforesaid water is lost in earthen. And this water
without doubt doth something in Alchymy: It is also good being
applyed outwardly, in the scab, and venereal ulcers.

The flowers of Zinck.

I t is a wonderful metal, and is found in the spagyrical anatomy to


be meer sulphur, golden, and immature. Being put upon burning
coals doth suddenly fly away wholly; it is inflamed also, and partly
burns like common sulphur, with a flame of another colour, viz.
golden purple: and yields most gallant white, and light flowers.

The use.
B eing given from 4, 5, 6, grains to 12, they provoke sweat
wonderfully, and sometimes vomit, and stools, according to the
offending matter. The vertues thereof being externally used are also
wonderful, for there are not found better flowers, for they do not
only speedily consolidate fresh wounds, but also old, such as always
drop water, in which cases they excell all other medicaments. For
they are of such dryness, which hath joyned with it a consolidating
vertue, as that they do even things incredible. They may be used
divers ways, as to be strewed by themselves, putting over them a
stiptick plaister, or being brought into an unguent with honey to be
put into wounds; which unguents in deep wounds may be boyled to
a hardness for the making of small suppositories, which are to be
put into the wounds, which must afterwards be covered with some
plaister, and preserved from the air. Being applyed after this manner
they cure fundamentally, being mixed with plaisters also they do
wonderful things.
If they be mixed with rose, or rain water, so as to be united
together, and afterwards some of this mixture be sometimes every
day dropt into red eyes that water, yielding not to other
ophthalmicks, do restore, and heal them.
These flowers being taken up in lint and strewed upon those
places of Children that are galled with their urin (those places being
first washed with water) heal them quickly. They heal also quickly
any excoriation which is contracted by lying long in any sickness,
and is very painful, if they be strewed thereon.
These flowers also are more easily dissolved in corrosive waters,
than other metals, and minerals, neither doth the spirit leave them
in the fire, but an insipid phlegm only distills off, leaving a fat and
thick oyl, as is above said concerning the lapis calaminaris, being
ordained for the same uses, but more efficacious then that. Which
spirit if it be by the violence of fire driven forth, is of so great
strength, that it can scarce be kept. And not only spirit of salt, but
also Aqua fortis, and Regia may after this manner be exalted, so as
to be able to do wonderful things in the separation of metals; but
here is not place for these things, they shall be spoken of in the
fourth part.
But you need not make flowers for this work, because crude Zinck
doth the same, although the flowers do it something better: whence
it appears that a metal contracts a higher degree of dryness in
sublimation.

Flowers of Antimony.

T here is no difficulty to make the flowers of Antimony, for


Chymists have a long time made use of them, and because
their preparation was tedious, they were not sold at a low rate.
Wherefore there was no body willing to attempt any thing else in
them, because they were used only for vomiting; the dose whereof
was from 1. 2. 3. 4. grains to 8. and 10. in affects of the stomack
and of the head, as also in feavers, plague, morbus gallicus, &c.
Neither is it a wonder if Chymists tryed no farther in them, for we
see that there are found men in these days who perswade
themselves that there is nothing which was not found out by the
learned ancients, can be found out in these days, and if there were
any thing to be yet found out it was found out already by them. But
this opinion truly is very foolish, as if God gave all things to the
ancients, and reserved nothing for them that should come after.
Neither indeed do they understand nature in their operations, which
works incessantly, and is not wearied in her labours, &c. But
however it is manifest that God hath revealed things in these times
which were hid from them of old, and he will not cease to do the
same even to the end of the world.
But to return to our purpose again, which is to shew an easier way
of making the flowers of Antimony, whereby a greater quantity may
be had, as also that they may serve for other uses.
Take of crude Antimony poudered as much as you please, and first
make your furnace red hot, then cast in at once a pound of
Antimony, or thereabouts, viz. scatteringly upon the coals; and
presently it will flow, & being mixed with the coals by the force of
the fire will be sublimed through the air into the receivers like a
cloud, which will there be coagulated into white flowers. Note, that
when the first coals are burnt up, more must be put in to continue
the sublimation, and those must be first kindled before they are put
in, lest the flowers be by the dust of the coals arising together with
them discoloured, and contract thence a gray colour: but it matters
not if you will not use them by themselves to provoke vomiting,
because there is no danger thereby, for that colour comes only from
the smoake of the coals, wherefore you need not be afraid of them.
But let him that dislikes this colour, first kindle the coals before he
put them into the furnace, and then he shall have white flowers.
Also you must not shut the middle hole through which the coals, and
Antimony are cast in, that thereby the fire may burn the more freely:
for else the flowers of the superior pots will be yellow and red, by
reason of the sulphur of the Antimony, which is sublimed higher than
the regulus. Now you may by this way make a pound of the flowers
with 3. 4. or 5. pound of coals. It is a little that goes away from the
Antimony, viz. the combustible sulphur, which is burnt, all the rest
going into flowers. You must have a care to provide a sufficient
quantity of subliming pots by reason that a large space is required
for the sublimation of the flowers.
The flowers that are prepared after this way, are sold at a lower
rate, so that one pound thereof is cheaper, than half an ounce of
those that are made after the other manner. Also they are safer, as
being made with an open free flame of the fire, for they do not
provoke vomit so vehemently; moreover the flowers of the lower
pots are not vomiting, but diaphoretical, as if they had been
prepared with nitre, for thus they are corrected by the fire: And by
this way at one and the same operation divers flowers of divers
operations may be made, for the flowers of the lower pots are
diaphoretical, of the middle a little vomitive, but of the uppermost
vehemently vomitive. For by how much the more they have endured
the fire, by so much the better are they corrected; from whence the
diversity of their power proceeds. Wherefore each of them are to be
kept by themselves, and the uppermost for plaisters or butter, or oyl,
and those to be made sweet or corrosive thereby; The middle for
purging, and vomiting, but the lowermost for sweat, being more
excellent than Bezoardicum Minerale, or Antimonium Diaphoreticum
made with nitre. Truly I do not believe that there is an easier way of
making vomiting, and diaphoretical flowers, than ours. Now for the
use of them, you must know that those that are vomitive are to be
administred to those that are strong, and accustomed to vomit: but
to Children, and old Men with discretion, as hath been said above of
the butter of Antimony: but those that are diaphoretical may be
given without danger to Old and Young, to those that are in health,
and to the sick; in any affliction that requires sweat; as in the
Plague, Morbus Gallicus, Scorbute, Leprosy, Feavers, &c. The Dose
of them is from 3, 6, 9, 12, grains to 24. with proper vehicles to
sweat in the bed; for they do expel as well by sweat, as by urine, all
evil humours. And because they that are vomitive are in a greater
quantity than those that are diaphoretical, and not so necessary as
these, and there may be many more doses out of them; it is
necessary to shew you how those that are vomitive may be turned
into diaphoretical; and that may be done three wayes; the two
former whereof I have before shewed concerning the butter of
Antimony made of flowers with spirit of salt, the third is this, viz. put
the flowers in a crucible covered, (without luting) lest any thing fall
into it, so set them by themselves in a gentle fire, that they melt
not, but be made only darkly glow for the space of some hours; then
let them cool, for they are become fixed and diaphoretical. Although
they had before contracted some yellowness or ash-colour, yet by
this means they are made white, fixed, and diaphoretical. Also these
flowers are used in stiptick plaisters by reason of their dry nature,
with which they are endued.
Also they are melted into a yellow transparent glass, neither is
there taught an easier way of reducing Antimony by it self into a
yellow transparent glass, where crude Antimony is first sublimed,
and being sublimed is melted into glass.
This sublimation serves instead of calcination, by the help whereof
20 pound are more easily sublimed, than by the help of the other
one pound is brought into calx.
Neither is there here any danger of the ascending fumes, because
when the Antimony is cast into the fire you may be gone, which is a
safe, and easy calcination, whereas the common way requires the
continual presence of the artist stirring the matter, who also takes
out the matter when it is once grown together, and grinds it again;
by which means he hath much to do, before the matter come to a
whiteness; but by our way, the matter is at the first time made
sufficiently white, and more than by that common way of calcination
and agitation. I suppose therefore that I have shewed to him that
will make glass of Antimony, the best, and hitherto unknown way;
which being taught, I hope there is no man will hereafter like a fool
go that tedious way of the Antients, but rather follow my steps. For
by this way may any Physitian, most easily be able to prepare for
himself vomitive and diaphoretical flowers, and also glass of
Antimony per se.
Of those Flowers may be made oyls both sweet and corrosive, and
other medicaments, as hath been above said of the spirit of salt, and
shall afterwards be spoken in the Second Part.
Let him that will make Flowers of the Regulus, fairer than those
which are made of crude Antimony, cast it being poudered into the
fire, and in all things proceed as hath been said, and he shall have
them, &c. for they are easily sublimed. Now, how the regulus is to
be made after a compendious manner, you shall find in the Fourth
Part. The scoriæ also are sublimed, so as nothing is lost. But he that
will make Flowers that shall be dissolved in the aire into a liquor
must add some calcined tartar, or some other fixt vegetable salt, and
he shall have Flowers that will be dissolved in any liquor: but he that
will make red Flowers as well those that are diaphoretical, as those
that are purging, must mix iron, and he shall have Flowers like to
Cinnabar: Let him that desires green, mix copper, if purple, lapis
calaminaris.
And thus out of any mineral may be made Flowers whether it be
fixed, or volatile; for it is forced to fly on high being cast into the
fire. And these may be used diversly in Chyrurgery, in plaisters and
unguents; for they dry, and astring potently, especially those that
are made of lapis calaminaris. Neither are they to be slighted that
are made of the golden, and silver marcasite. Those that are made
of arsenic & auripigmentum, are poysonous, but are useful for
Painters. Arsenic & auripigmentum being calcined with nitre, and
then sublimed, yield Flowers that are safely to be taken inwardly,
expelling all poysons by sweat and stool: For they are corrected two
wayes, viz. first by the nitre, secondly by the fire in the subliming:
they are not therefore to be feared, because that Arsnick was
poysonous before the preparation thereof. For by how much the
greater poyson it was before preparation, so much the greater
medicine afterwards.
The Flowers of sulphur are taught in the Second Part, although
they may also be made by this furnace, viz. the natures and
properties thereof being known by an expert Artist, or otherwise it is
burnt.
So also stones being prepared are brought into Flowers, and many
other things, of which we need not say any thing, only let him that
pleaseth make tryal thereof.
And now I suppose I have made plain, and shewed you clearly
how distillation is to be made in this our first furnace; wherefore I
will now end. He therefore that understands and knows the fabrick
of the furnace (which he may understand by the delineation thereof)
and the use thereof, will not deny but that I have done a good work,
and will not disapprove of my labour.
And this is the best way of distilling, and subliming incombustible
things. In the Second Part you shall find another furnace in which
are distilled combustible things, as also most subtil spirits, &c. The
first furnace serves also for other uses, as the separation of metals;
of the pure from the impure; for the making of the central salt, and
of the humidum radicale of them all. But because it cannot be done
after the aforesaid way, by which things are cast into the fire to get
their flowers, and spirits, but after a certain secret Philosophical
manner, by the power of a certain secret fire, hitherto concealed by
the Philosophers (neither shall I prostrate that secret before all); It is
sufficient that I have given a hint of it for further enquiry, and have
shewed the way to other things.
F I N I S.
T H E
SECOND PART
O F
Philosophical Furnaces:
Wherein is Described the Nature of the Second Furnace; by the
help whereof, all volatile, subtle, and combustible things may
he distilled; whether they be Vegetables, Animals, or Minerals,
and that after an unknown and very compendious Way;
whereby nothing is lost, but even the most subtle spirits may
be caught and preserved, which else without the means of this
Furnace is impossible to be done by Retorts or other Distilling
Instruments.

Of the Structure of the Second Furnace.

T
he Distilling Vessel must be made of Iron, or good earth, such
as can abide in the fire (whereof in the fifth Part of this Book
it shall be taught) and you may make it as big or as little as
you please, according as your occasion shall require. That of iron is
most fit to be used for such spirits, as are not very sharp or
corroding, else they would corrode the vessel: but that of earth may
be used for such things, as shew their activity upon the Iron, and do
make it to melt, as sulphur, Antimony and the like; and therefore you
ought to have two such vessels, viz. one of iron, and one of earth, to
the end that for both sorts of materials (corrosive or not corrosive)
you may have proper vessels, and fit furnaces for their distilling, and
that they may not be spoiled by things contrary and hurtful to them.
The shape of the vessel is shewed by the foregoing figure, viz. the
lower part of it somewhat wider than the upper part, and twice as
high as wide; at the top having a hollow space between the two
edges or brims, whereinto the edge of the lid may close and enter in
an inch deep. The lid must have a ring or handle, by which it may be
taken off and put on again with a pair of tongs. The lid must have a
deep edge answering to the hollow space aforesaid. The lower part
must have three knobs or shoulders thereby to rest upon the wall of
the furnace; the form whereof is no other, than that of a common
distilling furnace with a sand Copple; as the figure of it doth shew:
but if you will not have the furnace, then it needeth no knobs or
shoulders, if so be the distilling vessel be flat at the bottom, or else
have legs, for to stand upon them: Beneath the edge of the vessel
there comes forth a spout or pipe of a span in length, and one or
two inches wide, and somewhat narrower before than behind,
through which the spirits are conveyed into the Receiver.

See the fourth Figure before the first part, wherein the Letter A.
represents the Furnace, with the Iron distilling Vessel fastned into it,
whereunto a Receiver is applied.
B. The Distiller, with his left hand taking off the lid, and with his
right hand casting in his prepared matter.
C. The external form of the distilling vessel.
D. The internal form of the vessel.
E. Another distilling vessel, which is not fastned to a furnace, but
only standeth upon Coals.

The way or manner to perform the Distillation.

W hen you intend to distil, then first make a fire in the Furnace,
that the distilling vessel come to be very hot. But if it be not
fastned to the Furnace, then set it upon a grate, and lay stones
about it, and coals between, and so let it grow hot, and lay melted
lead in the space between the two edges or brims, to the end, that
the lid, when it is put on, may close exactly, so that no spirit can get
through. This done, take a little of the matter you intend to distil,
and cast it in, and presently put on the lid, and there will be no
other passage left but through the pipe, to which there must be
applyed and luted a very big receiver. As soon as the species cast in
come to be warm, they let go their spirit, which doth come forth into
the receiver: and because there was but little of the matter cast in, it
hath no power to force through the lute, or to break the receiver, but
must settle it self. This done, cast in a little more of your matter,
cover it and let it go till the spirit be settled: continue this
proceeding so long, until you have spirits enough: but take heed,
that you cast in no more at once, than the receiver is able to bear,
else it will break. And when your vessel is full, the distillation not
being ended, then take off the lid, and with an iron ladle take out
the Caput Mortuum; and so begin again to cast in, and still but a
little at a time, and continue this as long as you please.
Thus in one day you may distil more in a small vessel, than
otherways you could do in a great retort; and you need not fear the
least loss of the subtile spirit, nor the breaking of the receiver by the
abundance of the spirits: and you may cease or leave off your
distilling, and begin it again when you list: also the fire cannot be
made too strong, so that it might cause any hurt or damage; but by
this way you may make the most subtile spirits, which is impossible
to be done by any Retort. But if you will distil a subtil spirit by a
Retort, as of Tartar, Harts-horn, Salarmoniack, or the like, you
cannot do it without prejudice (though there were but half a pound
of the matter in it) the subtlest spirits coming forth with force, seek
to penetrate through the lute, if that be not good, but if that be
good, so that the spirits cannot pass through it, then they break the
receiver, because it cannot possibly hold such a quantity of subtle
spirits at once. For when they are coming, they come so plentifully,
and with such a force, that the receiver cannot contain them, and so
of necessity must flye asunder, or must pass through the lutum; All
which is not to be feared here, because there is but a little cast in at
once, which cannot yield such a quantity of spirits, as to force the
receiver to break: And when there comes forth no more spirits, and
the former is settled, then more of the matter is to be cast in; and
this is to be continued so long, until you have spirits enough.
Afterward take off the receiver, and put the spirit into such a Glass
(as in the fifth part of this book, amongst the Manuals, shall be
discovered) wherein it may be kept safely without wasting or
evaporating.
In this manner all things, Vegetable, Animal, or Mineral, may be
distilled in this Furnace, and much better, than by means of a Retort:
especially such subtile spirits (as by the other way of distilling cannot
be saved, but pass through the lutum) are got by this our way; and
they are much better than those heavy oyles, which commonly are
taken for spirits, but are none, being only corrosive waters. For the
nature and condition of a spirit is to be volatile, penetrating and
subtile, and such are not those spirits of salt, Vitriol, Allome and
Nitre, which are used in Apothecary shops, they being but heavy
oyles, which even in a warm place do not evaporate or exhale.
But a true spirit, fit for Medicinal use, must rise or ascend before
the phlegm, and not after; for whatsoever is heavier than phlegm, is
no volatile spirit, but a heavy spirit or (rather called) a sowre heavy
oyl. And it is seen by experience, that the Apothecaries spirit of
vitriol will cure no falling sickness, which vertue is ascribed to that
spirit, and indeed justly: for the true spirit of vitriol performeth that
cure out of hand. Likewise their spirit of Tartar (as they call it) is no
spirit, but only a stinking phlegm or vinegar.
The way to make such true spirits, I will now shew, because much
good may be done by them in all manner of Diseases. And this way
of distilling serveth only for those which seek after good Medicines:
but others which care not whether their medicines be well prepared
or no, need not take so much pains as to build such a furnace, and
to make their spirits themselves, for at any time they can buy for a
small matter, a good quantity of dead and fruitless spirits at the
common sellers and Apothecaries.
Hence it is no marvel, that now adaies so little good is done by
Chymical medicaments, which of right should far out-strip all the
Galenical in goodness and vertue. But alas! it is come to that pass
now, that a true Chymist, and honest Son of Hermes, is forced
almost to blush, when he heareth men talk of Chymical medicines,
because they do no such miracles, as are ascribed unto them. Which
infamy is occasion’d by none more, than by careless Physicians,
which though they make use of Chymical medicines, (because they
would fain be esteemed to know more than others) yet they do take
greater care for their kitchen, than for the welfare of their Patients;
and so buying ill-prepared Medicines of unskilful stillers, and withal
using them undiscreetly (whereby they many times do more hurt
than good to the sick) they lay such foul aspertions upon the noble
Art of Chymistry.
But an industrious and accurate Physician is not ashamed to make
his Medicines himself, if it be possible, or at least to have them made
by good and well-exercis’d Artists: whereupon he may better rely,
and get more credit, than one that knoweth not whereof, nor how
his Medicine which he doth administer to his patients is prepared.
But such wicked and ignorant men will one day fall short of their
answer before the Judgment of the righteous Samaritan.

How to make the Acid Oyl and the volatile spirit of Vitriol.

H itherto I have taught, how to distil in general, and to get the


subtle spirits. There remaineth now to describe what Manuals
or Preparations are fitting for every matter in particular; and first,

Of Vitriol.

T o distil Vitriol, there needs no other preparation, but only that it


be well viewed, and if there be any filth amongst it, that the
same be carefully pickt out, lest being put together with the Vitriol
into the distilling vessel, the spirit be corrupted thereby. But he that
will go yet more exactly to work, may dissolve it in fair water, then
filtrate it, and then evaporate the water from it till a skin appear at
the top, and then set it in a cold place, and let it shoot again into
Vitriol; and then you are sure that no impurity is left in it.
Now your vessel being made red hot, with an Iron ladle cast in
one or two ounces of your Vitriol at once, put on the lid, and
presently the spirits together with the phlegm will come over into
the receiver, like unto a white cloud or mist; which being vanished,
and the spirits partly settled, carry in more Vitriol, and continue this
so long, until your vessel be full: Then uncover your vessel, and with
a pair of tongs or an iron ladle take out the Caput Mortuum, and
cast more in; and continue this proceeding as long as you please,
still emptying the vessel when it is filled, and then casting in more
matter, and so proceeding until you conceive that you have got
spirits enough. Then let the fire go out, and let the furnace cool;
take off the receiver, and pour that which is come over into a retort,
and set the retort in sand, and by a gentle fire distil the volatile spirit
from the heavy oyl; having first joyned to the retort the receiver,
which is to receive the volatile spirit, with a good lutum, such as is
able to hold such subtle spirits, the making whereof shall be taught
in the fifth part of this Book, amongst the Manuals.
All the volatile spirit being come over, which you may know by the
falling of bigger drops, then take off the receiver, and close it very
well with wax, that the spirit may not make an escape; then apply
another (without luting it) and so receive the phlegm by it self, and
there will remain in the retort a black and heavy corrosive oyl, which
if you please, you may rectifie, forcing it over by a strong fire, and
then it will be clear; if not, let all cool, then take out your Retort
together with the black oyl, and pour upon it the volatile spirit,
which in the rectifying went over first, put the retort into the sand,
and apply a receiver, and give it a very gentle fire, and the volatile
spirit will come over alone, leaving its phlegm behind with the oyl,
which by reason of its dryness doth easily keep it. Thus the spirit
being freed from all phlegm, is become as strong as a meer fire, and
yet not corrosive. And if this spirit be not rectified from its own oyl, it
will not remain good, but there doth precipitate a red powder after it
hath stood for some space of time, and the spirit loseth all its
vertue, insomuch that it is not to be discerned from ordinary water,
which doth not happen when it is rectified. The reason of this
precipitation is no other than the weakness of the spirit, which is
accompanied with too much water, and therefore not strong enough
for to keep its sulphur, but must let it fall: but after it is rectified by
its own oyl, it can keep its sulphur well enough, because then it is
freed from its superfluous moisture. However the red powder is not
to be thrown away, but ought to be kept carefully; because it is of
no less vertue than the spirit it self. And it is nothing else but a
Volatile sulphur of Vitriol. It hath wonderful vertues, some of which
shall be related.

The Use and Dose of the Narcotick sulphur of Vitriol.

O f this sulphur 1, 2, 3, 4. or more grains (according to the


condition of the patient) given at once mitigates all pains,
causeth quiet sleep; not after the manner of Opium, Henbane, and
other the like medicines, which by stupifying and benumbing cause
sleep, but it performeth its operation very gently and safely, without
any danger at all, and great Diseases may be cured by the help
thereof. Paracelsus held it in high esteem, as you may see, where he
doth write of Sulphur embryonatum.

Of the Use and Vertue of the volatile spirit of Vitriol.

T his sulphurous Volatile spirit of Vitriol, is of a very subtle and


penetrating quality, and of a wonderful operation; for some
drops thereof being taken and sweated upon, doth penetrate the
whole body, openeth all obstructions, consumeth those things that
are amiss in the body, even as fire. It is an excellent medicine in the
Falling sickness, in that kind of madness or rage which is called
Mania, in the Convulsion of the Mother, called Suffocatio Matricis, in
the Scurvy; in that other kind of madness which is called Melancholia
Hypochondriaca; and other Diseases proceeding from Obstructions
and Corruption of the Blood: It is also good in the Plague, and all
other Feavers: mingled with spirit of wine, and daily used, it doth
wonders in all external accidents: Also in the Apoplexy, shrinking and
other diseases of the Nerves, the distressed limb rubbed therewith,
it doth penetrate to the very marrow in the bones; it doth warm and
refresh the cold sinews, grown stiff: In the Cholick, besides the
internal use, a little thereof in a clyster applyed, is a present help:
Externally used in the Gout, by anointing the places therewith,
asswageth the Pains, and taketh away all tumours and
inflammations: It doth heal scabs, tetters and ring-worms, above all
other medicines; it cureth new wounds and old sores, as Fistulaes,
Cancers, Wolves, and what name soever else they may have: It
extinguisheth all inflammations, scaldings, the Gangrene, dissipateth
and consumeth the knobs and excrescencies of the skin. In a word,
this spirit, which the wise men of old called Sulphur Philosophorum,
doth act universally in all diseases, and its vertue cannot sufficiently
be praised and expressed: And it is much to be admired, that so
excellent a Medicine is no where to be found.
If it be mingled with Spring water, it doth make it pleasantly
sowrish, and in taste and vertue like unto the natural sowre water of
wells.
Also by this spirit, many diseases may be cured at home; so that
you need not go to bathes afar off, for to be rid of them.
Here I could set down a way, how such a spirit may be got in
great abundance for the use of bathing, without distillation, whereby
miraculous things may be done, but by reason of the ungratefulness
of men, it shall be reserved for another time.

Of the vertue and use of the corrosive oyl of Vitriol.

T his oyl is not much used in Physick, although it be found almost


in every Apothecaries shop, which they use for to give a
sowrish tast to their syrups and conserves. Mingled with spring
water and given in hot diseases, it will extinguish the unnatural
thirst, and cool the internal parts of the body. Externally it cleanseth
all unclean sores, applyed with a feather; it separateth the bad from
the good, and layeth a good foundation for the cure.
Also if it be rectified first, some metals may be dissolved with it
and reduced into their Vitriols, especially Mars and Venus; but this is

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