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CONTENTS i
SIXTEENTH EDITION
Junqueira’s
Basic Histology T E X T A N D AT L A S
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Contents
PREFACE VII | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IX
iii
vii
As with other recent editions of Junqueira, both print For additional review of what’s been learned or to
and digital versions of this edition facilitate learning by their assist rapid assimilation of the material in Junqueira’s Basic
overall organization: Histology, McGraw Hill has published a set of 200 full-color
Basic Histology Flash Cards, which I’ve also authored. Each
■■ An opening chapter reviews the histological
card includes images of key structures to identify, a summary
techniques which allow understanding of cell and
of important facts about those structures, and a clinical
tissue structure.
comment. This valuable learning aid is available as a set of
■■ Two chapters then summarize the structural and
actual cards from Amazon.com, or as an app for smartphones
functional organization of human cell biology,
or tablets from the online App Store.
presenting the cytoplasm and nucleus separately.
With its proven strengths, excellent up-to-date pedagogical
■■ The next seven chapters cover the four basic tissues that
features, and links with the new digital Lab Guide, I am
make up our organs: epithelia, connective tissue (and its
confident that Junqueira’s Basic Histology will continue as one of
major sub-types), nervous tissue, and muscle.
the most valuable and most widely read educational resources
■■ Remaining chapters explain the organization and
in histology. As always, users are invited to provide me with
functional significance of these tissues in each of
feedback about any aspect of the book’s content or features.
the body’s organ systems, closing with up-to-date
consideration of cells in the unique organs of special
Anthony L. Mescher
sense, the eye and ear.
Indiana University School of Medicine—Bloomington
ix
Fixation
1
PREPARATION OF TISSUES FOR STUDY
Histology & Its
Methods of Study
1
1
AUTORADIOGRAPHY 9
CELL & TISSUE CULTURE 10
Embedding & Sectioning 3
ENZYME HISTOCHEMISTRY 10
Staining 3
LIGHT MICROSCOPY 4 VISUALIZING SPECIFIC MOLECULES 10
Bright-Field Microscopy 4 Immunohistochemistry 11
Fluorescence Microscopy 5 Hybridization Techniques 12
Phase-Contrast Microscopy 5 INTERPRETATION OF STRUCTURES IN TISSUE
Confocal Microscopy 5 SECTIONS 14
Polarizing Microscopy 7 SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS 15
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 8 ASSESS YOUR KNOWLEDGE 16
Transmission Electron Microscopy 8
Scanning Electron Microscopy 9
52°- 60°C
Drive wheel
Block holder
Paraffin block
Tissue
Steel knife
Most tissues studied histologically are prepared as shown, with Similar steps are used in preparing tissue for transmission elec-
this sequence of steps (a): tron microscopy (TEM), except special fixatives and dehydrating
solutions are used with smaller tissue samples and embedding
■■ Fixation: Small pieces of tissue are placed in solutions of
involves epoxy resins which become harder than paraffin to allow
chemicals that cross-link proteins and inactivate degradative
very thin sectioning.
enzymes, which preserve cell and tissue structure.
■■ Dehydration: The tissue is transferred through a series of (b) A microtome is used for sectioning paraffin-embedded tissues
increasingly concentrated alcohol solutions, ending in 100%, for light microscopy. The trimmed tissue specimen is mounted
which removes all water. in the paraffin block holder, and each turn of the drive wheel by
■■ Clearing: Alcohol is removed in organic solvents in which the histologist advances the holder a controlled distance, gener-
both alcohol and paraffin are miscible. ally from 1 to 10 μm. After each forward move, the tissue block
■■ Infiltration: The tissue is then placed in melted paraffin until it passes over the steel knife edge and a section is cut at a thickness
becomes completely infiltrated with this substance. equal to the distance the block advanced. The paraffin sections
■■ Embedding: The paraffin-infiltrated tissue is placed in a small are placed on glass slides and allowed to adhere, deparaffinized,
mold with melted paraffin and allowed to harden. and stained for light microscope study. For TEM, sections less than
■■ Trimming: The resulting paraffin block is trimmed to expose 1 μm thick are prepared from resin-embedded cells using an ultra-
the tissue for sectioning (slicing) on a microtome. microtome with a glass or diamond knife.
organs are placed as soon as possible after removal from the microscopy, react with the amine groups (NH2) of proteins,
body in solutions of stabilizing or cross-linking compounds preventing their degradation by common proteases. Glutaral-
called fixatives. Because a fixative must fully diffuse through dehyde also cross-links adjacent proteins, reinforcing cell and
the tissues to preserve all cells, tissues are usually cut into ECM structures.
small fragments before fixation to facilitate penetration. To Electron microscopy provides much greater magni-
improve cell preservation in large organs, fixatives are often fication and resolution of very small cellular structures,
introduced via blood vessels, with vascular perfusion allowing and fixation must be done very carefully to preserve addi-
fixation rapidly throughout the tissues. tional “ultrastructural” detail. Typically in such studies,
One widely used fixative for light microscopy is forma- glutaraldehyde-treated tissue is then immersed in buffered
lin, a buffered isotonic solution of 37% formaldehyde. Both osmium tetroxide, which preserves (and stains) cellular lipids
this compound and glutaraldehyde, a fixative used for electron as well as proteins.
C H A P T E R
To permit thin sectioning, fixed tissues are infiltrated and Most cells and extracellular material are completely color-
embedded in a material that imparts a firm consistency. less, and to be studied microscopically tissue sections must
Embedding materials include paraffin, used routinely for light be stained (dyed). Methods of staining have been devised that
microscopy, and plastic resins, which are adapted for both make various tissue components not only conspicuous but also
light and electron microscopy. distinguishable from one another. Dyes stain material more or
Before infiltration with such media, the fixed tissue must less selectively, often behaving like acidic or basic compounds
undergo dehydration by having its water extracted gradually and forming electrostatic (salt) linkages with ionizable radicals
1
by transfers through a series of increasing ethanol solutions, of macromolecules in tissues. Cell components, such as nucleic
FIGURE 1–2 Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) staining.
G G
G
L
L
a b
Micrographs of epithelium lining the small intestine, (a) stained lumen, where projecting microvilli have a prominent layer of
with H&E, and (b) stained with the PAS reaction for glycoproteins. glycoproteins at the lumen (L) and in the mucin-rich secretory
With H&E, basophilic cell nuclei are stained purple, while cyto- granules of goblet cells. Cell surface glycoproteins and mucin are
plasm stains pink. Cell regions with abundant oligosaccharides PAS-positive because of their high content of oligosaccharides
on glycoproteins, such as the ends of the cells at the lumen (L) and polysaccharides, respectively. The PAS-stained tissue was
or the scattered mucus-secreting goblet cells (G), are poorly counterstained with hematoxylin to show the cell nuclei.
stained. With PAS, however, cell staining is most intense at the (a. X400; b. X300)
Slide preparation, from tissue fixation to observation (or ocular lens) further magnifying this image and projecting
with a light microscope, may take from 12 hours to 2½ days, it onto the viewer’s retina or a charge-coupled device (CCD)
depending on the size of the tissue, the embedding medium, highly sensitive to low light levels with a camera and a monitor.
and the method of staining. The final step before microscopic The total magnification is obtained by multiplying the magni-
observation is mounting a protective glass coverslip on the fying power of the objective and ocular lenses.
slide with clear adhesive. The critical factor in obtaining a crisp, detailed image
with a light microscope is its resolving power, defined as
the smallest distance between two structures at which they can be
››LIGHT MICROSCOPY seen as separate objects. The maximal resolving power of the
light microscope is approximately 0.2 μm, which can permit
Conventional bright-field microscopy and more specialized clear images magnified 1000-1500 times. Objects smaller or
applications like fluorescence, phase-contrast, confocal, and thinner than 0.2 μm (such as a single ribosome or cytoplasmic
polarizing microscopy are all based on the interaction of light microfilament) cannot be distinguished with this instrument.
with tissue components and are used to reveal and study tissue Likewise, two structures such as mitochondria will be seen as
features. only one object if they are separated by less than 0.2 μm. The
microscope’s resolving power determines the quality of the
Bright-Field Microscopy image, its clarity and richness of detail, and depends mainly on
With the bright-field microscope, stained tissue is examined the quality of its objective lens. Magnification is of value only
with ordinary light passing through the preparation. As shown when accompanied by high resolution. Objective lenses pro-
in Figure 1–3, the microscope includes an optical system and viding higher magnification are designed to also have higher
mechanisms to move and focus the specimen. The optical resolving power. The eyepiece lens only enlarges the image
components are the condenser focusing light on the object obtained by the objective and does not improve resolution.
to be studied; the objective lens enlarging and projecting the Virtual microscopy, typically used for the study of
image of the object toward the observer; and the eyepiece bright-field microscopic preparations, involves the conversion
T his oyle hath been long used by Chirurgions, for they have with
a feather applyed it to wounds almost uncurable, to separate
impurities, for the acceleration of the cure, that afterwards other
medicaments being applyed may the better operate. But it is better
if it be mixed, with spirit of Salt, for they are easily mixed and it is
made more mild thereby, and the too great corrosive faculty thereof
is mitigated. Neither is there any other besides the spirit of Salt, with
which this oyle can be mixed, unless it be the strongest spirit of
Nitre, for the weak spirit of Nitre precipitates the butter of Antimony,
as you may see in the preparation of Bezoardicum Minerale. But the
strongest spirit of nitre dissolving this butter, makes a red solution of
wonderfull Vertue in Chymistry, of which we are not to treat in this
place; and if this be drawn off again by distillation, it leaves behind
the first time a fixed Antimony, and Diaphoretical, which otherwise
must be drawn off twice, or thrice, viz. if it be weak, and not able to
dissolve the butter without precipitation.
Now this Bezoardicum is the best, and safest Diaphoretick in all
diseases that require sweat, as in the plague, French pox, feavers,
scorbute, leprosy, &c. if it be given from 6. 8. 10. to twenty grains in
proper vehicles; it penetrates the whole body, and evacuates all evil
humours by sweat and urine.
The Oyl of Arsenic and Auripigmentum.
A s the spirit of salt doth not easily work upon Antimony by reason
of the abundance of crude sulphur, unless it be reduced into
flowers, in the preparation whereof, some part of its sulphur is
burnt; so also Arsenic and Auripigmentum are hardly dissolved with
spirit of salt, unless they be reduced into flowers, and the spirit of
salt be very strong, which may be able to work upon it. These may
be distilled by retort like Antimony into a thick heavy oyl; which
being used in cancrous eating ulcers, exceeds that of Antimony in
mortifying, mundifying, and purging those evils. After the same
manner may corrosive oyls be made out of all the realgars being
ordained for outward uses.
F irst put a few living coals into the furnace, then put upon them
the wood that is to be distilled, that it may be burnt: out of
which whilst it is burning goes forth the acid spirit thereof into the
receiver, where being condensed it falls down into another receiver,
resembling almost common vinegar in its smell, wherefore also it is
called the vinegar of woods.
And after this manner you may draw forth an acid spirit out of any
wood, or vegetable, and that in a great quantity without costs,
because the wood to be distilled is put but upon a very few living
coals, and upon that another, for one kindles the other; and this
spirit requires no more charges than of the wood to be distilled;
which is a great difference betwixt this, and the common way of
distilling, where besides retorts, is required another fire; and out of a
great retort scarce a pound of spirit is drawn in the space of five or
six hours; whereas in ours in the space of one day, and that without
any cost or labor may be extracted twenty or thirty pound, because
the wood is immediately to be cast into the fire to be distilled, and
that not in pieces, but whole. Now this spirit (being rectified) may
commodiously be used in divers Chymical operations, for it doth
easily dissolve animal stones, as the eyes of Crabs, the stones of
Perches, and Carps, Corals also and Pearl, &c. as doth vinegar of
wine. By means thereof also are dissolved the glasses of metals, as
of tin, lead, Antimony, and are extracted, and reduced into sweet
oyles.
This vinegar being taken inwardly of it self doth cause sweat
wonderfully, wherefore it is good in many diseases, especially that
which is made of Oak, Box; Guaiacum, Juniper, and other heavy
woods; for by how much the heavier the woods are, by so much the
more acid spirit do they yield.
Being used outwardly it mundifies ulcers, wounds, consolidates,
extinguisheth, and mitigates inflammations caused by fire, cures the
scab, but especially the decoction being made of its own wood in the
same. Being mixed with warm water for a bath for the lower part of
the body, it cures occult diseases of women; as also malignant ulcers
of the leggs.
This spirit therefore deserves some place in the shops, i. e. it is
unjustly rejected in the shops, seeing it is easie to be made. In
distilling of wormwood and other vegetables, there remaines in the
bottom of the furnace ashes, which being extracted with warm water
yields a salt by decoction, which being again dissolved in its own
spirit or vinegar, and filtred, doth by the evaporation of the flegm,
being placed in a cold place pass into a Crystalline salt, which is of a
pleasant tast, not like unto a lixivium, nor unto other salts that are
dissolved in the air. This salt is also more efficacious (being reduced
into Crystals by its proper Spirit) than that which is made by the help
of sulphur, or Aqua fortis, and oyl of Vitriol, and otherways which
Chymists, and Apothecaries use.
H e that will distil liquid things, must cast red hot coals into them,
as for example into vinegar in the furnace, or if it be honey, or
sugar, let them first be dissolved in water, by which means they will
be drank up by the coals, which being therewith impregnated, must
afterwards at several times be cast into the furnace, and be burnt;
and whilst the coals are burning, that which is incombustible comes
forth. And by this means you may distil liquid things in a great
quantity.
Vinegar which is distilled this way, is of the same nature, as that
which is distilled in close vessels.
But honey and sugar that are distilled after this manner, are a little
altered, and acquire other vertues: but how they shall be distilled
without the loss of their volatile spirit shall be taught in the second
Part. Also after this manner may all liquid things being drunk up by
living coals be distilled.
Of the use of distilled vinegar many things might be said, but
because the Books of all the Chymists treat abundantly thereof, I
account it needless to repeat what they have writ. Yet this is worth
taking notice of, that the sharpest vinegar hath a great affinity with
some metals, which may be extracted by the help thereof; also
dissolved, and reduced into medicaments; yea, many things may be
made with the help thereof, as the books of all the Chymists testify.
But there is yet another vinegar, of which there is often mention
made in the books of Philosophers, by the help whereof, many
wonderful things are performed in the solution of metals, the name
whereof the ancients have been silent in; of which I do not here
treat, because it cannot be made by this furnace; but I shall treat of
it in another part; yet so that I incur not the Curse of the
Philosophers.
A s many Chymists as there hath been, almost all have been of the
opinion that a spirit cannot be drawn out of salt of tartar, and
other fixed salts. For experience hath taught that by retort little or
no spirit can be drawn from thence, as I had often experience of
before the invention of this furnace: the reason of which thing was
the admixtion of sand, earth, bole, pouder of tiles, &c. for to prevent
the flowing of the salt of tartar, being by this means dispersed. But
this is done through the ignorance of Authors, who have been
ignorant of the properties of salt of tartar. For a stony matter, as
sand, flint, bole, &c. being mixed with salt of tartar, feeling the heat
of the fire, and being made red with the same, is joyned to it most
closely, so as no spirit can be drawn from thence, but become a
most hard stone. For sand, and such things that are like to it, have
so great an affinity with the salt of tartar, that being once united can
scarce ever be separated. Yet it may be made by Art by the addition
of pure sand, or flint, because the whole substance of the salt of
tartar may be turned into a spirit in the space of one or two hours,
as shall be taught in the second part, and it excells all other
medicaments in vertue, in curing the stone, and gout. And if by the
regiment of art there be left any Caput Mortuum in the distillation, it
hath, being dissolved in the air, a power to putrify metals being
prepared, and mixed with it, in the space of few hours, so as to
make them become black, and to grow up like trees with their roots,
trunks, and boughs, which by how much the longer they are so left,
become the better. Of calx of lead being subtilized, and of salt of
tartar may be made a spiritus gradatorius of wonderful vertues as
well in Medicine as Alchymy. There is made of the Caput Mortuum,
per deliquium a green liquor which doth wonderful things; whence it
is proved, That Saturn is not the lowest of the Planets; enough to
the wise.
B y this way spirits may be raised from any mineral or stone, and
that without the addition of any other thing: yet so as that the
minerals, and stones, as flints, Crystal, talk, lapis calaminaris,
Marcasite, Antimony, being ground be with an Iron ladle cast upon
the coals, and there will arise together with a certain acid spirit,
some salt and flowers, which are to be washed off from the
recipients, and filtred, and the flowers will remain in Charta bibula,
or filter for the water together with the spirit, and the salt passeth
through the filter, all which may be separated, rectified and be kept
by themselves for their proper uses. Now this you must know, that
you must choose such minerals which have not been touched by the
fire, if you desire to have their spirit.
How minerals, and metals may be reduced into flowers, and of their
vertues.
G old and silver can hardly be brought into flowers, because many
are of opinion, that nothing comes from them in the fire,
especially from Gold, although it should be left there for ever: which
although it be true, viz. that nothing comes from gold in the fire,
although it should remain there a long time, and from silver but a
little except it have copper or any other metal mixed, which yet
vapours away but by little and little.
Which I say although it be so, yet they being broken and subtilized
and scattered upon coals, and so dispersed, may by the force of the
fire and help of the air be sublimed, and reduced into flowers.
Now seeing the aforesaid metals are dear, and of a great price,
and the furnace with its recipients large, I would not that any one
should cast them in, especially gold, because he cannot recover
them all; but I shall to those that desire to make these flowers shew
another way in the second part, whereby they may make them
without the loss of the metal; to which I refer the reader. For this
furnace serves for the subliming of metals, and minerals, which are
not so pretious, the loosing of part whereof is not so much regarded.
And thus much is said to shew that gold, and silver, although fixed,
may be sublimed. Now other metals may more easily be sublimed,
yet one more easily than another, neither need they any other
preparation but beating small, before they be cast into the fire.
Of Mercury.
The use.
B eing given from 4, 5, 6, grains to 12, they provoke sweat
wonderfully, and sometimes vomit, and stools, according to the
offending matter. The vertues thereof being externally used are also
wonderful, for there are not found better flowers, for they do not
only speedily consolidate fresh wounds, but also old, such as always
drop water, in which cases they excell all other medicaments. For
they are of such dryness, which hath joyned with it a consolidating
vertue, as that they do even things incredible. They may be used
divers ways, as to be strewed by themselves, putting over them a
stiptick plaister, or being brought into an unguent with honey to be
put into wounds; which unguents in deep wounds may be boyled to
a hardness for the making of small suppositories, which are to be
put into the wounds, which must afterwards be covered with some
plaister, and preserved from the air. Being applyed after this manner
they cure fundamentally, being mixed with plaisters also they do
wonderful things.
If they be mixed with rose, or rain water, so as to be united
together, and afterwards some of this mixture be sometimes every
day dropt into red eyes that water, yielding not to other
ophthalmicks, do restore, and heal them.
These flowers being taken up in lint and strewed upon those
places of Children that are galled with their urin (those places being
first washed with water) heal them quickly. They heal also quickly
any excoriation which is contracted by lying long in any sickness,
and is very painful, if they be strewed thereon.
These flowers also are more easily dissolved in corrosive waters,
than other metals, and minerals, neither doth the spirit leave them
in the fire, but an insipid phlegm only distills off, leaving a fat and
thick oyl, as is above said concerning the lapis calaminaris, being
ordained for the same uses, but more efficacious then that. Which
spirit if it be by the violence of fire driven forth, is of so great
strength, that it can scarce be kept. And not only spirit of salt, but
also Aqua fortis, and Regia may after this manner be exalted, so as
to be able to do wonderful things in the separation of metals; but
here is not place for these things, they shall be spoken of in the
fourth part.
But you need not make flowers for this work, because crude Zinck
doth the same, although the flowers do it something better: whence
it appears that a metal contracts a higher degree of dryness in
sublimation.
Flowers of Antimony.
T
he Distilling Vessel must be made of Iron, or good earth, such
as can abide in the fire (whereof in the fifth Part of this Book
it shall be taught) and you may make it as big or as little as
you please, according as your occasion shall require. That of iron is
most fit to be used for such spirits, as are not very sharp or
corroding, else they would corrode the vessel: but that of earth may
be used for such things, as shew their activity upon the Iron, and do
make it to melt, as sulphur, Antimony and the like; and therefore you
ought to have two such vessels, viz. one of iron, and one of earth, to
the end that for both sorts of materials (corrosive or not corrosive)
you may have proper vessels, and fit furnaces for their distilling, and
that they may not be spoiled by things contrary and hurtful to them.
The shape of the vessel is shewed by the foregoing figure, viz. the
lower part of it somewhat wider than the upper part, and twice as
high as wide; at the top having a hollow space between the two
edges or brims, whereinto the edge of the lid may close and enter in
an inch deep. The lid must have a ring or handle, by which it may be
taken off and put on again with a pair of tongs. The lid must have a
deep edge answering to the hollow space aforesaid. The lower part
must have three knobs or shoulders thereby to rest upon the wall of
the furnace; the form whereof is no other, than that of a common
distilling furnace with a sand Copple; as the figure of it doth shew:
but if you will not have the furnace, then it needeth no knobs or
shoulders, if so be the distilling vessel be flat at the bottom, or else
have legs, for to stand upon them: Beneath the edge of the vessel
there comes forth a spout or pipe of a span in length, and one or
two inches wide, and somewhat narrower before than behind,
through which the spirits are conveyed into the Receiver.
See the fourth Figure before the first part, wherein the Letter A.
represents the Furnace, with the Iron distilling Vessel fastned into it,
whereunto a Receiver is applied.
B. The Distiller, with his left hand taking off the lid, and with his
right hand casting in his prepared matter.
C. The external form of the distilling vessel.
D. The internal form of the vessel.
E. Another distilling vessel, which is not fastned to a furnace, but
only standeth upon Coals.
W hen you intend to distil, then first make a fire in the Furnace,
that the distilling vessel come to be very hot. But if it be not
fastned to the Furnace, then set it upon a grate, and lay stones
about it, and coals between, and so let it grow hot, and lay melted
lead in the space between the two edges or brims, to the end, that
the lid, when it is put on, may close exactly, so that no spirit can get
through. This done, take a little of the matter you intend to distil,
and cast it in, and presently put on the lid, and there will be no
other passage left but through the pipe, to which there must be
applyed and luted a very big receiver. As soon as the species cast in
come to be warm, they let go their spirit, which doth come forth into
the receiver: and because there was but little of the matter cast in, it
hath no power to force through the lute, or to break the receiver, but
must settle it self. This done, cast in a little more of your matter,
cover it and let it go till the spirit be settled: continue this
proceeding so long, until you have spirits enough: but take heed,
that you cast in no more at once, than the receiver is able to bear,
else it will break. And when your vessel is full, the distillation not
being ended, then take off the lid, and with an iron ladle take out
the Caput Mortuum; and so begin again to cast in, and still but a
little at a time, and continue this as long as you please.
Thus in one day you may distil more in a small vessel, than
otherways you could do in a great retort; and you need not fear the
least loss of the subtile spirit, nor the breaking of the receiver by the
abundance of the spirits: and you may cease or leave off your
distilling, and begin it again when you list: also the fire cannot be
made too strong, so that it might cause any hurt or damage; but by
this way you may make the most subtile spirits, which is impossible
to be done by any Retort. But if you will distil a subtil spirit by a
Retort, as of Tartar, Harts-horn, Salarmoniack, or the like, you
cannot do it without prejudice (though there were but half a pound
of the matter in it) the subtlest spirits coming forth with force, seek
to penetrate through the lute, if that be not good, but if that be
good, so that the spirits cannot pass through it, then they break the
receiver, because it cannot possibly hold such a quantity of subtle
spirits at once. For when they are coming, they come so plentifully,
and with such a force, that the receiver cannot contain them, and so
of necessity must flye asunder, or must pass through the lutum; All
which is not to be feared here, because there is but a little cast in at
once, which cannot yield such a quantity of spirits, as to force the
receiver to break: And when there comes forth no more spirits, and
the former is settled, then more of the matter is to be cast in; and
this is to be continued so long, until you have spirits enough.
Afterward take off the receiver, and put the spirit into such a Glass
(as in the fifth part of this book, amongst the Manuals, shall be
discovered) wherein it may be kept safely without wasting or
evaporating.
In this manner all things, Vegetable, Animal, or Mineral, may be
distilled in this Furnace, and much better, than by means of a Retort:
especially such subtile spirits (as by the other way of distilling cannot
be saved, but pass through the lutum) are got by this our way; and
they are much better than those heavy oyles, which commonly are
taken for spirits, but are none, being only corrosive waters. For the
nature and condition of a spirit is to be volatile, penetrating and
subtile, and such are not those spirits of salt, Vitriol, Allome and
Nitre, which are used in Apothecary shops, they being but heavy
oyles, which even in a warm place do not evaporate or exhale.
But a true spirit, fit for Medicinal use, must rise or ascend before
the phlegm, and not after; for whatsoever is heavier than phlegm, is
no volatile spirit, but a heavy spirit or (rather called) a sowre heavy
oyl. And it is seen by experience, that the Apothecaries spirit of
vitriol will cure no falling sickness, which vertue is ascribed to that
spirit, and indeed justly: for the true spirit of vitriol performeth that
cure out of hand. Likewise their spirit of Tartar (as they call it) is no
spirit, but only a stinking phlegm or vinegar.
The way to make such true spirits, I will now shew, because much
good may be done by them in all manner of Diseases. And this way
of distilling serveth only for those which seek after good Medicines:
but others which care not whether their medicines be well prepared
or no, need not take so much pains as to build such a furnace, and
to make their spirits themselves, for at any time they can buy for a
small matter, a good quantity of dead and fruitless spirits at the
common sellers and Apothecaries.
Hence it is no marvel, that now adaies so little good is done by
Chymical medicaments, which of right should far out-strip all the
Galenical in goodness and vertue. But alas! it is come to that pass
now, that a true Chymist, and honest Son of Hermes, is forced
almost to blush, when he heareth men talk of Chymical medicines,
because they do no such miracles, as are ascribed unto them. Which
infamy is occasion’d by none more, than by careless Physicians,
which though they make use of Chymical medicines, (because they
would fain be esteemed to know more than others) yet they do take
greater care for their kitchen, than for the welfare of their Patients;
and so buying ill-prepared Medicines of unskilful stillers, and withal
using them undiscreetly (whereby they many times do more hurt
than good to the sick) they lay such foul aspertions upon the noble
Art of Chymistry.
But an industrious and accurate Physician is not ashamed to make
his Medicines himself, if it be possible, or at least to have them made
by good and well-exercis’d Artists: whereupon he may better rely,
and get more credit, than one that knoweth not whereof, nor how
his Medicine which he doth administer to his patients is prepared.
But such wicked and ignorant men will one day fall short of their
answer before the Judgment of the righteous Samaritan.
How to make the Acid Oyl and the volatile spirit of Vitriol.
Of Vitriol.